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Durability of metakaolin concrete to sulfate attack

Article  in  Cement and Concrete Research · September 2006

DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2006.03.026

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 Cement and Concrete Research 36 (2006) 1727 – 1734

Durability of metakaolin concrete to sulfate attack

Nabil M. Al-Akhras ⁎
Civil Engineering Department, Jordan University of Science and Technology, P.O.Box 3030, Irbid 22110, Jordan
Received 21 March 2005; accepted 26 March 2006

Abstract

This study investigates the effect of metakaolin (MK) replacement of cement on the durability of concrete to sulfate attack. Three MK
replacement levels were considered in the study: 5%, 10%, and 15% by weight of cement. The other experimental parameters investigated in the
study were: water to binder ratio (0.5 and 0.6), initial moist curing period (3, 7, and 28 days), curing type (moist and autoclaving), and air content
(1.5% and 5%). After the specified initial moist curing period, concrete specimens were immersed in 5% sodium sulfate solution for a total period
of 18 month. The degree of sulfate attack was evaluated by measuring expansion of concrete prisms, compressive strength reduction of concrete
cubes, and visual inspection of concrete specimens to cracks. The study showed that MK replacement of cement increased the sulfate resistance of
concrete. The sulfate resistance of MK concrete increased with increasing the MK replacement level. The sulfate resistance of MK concrete at w/b
ratio of 0.5 was found higher than that at w/b ratio of 0.6. Autoclaved MK concrete specimens showed superior sulfate resistance compared to
moist cured ones. The pore volume of autoclaved MK concrete was found less than that of moist cured MK concrete. The air entrained MK
concrete showed higher improvement in the sulfate resistance than the non-air entrained MK concrete. However, the air entrained plain concrete
showed lower improvement in the sulfate resistance than the non-air entrained concrete.
© 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Metakaolin; Sulfate attack; Expansion; Concrete; Compressive strength; Autoclave

1. Introduction formation of ettringate and gypsum and its subsequent

expansion, the deterioration due to sulfate attack is partially
Sulfate attack is one of the most aggressive environmental caused by the degradation of calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H)
deteriorations that affect the long-term durability of concrete gel through leaching of the calcium compounds. This process
structures. The sulfate attack of concrete leads to expansion, leads to loss of C–S–H gel stiffness and overall deterioration of
cracking, and deterioration of many civil engineering structures the cement paste matrix [3].
exposed to sulfate environment such as piers, bridges, The sulfate attack chemical interaction is a complicated
foundations, concrete pipes, etc. The sulfate ions in solution, process and depends on many parameters including concentra-
which come from the soil, ground water, and seawater, are tion of sulfate ions, ambient temperature, cement type and com-
found in combination with other ions such as sodium, position, water to cement ratio, porosity and permeability of con-
potassium, magnesium and calcium ions [1–5]. The sulfate crete, and presence of supplementary cementitious materials [7].
attack is generally attributed to the reaction of sulfate ions with The incorporation of supplementary cementitious materials
calcium hydroxide and calcium aluminate hydrate to form such as blast-furnace slag, fly ash, and silica fume as a partial
gypsum and ettringite. The gypsum and ettringite formed as a replacement of ordinary cement has been found a beneficial
result of sulfate attack is significantly more voluminous (1.2 to technique of enhancing the resistance of concrete to sulfate
2.2 times) than the initial reactants [6]. The formation of attack [8–11,6].
gypsum and ettringite leads to expansion, cracking, deteriora- Recently, there has been a growing interest in the use of high
tion, and disruption of concrete structures. In addition to the reactivity metakaolin (MK) as a supplementary cementitious
material in concrete industry. Metakaolin (commercially avail-
⁎ Tel.: +962 2 7201000; fax: +962 2 7095018. able since the mid 1990s) is produced by calcining purified
E-mail address: [email protected]. kaolinite clay at temperature ranging from 700 to 800 °C to drive
0008-8846/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2006.03.026
1728 N.M. Al-Akhras / Cement and Concrete Research 36 (2006) 1727–1734

