Sivananda Electronics

APPLICATIONS NOTES

APPLICATION NOTES
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. GENERAL
1.2. Principle of Operation
1.3. I, C, Tan d relations
1.4. Conversion formulas
1.5. Mode UST, GST & GST g connections

2. INTERPRETATION OF MEASUREMENTS

2.1. Signification of C & Tan d

2.2. Typical Tan d for various apparatus
2.3. Permittivit & dissipation factor for various material
2.4. Significance of Temperature
2.5. Significance of Humidity
2.6. Surface Leakage
2.7. Electrostatic Interference
2.8. Negative Tan d

3. TYPES OF APPARATUS

3.1. Transformers
3.2. Bushings
3.3. Rotating M/C
3.4. Cables
3.5. Surge arresters
3.6. Liquids
3.7. Solids
3.8. Miscellaneous Assemblies & components

1
 Sivananda Electronics

SECTION 1

1.1GENERAL: The purpose of these notes is to help user in selecting

appropriate method or procedure for measuring Capacitance & Tan d and help in
interpreting the results obtained. The Capacitance & Tan d are influenced by
voltage stress, frequency, temperature, humidity and other parameters. General
guidelines are provided regarding how these effects the insulation system.
This is not an exhaustive study, user will have to design his own methods &
procedures and fall back on his own experience of history of the equipment and
interpret results.
This definitely is not intended to be a how to do manual? Please read the
manual of the particular equipment carefully, take all safety precautions and
follow the instructions. It will be good to refers to IEEE510-1983, "IEE-
Recommended Practices for safety in High Voltage & High Power Testing" for
more information.

1.2PRINCIPAL OF OPERATION: Any physical capacitor can be accurately

represented by two or three terminals network as depicted in fig.1. The direct
capacitance between terminals H & L is CHL while capacitance between H & G & L
& G is presented by CHG & CLG respectively. If terminal L is grounded then this
becomes a two terminal capacitance.

Fig. 1

In physical world the bushing with central conductor & mounting flange is an
example of two terminal capacitor where as bushing with central conductor,
Tan d tap & mounting flange is a three terminal capacitance.

2
 Sivananda Electronics

More complex equipments exist where insulation system forms 4 or more

capacitances. It is still possible to measure C & Tan d of such system with SIVA
Test Sets with capability of measuring in all three mode i.e. UST, GST & GST g.

SIVA Bridges are based on Transformer arm ratio principle as shown in fig.2

Fig. 2

The null is obtained when ampere-turn due to Ix passing through Cx & ampere-
turn due to Is passing though Cs are equal, both in magnitude & phase.
Ix Nx = INs
Cx Nx = V WCs Ns
Cx = Cs x Ns/Nx

& Tan d is W R (C + Cs).

In semi automatic & automatic bridges a phase selective Null detector is used
and error signal in ND is analysed to give Tan d values, after capacitance is
balanced manually or automatically.

1.1BASIC CAPACITOR THEORY & VECTOR REPRESENTATION: If an

ideal capacitor is connecting to an AC voltage source, the capacitance current Ic
& voltage are perfect in quadrature with current leading i.e. Ic leads voltage by
0
90 . But no dielectric or insulating system is perfect, therefore a loss current also
exists, as such in practice the capacitor current leads voltage by phase angle F
which is less than 90 .This is shown in fig.3 It is more convenient to use d,
0

dielectric loss angle where d = 90 - F. For low loss insulation system Ic & I are
0

nearly equal since IR is less.

3
 Sivananda Electronics

The power factor & dissipation factor are defined as

Power factor = Cos F = Sin d = IR/I

Dissipation factor = COT F =Tan d = Ir/Ic

SIVA bridges are calibrated in terms of capacitance & Tan d. The important
characteristic of capacitance is it Tan d which is represented vectorially in fig.4

Incase where d is small sin d & Tan d are numerically almost equal. For power
factor less than 10% the difference is less than 0.5% & for power factor values
less than 20%, the difference is less than 2%. For this reason some times the
terms power factor & dissipation factors are used interchangeably, which is not
right.
The capacitor current at certain voltage & frequency is given by
I = Vwc

4
 Sivananda Electronics

The capacitors normally have both series & parallel losses. The frequency of
operation determines whether series or parallel losses will be dominant. At power
frequency only parallel losses are important and at higher frequency the series
losses. See fig.5 for equivalent circuit.

