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Tennis physiology: training the competitive athlete

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 Sports Med 2007; 37 (3): 189-198
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 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.

Tennis Physiology
Training the Competitive Athlete
Mark S. Kovacs
Department of Kinesiology, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, USA

Abstract The game of tennis has evolved from the wooden-racket era of long, crafty
points based on style and finesse, to the current fast paced, explosive sport based
on power, strength and speed, where 210 km/h serves are common. This evolution
over the last 20 years has led to an increased interest in tennis research. Competi-
tive tennis athletes need a mixture of anaerobic skills, such as speed, agility and
power, combined with high aerobic capabilities. The work-to-rest ratios of com-
petitive tennis athletes range between 1 : 3 and 1 : 5, and fatigue has been shown
to greatly reduce the hitting accuracy. Competitive male tennis athletes maintain
body fat <12% and have maximal oxygen uptake values >50 mL/kg/min, and as
high as 70 mL/kg/min. Results from lactate testing in tennis players are inconclu-
sive as some studies have shown increased levels, whilst other studies have shown
little or no change. Further investigation is required to determine the production
and utilisation effects of lactate from playing tennis. The average length of time to
play a point in tennis is <10 seconds and this has declined substantially in the last
20 years. Further research is needed to investigate tournament performance and its
effect on fatigue, recovery, hormonal and injury levels. As the game of tennis
continues to change, the physiological parameters must be continually investigat-
ed to help provide athletes, coaches and trainers with information that will aid in
the development of efficient and productive tennis performance and injury pre-
vention programmes.

Competitive, high-level tennis requires the ath- between the ball and racquet is between 0.003 and
lete to have superior skills and training in four major 0.006 seconds, and the racquet and ball must be in
areas: (i) tactical; (ii) technical; (iii) physical; and optimal orientation to execute the desired stroke.[4]
(iv) psychological. Unlike many other sports, which Therefore, high-level tennis requires high precision
may require high levels of physical fitness in a few over an extended period of time. Unlike sprinters or
components, tennis players require high perform- weightlifters who must have a majority of type 2
ances in most components (figure 1). One of the muscle fibres, or endurance athletes who must have
major problems in tennis research is the variation in a majority of type 1 muscle fibres, tennis players
the nature of the game itself. Tennis has average have been shown to be varied between being either
points that last <10 seconds (especially on faster predominantly fast or predominantly slow fibre-type
surfaces such as hard and grass courts), but matches athletes.[5]
have the possibility to last >5 hours.[1-3] A tennis In order to structure efficient and productive
match includes intermittent anaerobic exercise bouts training and recovery programmes, coaches, scien-
of varying intensities and a multitude of rest periods tists and players must have a solid understanding of
over a long duration, allowing the aerobic energy the physiological responses to high-level tennis
systems to aid in recovery. The time of contact players. Throughout matches and practice sessions,
190 Kovacs

Physical components ground reaction force in the legs and proceeds to the
upper body, including the shoulder and arm.[9] The
hips and trunk function as a centre of rotation and as
Anaerobic Aerobic Auxillary a transfer link for the large forces generated in the
legs to be passed on to the shoulder and arm. Elite
tennis players have symmetrical trunk rotational
Body awareness/
strength.[12] Abdominal muscles must generate,
Muscular
Speed endurance dynamic balance transfer and decelerate forces in the trunk.[9]
Aerobic Flexibility The purpose of this review of tennis-specific
Agility Power
endurance research is to help athletes, coaches and researchers
Strength Reaction time/
anticipation
more effectively use the scientific research to assist
Fig. 1. The physical skills and components relevant to tennis per-
high-level tennis players to prepare and train for
formance. optimum performance.