Table 1 powder state with white color, average silica (SiO2) content of
Physical properties of the cement and metakaolin used in the study 52%, and Blaine fineness of 12,000 m2/kg. The physical
Property Cement Metakaolin properties and chemical composition of the MK are presented in
Specific gravity 3.15 2.5 Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
Blaine fineness (m2/kg) 330 12,000
Average particle size (μm) 12 1 2.1.5. Superplasticizer
Color Gray White
The superplasticizer used was based on sulfonate naphtha-
lene formaldehyde condensate. The solid content and specific
off the chemically bound water and destroy the crystalline gravity of the superplasticizer were 30% and 1.25, respectively.
structure [12–14]. Metakaolin is increasingly being used to
produce high-strength, high-performance concrete with im- 2.1.6. Air entraining admixture
proved durability. Extensive research is reported in the literature A multi-component synthetic resin type of air entraining
concerning different properties of MK paste and concrete such as admixture was used in four concrete mixtures (I, J, K, and L) to
porosity, pore size distribution, pozzolanic reaction, compres- increase the air content of MK concrete from 1.5% for non-air
sive and flexural strength, and shrinkage cracking [15–18,13]. entrained concrete to 5% for air entrained concrete.
However, limited research is reported in the literature
concerning the effect of MK on the resistance of concrete to 2.2. Mixtures details
sulfate attack. Khatib and Wild [19] have investigated the effect
of cement type with different C3A content on the resistance of Twelve concrete mixtures were prepared and used in this
MK mortar to sulfate attack under moist curing conditions. study according to ACI 211.1-91 procedure to investigate the
However, Khatib and Wild did not investigate the influence of influence of MK replacement of cement on the sulfate resistance
other experimental parameters such as water to binder ratio, of concrete. Two w/b ratios were used in the study: 0.5 and 0.6.
initial moist curing period, autoclaving curing, and air content on Non-air entrained and air entrained concrete specimens were
the resistance of MK concrete to sulfate attack. Metakaolin had used to investigate the influence of air content on the sulfate
been found effective in reducing the thaumasite-type of sulfate resistance of MK concrete. Details of the concrete mixtures are
attack in concrete containing limestone filler [20]. presented in Table 3.
This study was conducted at Jordan University of Science Concrete mixtures A, B, C, and D were non-air entrained, the
and Technology to investigate the effect of metakaolin (MK) w/b ratio was 0.5, and the MK replacement levels were 0%, 5%,
replacement of cement on the resistance of concrete to sulfate 10%, and 15% by weight of cement, respectively. These
attack under different experimental parameters including: MK concrete mixtures were used to investigate the effect of MK
replacement level, water to binder (w/b) ratio, curing type, replacement level, initial moist curing period, and curing type
initial moist curing period, and air content. on the durability of MK concrete to sulfate attack.
Concrete mixtures E, F, G, and H, were non-air entrained,
2. Experimental program the w/b ratio was 0.6, and the MK replacement levels were
0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% by weight of cement, respectively.
2.1. Materials These concrete mixtures were used to investigate the effect
of w/b ratio on the durability of MK concrete to sulfate
2.1.1. Cement attack.
Locally available ordinary Portland cement (ASTM Type I) Concrete mixtures I, J, K, and L were air entrained with
was used in the study. The physical properties and chemical average air contents of about 5%, the w/b ratio was 0.5, and the
composition of the cement are presented in Tables 1 and 2, MK replacement levels were 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% by weight
respectively. of cement, respectively. These concrete mixtures were used to
investigate the effect of air content on the durability of MK
2.1.2. Coarse aggregate concrete to sulfate attack.
The coarse aggregate used was crushed limestone. The
coarse aggregate had a maximum aggregate size of 19 mm,
water absorption of 1%, bulk specific gravity of 2.65, and bulk Table 2
Chemical composition of the cement and metakaolin used in the study
density of 1600 kg/m3.
Compound (%) Cement Metakaolin
2.1.3. Fine aggregate SiO2 20.5 52.2
The fine aggregate used was natural silica sand. The sand Al2O3 5.6 44.6
Fe2O3 3.8 0.5
had a bulk specific gravity of 2.60, a fineness modulus of 1.8,
MgO 2.1 0.1
and water absorption of 1.5%. CaO 64.5 0.2
Na2O 0.2 0.3
2.1.4. Metakaolin K2O 0.2 0.2
The metakaoiln (MK) used was brought from Grace SO3 2.1 0.1
Loss on ignition 0.8 1.4
Construction Products. The MK was in dry uncompacted
 N.M. Al-Akhras / Cement and Concrete Research 36 (2006) 1727–1734 1729