Fig : 5.

For a particular frequency either series or parallel equivalent circuit can represent
any loss. Depending on the convenience of analyzing a particular circuit either
series of parallel equivalent circuit can be used for a practical capacitor.

The Tan d for series equivalent circuit fig.6 is given by

5
 Sivananda Electronics

Tan ds = Rs wCs

A parallel circuit as shown in fig.7 can represent the same.

To find equivalent Cp & Rp in terms of series Rs &Cs, following formula can be

used

Tandp = 1/RpWCp

Cp = Cs/1+Tan2 d s = Cs/1+ (RsWCs) 2

Rp = Rs (1+1/tan2 d s) = Rs (1+1/[RsWCS]2)

1.4 CONVERSION FORMULAS: In the system where limited parameters

are measured the remaining parameters can be calculated using
following formulas.
6
Cpf = mA X 10
W X Kv

Cpf = mA X 3180 at 50Hz

KV

Cpf = mA X 2650 at 60Hz

KV

6
 Sivananda Electronics

-6
mA = KV w Cpf x 10
-6
mA = KV X Cpf X 314 X 10 at 5Hz

mA = KV X Cpf X 377 C 10-6 at 60Hz

% DF = W LOSS X 100
KV X mA

All above formulas are valid when DF / PF is less than 20%

2 -6
WLOSS = kv X Cpf X % DF X 3.14 X 10 at 50Hz
2 -6
WLOSS = kv X Cpf X %DF X 3.77 X 10 at 60Hz

Df
PF =
Ö (1 + DF )
2

DF = PF
Ö (1- PF )
2

Above have no limitation on DF

In all above formulas, following are used.

Cpf = Capacitance, Pico farad

DF
= Dissipation factor
mA = Milliamp
PF = Power factor
KV = Kilo Volts
W = 2pf
WLOSS = Watt Loss
F = Frequency
Fig. 8 shows the graph for DF & PF conversion. ???

7
 Sivananda Electronics

Fig. 8

1.5 UST, GST & GSTg MODES OF OPERATIONS: In the following, various
modes of operations possible for measurement with SIVA Test Sets are
explained. Basic three modes are explained. However in set with two LV Leads 7-
modes of operations are possible, which enables to measure complex objects
with minimum changes of connections.

UST: fig. 9 shows the basic ungrounded specimen testing mode & how
guarding is

Fig. 9

achieved in this mode. In this mode only CHL is measured as current through CHL
only passes through Nx. CHG& internal stray capacitor shunt the power supply
which effects only loading but does not effect measurement all stray
capacitances between L & guard (in this case ground) shunts the Nx winding.

8
 Sivananda Electronics

In practice resistance of Nx winding & leakage inductance are low so a

reasonably large capacitor may be allowed to shunt this winding with out
effecting the measurement. But very large capacitor will start effecting the
measurement.
GST-Mode: Fig.10 shows the set up for testing grounded specimen test &
how guarding is effected.

Ix current flowing through CHL & CHG passes through Nx winding hence
capacitance measured is CHL + CHG. All internal stray capacitances shunt power
supply & external capacitances between GUARD & GROUND shunts Nx winding
which are not measured & also does not effect results as explained in UST mode.

GSTg-Mode: Fig.11 shows simplified circuit set up for GST g mode &
shows how guarding is achieved.

9
 Sivananda Electronics

Only Current passing through CHG also passes through Nx so capacitance being
measured CHG. All internal & external capacitance between High Voltage point H
& GUARD shunts the power supply & between GUARD & GROUND SHUNTS
Nx, which are neither measured nor effect measurement as explained.

USING SET WITH TWO MEASURING LEADS: Following chart shows various
modes of measurements.