tennis players need to be able to perform repeated 1. Physiological Measures

dynamic movements involving acceleration, decel- Basic anthropometric and physiological mea-
eration, multi-directional agility and explosive surements are helpful for coaches, trainers, players
jumps, all in a reactive, rather than a pro-active, and scientists to identify talent, monitor progress
environment. As fatigue has been shown to reduce and maintain motivation. Tennis athletes compare
tennis-hitting accuracy by as much as 81%,[6,7] a favourably with athletes in other sports and non-
major goal of tennis training should be to avoid the athletes on most anthropometric and physiological
onset of fatigue during competition and training. measurements.[13-18] However, tennis has several
As a result of inefficient planning and training, unique physical aspects that are specific to the sport.
performance improvements may be limited and in- These include movement patterns and work-to-rest
jury potential may increase. Repetitive strain inju- ratios, which need to be understood to train tennis
ries (‘overuse injuries’) are the most common type athletes in the most productive and efficient manner.
of injuries in the tennis player.[8] A major cause of
these injuries has been attributed to the speed of the 1.1 Body Fat and Maximal Oxygen Uptake
game.[8,9] The peak velocity of a tennis racquet in the
Body-fat percentages of most tennis players are
serve has been reported to be 100–116 km/h (62–72
lower than those of the general population, but are
mph),[10] which corresponds to ball velocities of
typically not as low as some high-strength and pow-
134–201 km/h (83–125 mph).[9] Since the time of
er-sport athletes such as track sprinters and gym-
this research, which is >10 years old, the game of nasts (see table I). Tennis athletes perform well on
tennis has recruited bigger, faster and stronger ath- maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) testing. V̇O2max
letes, due to training, dietary and recovery enhance- values in competitive high-level male tennis players
ments, which have led to the increased velocity of have ranged between 44 mL/kg/min and 69 mL/kg/
all tennis strokes. Organised and planned program- min[14,19-26] (see table II). These V̇O2max values
mes (i.e. periodised) have been shown to lead to would classify these individuals as being highly
greater performance improvements than non-peri- anaerobically trained,[27] as opposed to being highly
odised programmes in collegiate tennis players.[11] aerobically trained such as marathon runners. It is
Force production in tennis, as in many other interesting to note that players who were considered
ground-based sports, involves the transfer of ground to be aggressive, attacking players had lower heart
reaction forces through the ankle, lower- and up- rates (HRs) and lower V̇O2 levels during play than
per-legs, trunk, upper body and eventually to the baseline players.[22] This information should be ap-
tennis racket. Therefore, the forces at the shoulder plied when designing training programmes specifi-
and arm in a tennis player result from the summation cally for different styles of play. The conclusions
of the kinetic chain activity that starts with the from the laboratory tests were that tennis athletes,

 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (3)
Tennis Physiology 191

even with different playing styles, have physiologi- Table II. Comparison of maximal oxygen consumption (V̇O2max)
values in elitea tennis players
cal and anthropometric measures similar to those of
Study (year) No. V̇O2max (mL/kg/min)
endurance athletes.[22] However, this statement
[mean ± SD]
should not be misinterpreted. These tennis athletes Bergeron et al.[14] (1991) 10 58.5 ± 9.4
showed high aerobic capacities, but they should not Elliot et al.[21] (1985) 8 65.9 ± 6.3
be compared equally with highly-trained aerobic Bernardi et al.[22] (1998) 7 65 ± 4
athletes such as marathon runners. It is important for Christmass et al.[23] (1995) 8 54.25 ±1.9
high-level tennis players to have V̇O2max levels >50 Smekal et al.[25] (2003) 20 57.3 ± 5.1
mL/kg/min to perform at an appropriate level on the Faff et al.[19] (2000) 72 62.3 ±4.8
tennis court, yet having extremely high levels (e.g. a State level or higher.
>65 mL/kg/min) may not increase on-court per-
formance greater than a highly respectable V̇O2max
level of 55 mL/kg/min. This would suggest that ods between points and games).[14] Although this
training time might be better spent on other physio- was the mean HR value, the study did not provide
logical, psychological, technical or tactical compo- the range of HRs. This could have provided a better
nents of tennis. representation of the start-stop nature of tennis and
the explosive bursts, which require high adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) use, as well as the decrease in
1.2 Heart Rate HR during the rest periods between points and
games.[32] Mean HRs of tennis players have been
Physiological stress in tennis is associated with shown to be statistically significantly higher when
the elevation of HR, which reflects the effort ex- serving than when receiving (p = 0.001).[6]
pended during short, intense bouts of play. In tennis
matches, there is a general trend towards an increase Multiple factors may have an influence on HR
in V̇O2 and HR as the game progresses, with a responses of tennis players. Elite level tennis is
decrease during the rest periods between points and frequently played in hot environments, where HR
games.[22] does not solely reflect the intensity of exercise.[13]
During 85 minutes of match play, the mean HR HRs will increase to help maintain cardiac output
of a college tennis player was 144.6 ± 13.2 beats per with a reduced blood volume due to sweating and
minute.[14] The HR and maximal HR reserve were skin perfusion.[34] Therefore, higher HRs will be
consistent with results from other studies.[21,29-31] seen in hot conditions.
This indicated that HR remains significantly elevat- Average HR values should not be the sole mea-
ed above pre-exercise levels, despite the varying surement of metabolism, as this would not accurate-
intensity and intermittent nature of the game. The ly represent the physiological nature of an intermit-
mean percentage of maximum heart rate (table III) tent sport such as tennis. The HR variability and
during play was 86.2% ± 1.0%; however, this was ranges during a match are considerable due to the
not significantly different from the 82.9% ± 1.2% continual stop-start movements and explosive na-
observed during recovery (excluding the rest peri- ture of the sport.
One study has suggested that tennis is an aerobic
Table I. Body-fat percentage for typical high-level tennis players sport because of the long duration and the moderate
Study (year) Body fat (%) Level Age (years) mean HRs during play.[14] However, the explosive
[mean ± SD] [mean ± SD]
nature of the serve and ground strokes, the rapid
Bergeron et 10.6 ± 4.5 College male 20.3 ± 2.5
al.[14] (1991) division 1
changes in direction (requiring high anaerobic ca-
Bergeron et 8.0 ± 3.0 College male 20.5 ± 1.9
pacity) and the requirement for a high percentage of
al.[28] (1995) division 1 type 2 muscle fibres, do not represent an aerobic
Bergeron et 21.3 ± 4.6 College female 20.3 ± 2.5 sport.[35] Therefore, it would be incorrect to suggest
al.[28] (1995) division 1 that tennis is a predominant aerobic sport and it
Dawson et 11.3 ± 1.8 College/state 20.3 ± 1.3 might be better to classify the sport as a predomi-
al.[13] (1985) level male
nantly anaerobic activity, requiring high levels of