Table 3 tures was 1.5 ± 0.1% for non-air entrained concrete and 5 ±
Proportions of concrete mixture (kg/m3) used in the study 0.2% for air entrained concrete.
Mix MK W/b Cement MK W CA FA SP AE The sulfate exposure testing procedure was conducted by
(%) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (%) (%) immersing concrete specimens after the specified initial curing
A 0 0.5 380 0 190 1072 702 1.2 – in a water tank containing 5% sodium sulfate solution at 23 ±
B 5 0.5 361 19 190 1072 697 1.4 – 2 °C (ASTM C1012-04). Some control concrete cubes were
C 10 0.5 342 38 190 1072 693 1.6 –
kept in the lime-saturated water solution tank at 23 ± 2 °C for the
D 15 0.5 323 57 190 1072 689 1.8 –
E 0 0.6 317 0 190 1072 754 1.0 – compressive strength reduction determinations. This type of
F 5 0.6 301 16 190 1072 750 1.2 – testing represents an accelerated testing procedure, which
G 10 0.6 285 32 190 1072 747 1.4 – indicates the performance of a particular concrete mixture to
H 15 0.6 269 48 190 1072 743 1.6 – sulfate attack. The sulfate solution was replaced whenever the
I 0 0.5 350 0 175 1072 674 1.0 0.20
pH value exceeded 9.5. The degree of sulfate attack was
J 5 0.5 332 18 175 1072 670 1.2 0.24
K 10 0.5 314 36 175 1072 667 1.4 0.28 evaluated by measuring the expansion of concrete prisms,
L 15 0.5 296 54 175 1072 663 1.6 0.32 compressive strength of concrete cubes, weight change of
SP = Superplasticizer. concrete bars, and visual inspection of concrete specimens to
AE = Air entraining admixture. cracks. Sulfate expansion and weight change measurements
Dosage of SP and AE admixtures are reported as percent by weight of binder. were conducted every two-month of sulfate exposure. The
The amount of CA and FA are based on saturated-surface dry. observed weight changes were found to be negligible and
insignificant (within ± 0.10%). The expansion and compressive
High range water reducer (superplasticizer) was incorporated strength reduction criteria were found the most reliable
in all concrete mixtures. The dosage of superplasticizer was measures to indicate the sulfate attack.
increased with increasing the MK replacement level to keep the The compressive strength measurements were conducted at
workability constant due to the high fineness of MK. The the end of the sulfate exposure period of 18 month using a
dosage of superplasticizer was also decreased with introducing uniaxial testing machine. The compressive strength reduction
air entraining admixture to maintain constant workability due to (CSR) was calculated as follows:
improving the workability with incorporating entrained air rm −rs
bubbles in fresh concrete mixtures. CSRð%Þ ¼  100
rm
2.3. Specimens preparation Where, σm is the average compressive strength (in MPa) of
three concrete cubes moist cured for 18 month in lime-saturated
The concrete specimens utilized in the study were: water solution and σs is the average compressive strength (in
75 × 75 × 300 mm concrete prisms were used to measure the MPa) of three concrete cubes immersed in 5% sodium sulfate
change in length and 100 mm cubes were used to measure the solution for 18 month. Concrete specimens were taken out of
reduction in compressive strength with respect to strengths of testing water 4 h before testing and dried in air.
control specimens cured in lime-saturated water solution. After crushing concrete cubes to determine the compressive
Casting of concrete specimens was conducted in two layers. strength, small bulk samples of the mortar portion weighing
Each layer was compacted on a vibrating table to ensure good about 10 g were taken out from the middle of the crushed cubes
compaction and to reduce the air voids. Fresh concrete was for the measurements of volume of pores using mercury
poured into oiled steel molds and covered with wet burlaps porosimetry. The specimens were desiccated to constant weight
for 24 h. Concrete specimens were then demolded, labeled as at 40 °C using silica gel that was changed daily.
to the date of casting and mixture type, and stored in a lime- Autoclaved concrete specimens were exposed to the sulfate
saturated water solution tank for an initial moist curing period environment after being exposed to high pressure steam curing
of 3, 7, or 28 days. Stainless steel locating discs were (autoclave) at the age of 3 days for a period of 3 h using a
mounted using epoxy resins at the ends of the concrete prisms pressure of 2 MPa. The periodical visual inspection and
to allow accurate measurements of length change. Three examination of concrete specimens have indicated the initial
concrete specimens were cast and tested for each test time to cracking as shown in Table 4. After the designated
condition to obtain average values. sulfate exposure period, the deterioration was classified on a