SWITCH LEGEND MEASURES CAP. GUARDS GROUNDS

POSITION BETWEEN HAND
UST
1 H-LV1+LV2 LV1 & LV2
2 H-LV2 LV2 LV1
3 H-LV1 LV1 LV2
GST
4 GST LV1, LV2 LV1 &
& GROUND LV2
GUARD GSTg
5 LV1 LV2 & GROUND LV1 LV2
6 LV2 LV1 & GROUND LV2 LV1
7 LV1 + LV2 GROUND LV1 + LV2

10
 Sivananda Electronics

Typical connections for testing 3 & 4 terminal capacitor are shown in figures
12, 13, 14 &15 using test set with two leads.

UST Mode Measures CHL

11
 Sivananda Electronics

GSTg Mode Measures CHG

12
 Sivananda Electronics

UST Mode Measures between HV & LV1 + LV2

UST Mode Measures between H & LV2 with LV1 Grounded.

13
 Sivananda Electronics

UST Mode Measures between H & LV1 with LV2 GroundedC

GST Mode Measures between H & LV1 + LV2 + Ground

14
 Sivananda Electronics

GSTg Mode Measures between H & Ground with LV1 & LV2 Guarded

GSTg Mode Measures between H and LV1 + Ground with LV2 Guarded.

15
 Sivananda Electronics

GSTg Mode Measures Between H & LV2 + Ground & LV1 Guarded.

16
 Sivananda Electronics

SECTION 2
INTERPRETING TEST RESULTS

2.1 SIGNIFICATION OF C & TAN D: The deteriorated condition of insulation

system in electrical apparatus is the cause of large number of failures is field.
Regular monitoring of insulating system's capacitance & Tan d can predict these
failures giving time to plan & do preventive maintenance. The insulating system
should not be discarded until it is inslated, cleaned or serviced and
measurements are taken. If results indicate faulty condition, then only it should be
condemned.
The correct interpretation of C & Tan d measurements generally require in depth
knowledge of construction of equipment & insulating system used.

Capacitance change from nominal value may indicate presence of moisture in

insulating system or shorts & open in capacitance.

Dissipation factor indicates following in any insulating system

* Insulating system's chemical change due to time & temperature and other
service conditions

* Damaged insulation system due to local over heating.

* Contamination due to water, carbon, oil, dirt etc.
* Leakages through crack & surfaces.
* Ionization both local & general.

Interpretation of results is generally based on experience, information

supplied by Electrical apparatus manufacturer observing keenly the trends &
differences under varying conditions like;

* Trends of measurement on the same unit at different intervals of time under

essential identical conditions.
* Measurement of identical units of same make or parts of same unit under
similar test conditions around same time.
* Measurements of same unit at different voltages showing variation with
stress voltage, any sudden increase in slope indicates ionization.

An abnormal deviation or increase in Tan d from general trend indicates the

condition as explained above, which can be either general or localized. Ionization
activity occurring below working voltage will continue to degrade the insulation
system.

17
 Sivananda Electronics

Increase in both C & Tan d usually indicates ingress of moisture in insulating

system & only Tan d increase may indicate thermal degradation or contamination.
Bushings, terminal boards etc. should be cleaned and dried before tests
otherwise the results may be influenced by surface condition and may not be
applicable for bulk insulation.

2.1 TYPICAL TAN d VALUES FOR VARIOUS EQUIPMENTS:

Typical values of Tan d of various equipments are shown below in table 1. These
values are for general understanding of range of Tan d expected. Consult
manufacturer of the equipment for more relevant data.
Table: 1
Sr. No. EQUIPMENT % TAN d
1 New High Voltage Transformer 0.25 to 1
2 In service 0.70 to 15
3 Low Voltage, Distribution Tx 1 to 5
4 OCB 0.4 to 2
5 Cable with solid insulation 0.5 to 15
6 Cable oil filled / pressurized 0.2 to 0.5
7 Motors 2 to 8
8 Capacitor without Discharge Device 005 to 0.5
9 Bushing oil filled 0.3 to 4
10 Bushing 3 to 10

2.1 PERMITIVITY & DISSIPATION FACTOR: Values of Relative Permittivity

( r) & Tan d, at power frequencies, are given below for some of insulating
materials. (Table 2)