 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (3)
192 Kovacs

aerobic conditioning to avoid fatigue. If HR moni- nation could be the level of player observed. Match-
toring is used during training, it would be more es involving athletes who play longer points with
beneficial to have the athlete work at higher rates, shorter recovery times are likely to produce higher
interspersed with lower rates (adequate rest), than to lactate levels than those who play short points with
have them at a constant HR throughout the session. longer rest periods. In addition, as lactate is a vola-
This would attempt to mimick the cardiorespiratory tile substance, the time frame of sampling must also
stress that a tennis athlete faces in a match situation. be standardised. In tennis training and competition,
this standardisation might be difficult to practically
1.3 Lactate accomplish.
When blood lactate concentrations exceed 7–8
The production and influence of lactate on mmol/L, technical and tactical performance de-
human biochemistry is a major concern for optimum clines.[3] However, these lactate levels are not ex-
performance in many sports. The finding of no pected during most match conditions because of
changes in plasma lactate during tennis play sug- regular rest periods between points and games, al-
gests that there is little reliance on anaerobic glycol- lowing for sufficient aerobic recovery. Some train-
ysis for ATP production and that numerous opportu- ing sessions may elicit higher levels of lactate than
nities are available for lactate to be cleared.[14] How- match sessions due to exercises of high intensity
ever, this result has not been supported by all of the lasting between 1 and 8 minutes, with little or no
research on lactate in tennis. Other studies have rest. Many tennis players train at a much higher
shown that the pre-match concentration of plasma practice intensity and duration of hitting sequence
lactate was 2.13 ± 0.32mM, increasing significantly than is observed during match play.[7] Coaches and
at the fourth change of end to 5.05 ± 1.04mM and at athletes must take into account potential lactate
the sixth change of ends, then remaining elevated levels when designing exercises. For technical de-
until the end of the match.[23] This variation was velopment, it is important for the athlete to be
correlated (r = 0.71, n = 72) with the estimated play fresher, with low levels of lactate, so that the major
intensity.[32] In this study,[32] the HR did not vary focus (technical training) can be achieved effective-
between rallying and recovery or with duration, ly. Inducing high lactate levels during training is not
which supports the findings of Bergeron et al.[14] and a productive way to train tennis athletes as it lacks
Docherty;[29] however, Elliott et al.[21] reported a specificity to the predominant energy system exper-
slight increase in HR during recovery between ral- ienced during matches. Appropriate rest must be
lies. The plasma lactate levels during tennis play included in training sessions to simulate conditions
have produced varying results in the literature and experienced during match play and to train tennis-
require further investigation.[14,36] A possible expla- focused energy system development. Rest time be-
tween points in a game of tennis can range between
Table III. Mean percentage of maximum heart rate (PMHR) in male
tennis players
15 and 28 seconds,[1,2,37,38] and extended rest periods
Study (year) No. Level PMHR (%)
after every two games are typically of 90 seconds.
Christmass et al.[23] 8 Regional 86
(1995)
1.4 Testosterone
Bernardi et al.[22] 7 Regional a
63.6 –82.5 b
Although limited tennis research has focused on
(1998)
testosterone levels in competitive tennis, it has been
Therminarias et al.[33] 19 Elite 87
(1991) shown in males that a significant increase in plasma
Bergeron et al.[14] 10 Elite 86.2 testosterone occurs during play.[14] Testosterone in-
(1991) creased above pre-exercise concentrations immedi-
Elliott et al.[21] 8 Elite 79 ately and again 5 minutes after the end of the
(1985) 79.4c match.[14] During match play, plasma cortisol levels
a Attacking style of play. progressively decreased while plasma testosterone
b Baseline style of play.
steadily increased.[14] Also, testosterone levels in
c Results from separate dataset within same study.
female collegiate tennis players have been shown to