2.4. Test procedures

Table 4
Initial time (days) to cracking of MK concrete exposed to sulfate solution
The concrete mixtures were mixed and prepared using a
tilting drum mixer of 0.04 m3 capacity (ASTM C192-02). The Mixture properties MK replacement level
workability of MK concrete was measured using the slump test 0% 5% 10% 15%
(ASTM C143-03). The workability of all concrete mixtures was W/b = 0.5 moist curing 180 240 300 360
comparable with slump ranging from 7 to 9 cm. The air content W/b = 0.6 moist curing 150 200 260 310
of the fresh concrete was measured using the pressure method W/b = 0.5 autoclaving curing 300 500 NC NC
(ASTM C231-04). The air content of the fresh concrete mix- NC = No cracks were observed.
1730 N.M. Al-Akhras / Cement and Concrete Research 36 (2006) 1727–1734

0.6
w/b = 0.5
reached maximum sulfate expansion values after 18 month of
0% 5% 10% 15%
sulfate exposure of 0.10% and 0.07% for concrete at w/b ratio of
Sulfate Expansion (%)

0.5
0.5, and 0.13% and 0.10% for concrete specimens at w/b ratio
0.4 of 0.6, respectively. The visual inspections of MK concrete
0.3
specimens have indicated that marginal deterioration was
observed for the 10% and 15% MK. The initial time to
0.2 cracking of the 10% and 15% MK concrete at w/b ratio of 0.5
was 300 and 360 days, respectively. The corresponding initial
0.1
time of cracking of the 10% and 15% MK concrete at w/b ratio
0.0 of 0.6 was 260 and 310 days, respectively. The deterioration
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 rating after 18 months of sulfate exposure assigned to the 10%
Sulfate Exposure Period (month) and 15% MK concrete at w/b ratio of 0.5 was 2 and 1. The
corresponding deterioration rating assigned to the 10% and 15%
Fig. 1. Effect of MK replacement level on the variation of sulfate expansion with MK concrete at w/b ratio of 0.6 was 3 and 2, respectively.
sulfate exposure period at w/b ratio of 0.5.
The 5% MK concrete showed intermediate durability to
sulfate attack reaching maximum sulfate expansion values of
six-point scale ranging from 0 to 5. A rate of 0 indicates no 0.17% and 0.2% for concrete at w/b ratios of 0.5 and 0.6,
deterioration while a rate of 5 indicates complete failure [9]. respectively. The initial time to cracking was 240 and 200 days
for concrete at w/b ratios of 0.5 and 0.6, respectively. The visual
3. Results and discussion observation of MK concrete have showed that the severity of
the deterioration was less intense in the 5% MK concrete
Concrete resistant to sulfate attack should meet a criterion of specimens compared to 10% and 15% MK concrete specimens.
low expansion and strength reduction, and little or no The deterioration rating assigned to the 5% MK concrete was 3
deterioration. The first cracks of plain and MK concrete and 4 (indicating moderate to severe deterioration) for concrete
specimens due to sulfate attack start to appear on the corners of at w/b ratios of 0.5 and 0.6, respectively.
concrete specimens (due to the sulfate intrusion from the two The increase in the sulfate resistance of MK concrete with
adjacent faces). Subsequently, cracking and spalling (depending increasing the MK replacement level is explained by the
on the experimental parameters) were propagated through the following mechanisms. First, the replacement of a portion of
surface of the specimens. Portland cement with MK reduces the total amount of tricalcium
aluminate hydrate in the cement paste matrix of concrete. The
3.1. MK replacement level second mechanism is through the pozzolanic reaction between
the MK and calcium hydroxide released during the hydration of
The effect of MK replacement level on the variation of cement, which consumes part of the calcium hydroxides. Thus,
sulfate expansion with sulfate exposure period at w/b ratios of the quantity of expansive gypsum formed by the reaction of
0.5 and 0.6 is shown in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. Concrete calcium hydroxide will be less in MK concrete than in plain
specimens were non-air entrained and exposed to the sulfate concrete. Furthermore, the formation of secondary C–S–H by
environment after 28 days of initial moist curing. The expansion the pozzolanic reaction, although less dense than the primary
of MK concrete increased steadily and continuously with C–S–H gel, is effective in filling and segmenting large capillary
increasing sulfate exposure period due to the slow and pores into small, discontinuous capillary pores through pore
continuous intrusion of sulfate ions into concrete specimens. size refinement. Thus, the total permeability of concrete
In general, the sulfate resistance of MK concrete was higher decreases [21]. In addition to the pozzolanic reaction, the filler
than that of plain concrete (without MK replacement).
Additionally, the sulfate resistance of MK concrete increased 0.6
with increasing the MK replacement levels. Plain concrete was 0% 5% 10% 15% w/b = 0.6
Sulfate Expansion (%)