Sr. No. MATERIAL r % TAN d

1 AIR 1.0 0.0
2 Kraft paper 2.2 0.6
3 Tx. Oil 2.2 0.02
4 Polyester 3.0 0.3
5 Polyamide 3.5 0.3
6 Polyethylene 2.3 0.05
7 Polypropylene 2.2 0.02
8 Rubber 3.6 4.0
9 Silicone (liquid) 2.7 0.01
10 Porcelain 7.0 2.0

18
 Sivananda Electronics

It is interesting to note r & %Tan d values for water & Ice.

r % Tan d
Water 80 100
0
Ice 88 1 (0 c)

This shows that Tan d results will be abnormally affected; if measured at freezing
temperature because of 100:1 ratios. Tan d should not be measured at freezing
temperature.

2.4 TEMPERATURE EFFECT: It is a well-known fact that the temperature

effects Tan d of insulating system. Generally Tan d & dielectric losses increases
with increase in temperature. In some case, the cumulative effect may lead to
thermal runaway & subsequent failure if thermal stability is not reached.
It is important to either test the unit at essential same temperature or have the
temp Vs Tan d graph for same unit & convert Tan d values to a common
0
temperature (normally 20 c) for comparing.

Manufacturers of the equipments should be consulted for such conversion charts

/ graphs. For transformer, such graphs can be generated after heat run at factory.
While the transformer is cooling Tan d can be measured at different
temperatures. For others to generate such Tan d the equipment can be tested at
varied ambient conditions.

The bushing, insulator, air or gases filled circuit breakers are assumed to have
same temperature as ambient temperature. While transformers, oil circuit
breakers are assumed to have same temperature as oil. Bushings installed on
transformer will have temp some where between oil & ambient. Any sudden
change in ambient condition will have adverse effect, as due to thermal inertia of
equipment the true temp of equipment will lag behind ambient temp.

Temp Vs Tan d graph may change because of deteriorations of insulating system.

Therefore, any change at same temperature will point to degrading of insulating
system.

19
 Sivananda Electronics

As mentioned (2.3) be careful while measuring below freezing point.

The defects, which can be easily detected at temperature above freezing point,
may not be detected below it. The tests for detecting presence of moisture in
solids should not be performed below freezing point. In specimen with oil or oil-
impregnated solids, this anomaly is not found.
Insulating surfaces should also be at higher temp than ambient to avoid
condensation.
2.5 HUMIDITY: The exposed surfaces of insulating system like bushing,
insulators etc. may have deposit of moisture in adverse humidity conditions
specially if temperature of surface is below ambient temperature. This may effect
the measurement adversely, serious errors may result even under 50% RH if
moisture condenses on porcelain surface.

Therefore, test should be conducted during sunny & clear days during late
morning or early afternoon. Moisture deposited by rain or fog should also avoid
just prior to test.
2.6 SURFACE LEAKAGE: Losses due to surface leakages influence the
bulk losses of insulating system. Tan d measurement will give false information
regarding the condition of bulk insulation. Even bushing with much higher voltage
rating than the test voltage will show appreciable effect of surface leakage.
Therefore surfaces of such insulations should be cleaned & dried prior to
measurement.

Surface resistivity decreases by a decade for increase in relative humidity by

15% in a straight-line graph.

On bushings with Tan d tap, testing in UST mode can eliminate the effect of
surface leakage.
When testing Bushings with out Tan d tap. Under high humidity, effect of
surface leakage can be minimized by clean & drying the surface & use of
insulating grease.
Due consideration is to be given to test conditions while interpreting results.

20
 Sivananda Electronics

2.7 INTERFERENCE: While testing in energized, the measurements are

heavily influenced by interference currents. Capacitive coupling between
energized parts and test specimen causes these currents. In shop floor or low
voltage substations these interferences can be cancelled by taking normal and
reverse voltage measurement. But in high voltage switch yards special
interference suppression techniques may have to be used to cancel interfering
currents.

To reduce the intensity of interference it may be necessary to isolate the test

object from switches & bush bars. Experience & knowledge of yard teaches
where it is necessary to break connection.
The disconnected switches, bush bar if not energized should be connected
to ground.