 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (3)
Tennis Physiology 193

increase over a 9-month tennis and physical condi- the recovery periods; however, it is also vital to train
tioning, periodised training programme.[11] for the performance periods. Therefore, it could be
argued that it would be more beneficial and produc-
2. Energy Systems and Metabolism tive to train the anaerobic-focused energy systems,
The involvement of human metabolism and ener- the majority of the time. Aerobic training will occur
gy systems must be understood to help design, de- during the rest and recovery periods of high-intensi-
velop and implement tennis training and competi- ty exercise if the work-to-rest ratios are appropriate.
tion programmes. Utilising the correct energy sys- As tennis players are athletes that perform high-
tems during training will improve performance intensity short-duration sprint activities throughout
during matches. Although tennis is characterised by a match, these athletes should be trained for aerobic
periods of high-intensity exercise, it has been argued development using multiple short-duration sprints
that the overall metabolic response resembles pro- (<1 minute), with adequate rest (1 : 3 work-to-rest
longed moderate-intensity exercise.[14] However, ratio), to achieve aerobic training benefits.[37] Ko-
coaches and athletes should not infer from this state- vacs[37] provides a more in-depth analysis. It has also
ment that competitive tennis is a moderate-intensity been indicated that interval training at high intensi-
sport. The average metabolic response does not take ties improves aerobic fitness to the same extent as
into account the inconsistent and high power-output traditional aerobic training.[45]
nature of tennis movement and stroke technique. It The duration of recovery, as well as the duration
is self-evident that to consistently hit 210 km/h (130 of workloads, is important for the regulation of
mph) serves and equivalent ground strokes, it re- physiological strain during intermittent exercise.
quires high anaerobic ATP production. As most Studies during both sprint and weight training have
points last <10 seconds,[1,2,13,14,21,24,26,30-33,38-44] it shown the importance of recovery on subsequent
would be remiss to train tennis players in a tradition- performance.[33,40,46-49]
al, aerobic fashion at moderate intensity for long Power decrements during high-intensity, inter-
durations. Unfortunately, this is still how many mittent exercise, such as tennis, have been related to
coaches and tennis players train for competition. a continuous degradation of phosphocreatine, thus
Bergeron and colleagues[14] conclude that as plas- placing greater demand on glycogenolysis and gly-
ma lactate does not change (although this result was colysis, which increases muscle and blood lactate
not supported by other research[23,36]), conditioning concentrations. This is associated with large reduc-
for tennis should generally emphasise exercises tions in muscle pH if appropriate rest is not ob-
near, but not beyond, anaerobic threshold. However, tained.[43] This rest seems to be obtained in match
this training philosophy might not adequately devel- situations,[37] but many coaches and athletes practice
op the anaerobic power and explosiveness required and train without sufficient rest periods. One area of
to produce effective strokes and movements in ten- training and testing that needs updating is the tradi-
nis players. As tennis requires multiple anaerobic tional test for aerobic endurance in tennis players.
energy systems and focused movement patterns The 1.5-mile run test has been used for many
throughout a match or training it would be appropri- years,[17,50,51] but is not representative of the energy
ate to train as specifically for the tennis scenario as system usage or metabolic stress that a tennis athlete
possible. Bergeron and colleagues[14] do not believe encounters. A more specific test would involve
anaerobic training should be the emphasis (i.e. short-duration sprints (<30 seconds), in a repetitive
>50% of the total physical training) of a given manner, to test for tennis-specific endurance.
training cycle. They argue that the overall metabolic
3. Match Analysis and
response indicates that oxidative metabolism is the
Work-to-Rest Ratios
primary mechanism for ATP restoration through the
course of an entire tennis match. The adaptations The length of a tennis match is highly variable
associated with training just below the anaerobic and can range from <1 hour to >5 hours in a five-set
threshold could optimise these ongoing recovery match. The majority of tennis players compete in
periods.[14] This theory is justified for training for traditional ‘best of three sets’ matches. These