0.5
not durable to sulfate attack reaching maximum sulfate
expansion values after 18 months of sulfate exposure of 0.4
0.40% and 0.45% (complete disintegration and degradation) for
concrete at w/b ratios of 0.5 and 0.6, respectively. The 0.3
periodical visual inspection of plain concrete specimens have
0.2
indicated that first cracks were observed after 180 and 150 days
of sulfate exposure for concrete at w/b ratios of 0.5 and 0.6, 0.1
respectively. The deterioration rating after 18 month of sulfate
0.0
exposure assigned to plain concrete at w/b ratios of 0.5 and 0.6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
was 4 and 5, respectively, indicating severe deterioration and
Sulfate Exposure Period (month)
failure of plain concrete specimens.
The 10% and 15% MK concrete at both w/b ratios used (0.5 Fig. 2. Effect of MK replacement level on the variation of sulfate expansion with
and 0.6) showed excellent durability to sulfate attack and sulfate exposure period at w/b ratio of 0.6.
 N.M. Al-Akhras / Cement and Concrete Research 36 (2006) 1727–1734 1731
18 Month Sulfate Expansion (%)
0.6 6

Visual Assessment Rating

w/b = 0.5 w/b = 0.6
w/b = 0.5
0.5 5
w/b = 0.6
0.4 4

0.3 3

0.2 2

0.1 1

0.0
0
0 5 10 15
0 5 10 15
MK Replacement Level (%)
MK Replacement Level (%)
Fig. 3. Effect of w/b ratio on the 18 month sulfate expansion of MK concrete.
Fig. 5. Effect of w/b ratio on the visual assessment rating of MK concrete.

action of MK due to the fine particle size of MK (1 μm) Thus, the total porosity and permeability of MK concrete
compared to the particle size of cement (12 μm) further decreased with decreasing the w/b ratio. Therefore, sulfate ions
densifies the pore structure of MK concrete to enhance the intruding MK concrete decreased with decreasing the w/b ratio
resistance of MK concrete to sulfate attack [5]. and the sulfate attack became less.