The difficulty in measuring C & Tan d in presence of severe interference

depends not only interference but also on Capacitance & Tan d of specimen.
Unfavorable weather condition like humidity, fog, overcast sky & wind velocity
etc. also play a measure role. Smaller the capacitance of test specimen greater
will be the difficulty in accurate measurements. The difficulty will be more when
measuring in GST mode. Using maximum possible test voltage, disconnecting
as much bush bars & switches as possible & grounding can minimize this. Taking
measurement on sunny day with favorable weather conditions also helps in
mitigating the influence of interference.

The tests in UST mode are less affected by interference as interfering

currents after passing through High Voltage winding of power supply goes
directly to ground. But in GST mode same currents after passing through high
voltage winding of power supply passes through one of the bridge windings.

Another form of interference, less recognized is that which changes the

actual Tan d of testing object. This effect is due to partial discharge activity in test
object due to intensity of fields produced in test object because of energized
parts.

It may be very difficult to cancel the interfering currents if the frequency of

these Bridge & ICU power supplies is not same or synchronized. This could be a
problem when operating test set from portable genset.

21
 Sivananda Electronics

2.8 NEGATIVE TAN d: Some times the problem of negative Tan d is

observed while testing low capacitance test objects. This occurs when testing
bushings, circuit breakers, and low loss surge arrestors with low capacitance
value of order of 100 pf or less.

Negative Tan d results due to complex capacitance & resistance network,

which is present in test objects. Unknowingly, the error currents may flow through
measuring circuit. It is also possible that negative Tan d are produced when error
current induced by interfering electrostatic field are introduced in complex
network.

The other instance of negative Tan d is observed when there is incomplete

shielding of measuring electrode or when test object is defective.

The errors are usually increased when there is strong interfering field or
unfavorable weather conditions.

There are no clear guidelines or remedies for these conditions. It is advisable

not conduct test at locations where negative Tan d are known to be present under
unfavorable weather conditions, specially high humidity exists. Make sure the
surfaces of test object are cleaned & dried to minimize surface leakage. Make
sure all items like wooden ladder; nylon ropes etc. are removed from test object.
Additional shielding around low voltage terminal of test object connected
measuring & guarding leads may be provided to minimize this problem.

22
 Sivananda Electronics

SECTION 3

TYPES OF EQUIPMENTS
Test procedures & methods should be designed after studying & identifying
various capacitances involved in complex insulating systems. All capacitance,
involved & terminals available for making measurements & their voltage
capability should be defined. So that while testing, these voltages are not
exceeded. Methods for recording data should also be designed & formats
prepared for recording these.

Following are the general guidelines for conducting test on various equipments.

3.1 TRANSFORMERS: While testing transformer voltage rating of each winding

should be known & test voltage selected accordingly. If neutral is also involved in
any testing then voltage rating of neutral bushing should also be considered.
In transformer the following tests are conducted.
1. Each inter winding combination with remaining windings grounded
(UST mode).
2. Each winding and ground with remaining winding guarded (GSTg
mode).
3. In two winding transformers, measurement should also be made
between each winding & ground with remaining winding grounded (GST
mode).
4. In three winding Tx, measurement should also be made between each
winding and ground with one of remaining winding grounded & other
guarded. This is to isolate each winding's associated capacitances.
5. Finally all winding should be shorted & measurement taken between
these windings and ground.
6. It is also desirable to test liquid insulation separately.

23
 Sivananda Electronics

Fig.16

While testing each winding it should be shorted on itself & protective ground
jumper should be provided when test leads are being connected which can than
be removed.
Above figure shows the typical set up for two winding Tx and table 3 shows
connections between test set & two winding transformer in UST / GST mode. It is
good to cross check calculated & measured capacitance values to validate
measurements. The calculated values should tally with measured values with in
limits.
Increased Tan d values, relative to previous measured values indicates
some general conditions like contaminated oil and degradation of insulation
system. Increase in both capacitance & Tan d indicates contamination by
moisture. When insulating liquid is being filtered, a repeated test on winding &
insulating liquid indicates whether desired results are ob tained & healthy
conditions are restored.

24
 Sivananda Electronics

Oxidation & sludging have definite impact on Tan d of Tx winding.

Effectiveness of flushing can be monitored.
A large difference in individual windings indicates local damage or
degradation. Careful study of measurement in various modes will pin point the
area in which fault lies.
For example between two winding there is abnormal Tan d but Tan d for each
winding to ground with other guarded is normal, shows there is trouble with inter
winding insulation.
Bushing should be tested separately because normal Tan d in windings may
overshadow their loss.
Temperature correction should be applied wherever necessary, which are
established in factory & all results, should be related to common temperature.
Following Tables 3&4 show the various connections for two/three winding
transformers

T A B L E : 3 . T W O W IN D IN G T R A N S F O R M E R S
T E S T C O N N E C T IO N

S r C a p a c ita L O W V O L T A G E W IN D IN G Test Rem ar

. nce STATUS C o n n e c tio n s ks
N T e s te d
o
Test M easu G ro u n G uar HV LV LV
M od re C a p ds ds 1 2
e b e fo re
HT &
1 C HL UST LV1 LV2 H L
2 C HL + C HG GST LV1& LV1, H L L
G LV2 G ro u n
ded
3 C HG GST G LV1 H L L
g & G u a rd
LV2 ed
4 C HL UST LV1 LV2 L H
5 C LG + C HL GST LV1& LV1& L H H
G LV2 G ro u n
ded
6 C LG GST G LV1 L H H
g & G u a rd
LV2 ed

25
 Sivananda Electronics

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
Capacitance Watt loss
C1 = C2 C3 = CHLW1 = W2 W3
C4 =C5 C6 = CHLW4 = W5 W6
Here subscript denotes test Sr. No
H = High Voltage Winging G = Ground
L = Low Voltage Winging

Capacitanc LOW VOLTAGE WINDING Test Remarks

Sr e Tested STATUS Connections
.
N
o
Test Measure Ground Guard HV LV1 LV2
Mode Cap s s
before
HT &
1. CHL UST LV1 LV2 H L T T-
Grounded
2. CHL + CHG GSTg LV1+ G LV1 LV2 H L T L-
Grounded
/ T-Guard
3. CHG GSTg G LV1 & H L T L&T
LV2 Guarded
4. CLT UST LV1 LV2 L T H H–
Grounded
5. CLT + CLG GSTg LV1+ G LV1 LV2 L T H T-
Grounded
/ H-
Guarded
6. CLG GSTg G LV1 & L T H T&H
LV2 Guarded
7. CHT UST LV1 LV2 T H L L–
Grounded
8. CHT + CTG GSTg LV1+ G LV1 LV2 T H L H–
Grounded
/ L-
Guarded
9. C TG GSTg G LV1 & T H L H & L -
LV2 G u a rd e d
E q u iv a le n t C irc u it :

26
 Sivananda Electronics

Calculated Interchecks:
Capacitance
C1 = C2 C3 = CHL W1 = W2 W3
C4 = C5 C6 = CLT W4 = W5 W6
C7 = C8 C9 = CHT W7 = W8 W9

TRANSFORMER EXCITATION CURRENT

Fig.17 shows the test connections for measuring excitation current of
transformers. Normally high voltage winding is excited & current measured at a
particular voltage every time & compared.

27
 Sivananda Electronics

BUSHINGS:
Now a day all high voltage bushings come with Tan d test tap, which enables to test
bushing capacitance & Tan d in-site. Tan d measurement is made in UST mode,
which eliminates effects of all other insulating systems. The effect of stray
capacitance between Bushing terminal and ground as well as effects of surface
leakage of porcelains are also eliminated. UST mode essentially measures
Bushing only.

SIVA
TEST SET

Equivalent Circuit of Bushing:

CBT CAPACITANCE OF MAIN BUSHING

CTF CAPACITANCE BETWEEN TAND TAP & FLANGE
Above figure 18 shows test set up & connections for testing the bushing with Tan
d tap in UST mode. Normally Tan d tap is grounded, it is necessary to remove
ground before making measurement. Connect HV to central conductor & LV1 to
Tan d tap use UST L1 mode to test the bushings.