3.2. Water to binder ratio 3.3. Initial moist curing period

Water to binder ratio affects many properties of concrete The initial moist curing period benefits concrete durability
such as pore size distribution, refinement of capillary pores, and by providing additional strength development and increased
compressive strength. Two w/b ratios were investigated in the pore refinement. The initial moist curing was achieved in this
study 0.5 and 0.6. The effect of w/b ratio of plain and MK study by immersing concrete specimens at w/b ratio of 0.5 in a
concrete after 18 month of sulfate exposure on the sulfate lime-saturated water solution tank for initial moist curing
expansion and compressive strength reduction is shown in Figs. periods of 3, 7, or 28 days. No significant improvement in the
3 and 4, respectively. Metakaolin concrete at w/b ratio of 0.5 sulfate resistance of MK concrete (as indicated by the expansion
showed higher durability to sulfate attack (as indicated by lower of concrete prisms and the compressive strength reduction of
expansion and strength reduction) than MK concrete at w/b concrete cubes) was observed as a result of the longer initial
ratio of 0.6. The maximum sulfate expansion values after moist curing period. This result is explained by the following
18 month of sulfate exposure and compressive strength facts. The intrusion of the sulfate ions into concrete is a very
reduction of MK concrete decreased with decreasing the w/b slow process. The hydration of cement takes place at a much
ratio. Fig. 5 shows the effect of w/b ratio on the visual faster rate than the sulfate intrusion, especially during the initial
deterioration rating of sulfate attack. The deterioration rating 28 days. MK concrete specimens cured for 3 and 7 days started
was higher for concrete specimens at w/b ratio of 0.6 compared hydration immediately after immersion in the sodium sulfate
to those at w/b ratio of 0.5. solution. The cement hydration process dominated over the
The increase in the sulfate resistance of MK concrete with sulfate intrusion during the initial moist curing period. Hence,
decreasing the w/b ratio may be attributed to the fact that the the 3-day and 7-day cured MK concrete attained a dense pore
capillary pores volume decreased with decreasing the w/b ratio. structure similar to that of the 28-day cured MK concrete during
the initial period of sulfate exposure. Therefore, MK concrete
specimens cured for 3, 7, or 28 days indicated similar resistance
Compressive Strength Reduction (%)

100 to sulfate attack.

w/b = 0.5 w/b = 0.6

80 3.4. Curing type

60 The study investigated the effect of two different curing

types (moist and autoclaving) on the sulfate resistance of MK
40
concrete at w/b ratio of 0.5. Autoclaving curing was
accomplished in this study by exposing concrete specimens at
20
the age of 3 days to a high-pressure steam curing for 3 h at
2 MPa pressure using autoclave. Autoclaving curing provides
0
0 5 10 15
high-strength and increases the durability of concrete and
MK Replacement Level (%) concrete at very early age. The autoclaved concrete specimens
were 50 × 50 × 200 mm prisms and 75 mm cubes. The effect of
Fig. 4. Effect of w/b ratio on the compressive strength reduction of MK concrete. curing type of plain and MK concrete after 18 month of sulfate
1732 N.M. Al-Akhras / Cement and Concrete Research 36 (2006) 1727–1734

0.6 100
18 Month Sulfate Expansion (%)

Moist Autoclave

Volume of Pores (mm3/g)

Moist Autoclave
0.5 80

0.4 60

0.3
40

0.2
20

0.1
0
0.0 0 5 10 15
0 5 10 15 MK Replacement Level (%)
MK Replacement Level (%)
Fig. 8. Effect of moist and autoclaving curing on volume of pores of MK
Fig. 6. Effect of moist and autoclaving curing on the sulfate expansion of MK concrete.
concrete.