28
 Sivananda Electronics

Bushing, with flange isolation provision, can also be tested in UST mode. Just
remove the flange-grounding bolt; now bushing flange is completely isolated.
Connect HV to central conductor & LV1 to flange & take measurements in UST
mode.
Bushings with completely grounded flange cannot be tested in-site. Bushing has
to be removed and test performed.

HOT COLLAR TEST: For investigating dielectric losses in various sections of

bushings, generally hot collar test is performed. In this test the voltage stresses
are generated in a section of the bushings by using specially designed collar,
which fits snugly on the desired section of bushing usually just below top section.
In this test High voltage lead is connected to the collar & LV is
connected to central conductor & GST mode is selected for measurement.
Voltage stress is generated in section just below the collar & losses in this section
are measured. This test detects the conditions such as voids in compound filled
bushings or presence of moisture penetration.
If there is an established pattern of measurements for a normal bushing then
this method can be used to detect faults within condenser layer in condenser type
bushings or level of oil in oil filled bushings. If abnormality is observed in
capacitance & Tan d the test should be repeated with collar under second
petticoat & progressively going down to ascertain how far the defect has spread.
Make sure the collar is tightened snugly around porcelain surface with no air
gap to eliminate partial discharge problem, also clean & dry the surface of
porcelain to avoid surface leakage problem.

INSULATION SYSTEM OF TAN d TAP: Insulation between Tan d tap & flanged
can be tested by connecting HV lead to Tan d tap & LV1 to central conductor &
flange is grounded a measurement done in GSTg mode.
Tand tap are generally designed to with stand 500V to 2.5KV voltage only.
Before conducting test, ascertain the testing voltage limit & in no case exceed this
limit as larger stress may puncture the insulation system.

29
 Sivananda Electronics

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS: This requires a thorough knowledge of

bushing design as each design have its own peculiar nature. In oil filled bushing,
increase in Tan d indicates contamination & increase in both capacitance & Tan d
indicates ingress of moisture is the most likely culprit. For condenser bushings,
capacitance increases while Tan d may remain same in comparison with previous
readings if there are shorted layers.
The surfaces of bushings should be cleaned & dried before measurements so
that surface leakages do not influence the test results except in case where
intention is to observe the effect of surface leakages. The effects of surface
leakages are not observed in UST mode.

Temperature correction graph should be established with care and the same
should be applied to record the values at some base value of temp. Temperature
on the surface of bushing should be measured.

While testing bushings in modes where surface leakages present problem, the
temp of surface should be above ambient to avoid condensation of moisture.

MOTOR & GENERATORS: Capacitance & Tan d measurements on rotating

machines are used to investigate void formation damages resulting from partial
discharge activity in voids. Measurements also give the idea of inherent quality of
insulation system & will detect potential problems like degradation, moisture
ingress & contaminations.
Voltage v/s C & Tan d graph (Tip-up test) is widely used in maintenance to
detect degradation caused by ionization. A sudden increase in Tan d above
certain voltage indicates that partial discharges are active at the stress level. If a
partial discharge shorts voids then an increase in capacitance is also observed.
The thorough knowledge of insulation system & its resistance to the effects of
ionization, can be helpful in predicting the useful life of equipment.
Generally coils near line terminals are under worst voltage stress with
respect to ground & maximum ionization activity takes place in these coils. The
useful life of equipment can be extended if Tan d values are measured on all coils
& rejecting only the worst coil & rearranging them with least Tan d value coils near
line connection. By observing Tan d of windings (without removing coils) &
rearranging line & neutral connection accordingly the life of equipment can also
be extended.

30
 Sivananda Electronics

Measurements on motor or stator are done between winding & ground. In

three phase motors if it is convenient to isolate individual winding then from each
winding to ground & inter winding measurements are performed.
During complete phase windings testing during Tip-top test, the defect in
individual winding may not be detected.
Motor stator windings generally have large capacitance which may exceed
the current capacity of high voltage transformers in such case the test can be
performed at reduced voltages or capacity of high voltage supply may have to be
increased & or resonating inductors may be used.
The windings should be at higher temp then ambient to avoid condensation
of moisture. Over exposure to high humidity should also be avoided.