specimens). However, plain and 5% MK concrete specimens

exposure on the sulfate expansion and compressive strength showed initial cracks after 300 and 500 days of sulfate
reduction is shown Figs. 6 and 7, respectively. exposure, respectively. The deterioration ratings were 2 and 1
Autoclaved plain and MK concrete specimens showed for the plain and 5% MK concrete, respectively.
superior sulfate resistance (as indicated by the very low sulfate Fig. 8 shows the effect of curing type of plain and MK
expansion and strength reduction) compared to the moist cured concrete on the volume of pores. No significant difference in the
concrete specimens. The sulfate expansion of the plain volume of pores was observed for different MK replacement
autoclaved concrete after 18 month of sulfate exposure was levels for either moist or autoclaved concrete. However, the
0.11% compared to 0.4% for the moist cured plain concrete. On intruded pore volume for autoclaved concrete is found
the other hand, the sulfate expansion of the autoclaved 15% MK significantly less than that for moist concrete for all MK
concrete was only 0.01% compared to 0.07% for the moist replacement levels. The average pore volume decreased with
cured 15% MK concrete. autoclaving curing from 80 to 67 mm3/g. Autoclaving curing
Furthermore, the sulfate resistance of the autoclaved MK reduced the total porosity of MK concrete compared to moist
concrete increased with increasing the MK replacement level. curing by about 19%. This result agrees well with many
The sulfate expansion of autoclaved concrete decreased from research studies found in the literature which reported that
0.11% for plain autoclaved concrete to 0.01% for the 15% MK autoclaving curing reduced the porosity of concrete containing
concrete. The compressive strength reduction of the autoclaved supplementary cementing materials compared to moist curing
concrete decreased also from 15% for plain autoclaved concrete [22–25].
to 3% for the 15% autoclaved MK concrete. The superior resistance of autoclaved MK concrete to sulfate
The periodical visual inspection and examinations of the attack compared to moist cured MK concrete is attributed to
10% and 15% autoclaved MK concrete specimens did not show many factors. The main and most important factor is that
any visible cracks after 18 month of sulfate exposure. The autoclaving curing using high pressure steam produce tricalcium
deterioration rating of the 10% and 15% autoclaved MK aluminate hydrates more stable in the presence of sulfate ions
concrete was zero (indicating no cracks and complete intact than those formed in the moist cured concrete specimens [26].
The second factor is the reduction of pore volume of autoclaved
concrete compared to the moist cured concrete as discussed
Compressive Strength Reduction (%)

100
Mo ist Au toclave
18 Month Sulfate Expansion (%)

0.6
80 Non-A ir E ntrained (a = 1.5% )
0.5
Air E ntrai ned (a = 5% )
60
0.4

40 0.3

20 0.2

0.1
0
0 5 10 15
0.0
MK Replacement Level (%) 0 5 10 15
MK Replacement Level (%)
Fig. 7. Effect of moist and autoclaving curing on the compressive strength
reduction of MK concrete. Fig. 9. Effect of air content on the sulfate expansion of MK concrete.
 N.M. Al-Akhras / Cement and Concrete Research 36 (2006) 1727–1734 1733
Compressive Strength Reduction (%)

100
sulfate resistance of MK concrete increased with increasing
the MK replacement level. Concrete containing 10% and
Non-Air Entrained (a = 1.5%)
80 15% MK replacements showed excellent durability to sulfate
Air Entrained (a = 5%)
attack.
60 2. The resistance of MK concrete at w/b ratio of 0.5 to sulfate
attack was found higher than that of MK concrete at w/b ratio
40 of 0.6.
3. The initial moist curing period (3, 7, or 28 days) was found
20 insignificant in improving the resistance of MK concrete to
sulfate attack.
0 4. Autoclaved MK concrete showed superior sulfate resistance
0 5 10 15 compared to moist cured MK concrete. The pore volume of
MK Replacement Level (%)
the autoclaved plain and MK concrete was found less than
Fig. 10. Effect of air content on the compressive strength reduction of MK
that of the moist plain and MK concrete.
concrete. 5. Increasing the air content (from 1.5% to 5%) improved the
sulfate resistance of MK concrete to sulfate attack. However,
above. The reduction of pore volume causes a reduction in the plain concrete showed lower improvement in the sulfate
permeability of autoclaved concrete and consequently a resistance by increasing the air content.
reduction in the sulfate ions intruding into autoclaved concrete.
The third factor is the fast reduction of calcium hydroxide in the References
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[2] C. Ouyang, A. Nanni, W.F. Chang, Internal and external sources of sulfate
hydrates in a well-crystallized form [21].
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another look, Cement and Concrete Research 13 (3) (1983) 401–406.
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Sulfate Resistance of Concrete, SP-77, American Concrete Institute,
in concrete and improves the durability of concrete to freeze-
Detroit, U.S.A., 1980
thaw deterioration. The effect of air content of plain and MK [5] T.H. Wee, A.K. Suryavanshi, S.F. Wong, A.K.M. Anisur Rahman, Sulfate
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