CABLES:
High voltage cables are generally armored. In a single conductor cable the
insulation between conductor & earth (armor), the test is done in GST mode.
When three-phase cable is tested then following measurements are made.

1. Between each conductor pair with remaining conductor grounded UST.

2. Between each conductor and ground with other conductors guarded GSTg
3. Between all conductors shorted together & ground in GST mode.

Following may be noted while testing cables.

1. The tests give results for average Tan d of cables. In a cable, with some
small section having high Tan d the problem can be completely over
shadowed & have no effect on average value. The problem will be
more severe if the cable length is large.

2. Tests on long length of cables generally give an indication of inherent

quality of cable & general degradation, when results are compared with
previous records or tests on similar cable.

3. Cable have large capacitance per unit length so capacity of HV Tx may be

exceeded test at reduced voltage or take other steps.
4. While testing long laid cables take precaution to remove connections
at each end & barricade the end which is open

31
 Sivananda Electronics

SURGE ARRESTERS:

The complete test on surge arrestors is not possible in field since it involves
impulse, over voltage & Tan d measurements. Only Tan d test can be performed in
field. Power loss measurement in field is an effective method of monitoring the
health of arresters & predicting potential problem.

Normally individual units of arresters are tested for Tan d & power loss and
results compared with previous recorded data. Tests are performed at highest
possible test voltage. Surfaces of insulations must be cleaned & dried except
when testing for surface leakage effects. Use previously established temp Vs Tan
d graph to record Tan d results corrected same base value each time. The temp
on surface of arresters is taken as temp. of arrestors and ambient temp should
also be recorded. The surface temp should be more than ambient to avoid
condensation of moisture.

In the shop floor individual unit can be tested in UST mod but in the field when
these are mounted on supporting structures, GST or GST g modes are also used.

Surge arresters are rated on the basis of watt loss. What loss measured
should be recorded at a fixed voltage for ease of comparing with previous data.
Use conversion formulas to calculate watt loss at base value if measurements
are done at different voltage.

Use extreme caution while testing suspected damaged arrester units as high
gas pressures can build up in sealed units.

Referring fig.19, unit A, B & C can be tested in UST while D should tested in
GST mode while using set with two measuring leads multiple units (two) at a time
can be tested selecting appropriate mode. Table 5 shows the recommended test
mode & connections. Remove high voltage bus bar before starting test.

While using conversion formula make sure that arresters have linear
response in the voltage range.
An increase in Tan d indicates contamination by moisture, salt deposit,
cracked porcelain etc. While decrease in Tan d indicates open shunt resistor &
defective pre ionizing elements.

32
 Sivananda Electronics

LIQUID:

SIVA three terminal cell can be used for testing insulation liquids. The cell has
guard third terminal to reduce fringe effects & effect of insulation used for
insulating electrodes & providing support.

The dielectric constant can also be measured by this method. The ratio of empty
cell capacitance to capacitance with liquid filled gives dielectric constant.

The temperature & Tan d graph also can be established using temperature
controlled heating chamber & raising the temperature & measuring Tan d values
while liquid is cooling.

Refer to cell & heating chamber manual for details

Fig.
(Three Terminal Oil Cell & Heating Chamber)

33
 Sivananda Electronics

SOLIDS:
Capacitance & Tan d of solids insulating system when available in this sheet
of appropriate thick can also be measured using SIVA cell for solids. Fig.22
shows the SIVA jig for solids.

Miscellaneous: C & Tan d measurement is good tool to localize faults in sub

assemblies & components. Existing metal parts form some times a capacitance
or a capacitance can be formed using hot collar method. Whenever this method
is used to form capacitor use all precaution & ensure proper contact to desired
area by use of insulating grease or petroleum jelly.

Bulk losses can be separated from surface leakages by using third electrode
as guard. An example for insulated rod with central conductor is shown in fig.23 to
illustrate this.

The results of components & assemblies are compared with that of similar
components, which are known to be healthy.

34