 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (3)
194 Kovacs

matches range substantially in duration, but a tenta- Federation (ITF),[52] to ≈15 seconds on the slower
tive average of 1.5 hours has been used in the surfaces (e.g. clay, ITF category
literature as a typical average match length.[28] 1[52]).[1,2,13,21,23,24,26,30,33,38-42,44] Although variability
The dietary records of tennis players show males in results is due to playing styles, court surfaces,
consuming ≈4500 calories per day and females con- environmental conditions, competitive level of par-
suming ≈2800 calories per day.[28] However, it ticipants, psychological and motivational factors,
should be noted that there is large individual varia- this information gives a good range for which to
bility in these caloric results. This information is develop effective tennis training programmes. Ten-
provided to outline the large variations in intake, nis points do not, on average, last >13 seconds and
which is probably due in part to the variability in the overwhelming majority of points last <10
time and intensity of actual play. Therefore, these seconds (table IV). This information should be used
values are provided as a guide to caloric needs in when developing training and testing programmes
tennis, but should not be used to structure individual for tennis players.
nutritional guidelines.
The mean duration of the rallies throughout ten- 4. Fluid Consumption and Hydration
nis matches can vary substantially depending on the Competitive tennis is typically played in warm
playing surface, playing style, environmental condi- and hot environments. Because hypohydration will
tions, strategy and motivation. Match analysis ob- impair tennis performance[53] and increase the risk
tained during a college tennis tournament reported of heat-related injury and illness,[54] consumption of
the average length of a point to be 6.36 ± 4.69 appropriate fluid levels is necessary to prevent dehy-
seconds.[1] In a separate study, it was seen that dration and enhance performance. It has been shown
playing style had a large impact on the length of the that tennis players can sweat >2.5 L/h;[20] however,
point.[22] When the player in control of the rally was the gastric emptying rate for beverages, rarely ex-
an attacking player, the average duration of the ceeds 1.2 L/h.[55,56] Attempting to keep pace with a
rallies was 4.8 ± 0.4 seconds.[22] When the player in sweat rate greater than ≈1.5 L/h is a practical and
control of the rally was a whole-court player, rally physiological challenge. Players who ingest >1.25
duration varied with a mean value of 8.2 ± 1.2 L/h may feel gastrointestinal discomfort as they
seconds (range: 6–11 seconds). When the player in compete.[56,57] During a study looking at collegiate
control of the rally was a baseline player, the points, tennis players, water consumption of the athlete was
on average, lasted 15.7 ± 3.5 seconds. These differ- at an approximate rate of 1.0 L/h,[28] which may
ences in duration were shown to be statistically have been due to a subconscious need to avoid the
significant (p < 0.05).[22] aforementioned gastrointestinal discomfort. Thirst
The percentage of the playing time, with respect is a poor indicator of body water status and is an
to the total time of the match, (on clay courts) has insufficient stimulus to prevent a net body water loss
been shown to be ≈21% ± 5.5% for attacking play- during exercise in a hot environment.[20,58] Ad lib-
ers, 28.6% ± 4.2% for whole-court players and itum drinking typically leads to involuntary dehy-
38.5% ± 4.9% for baseline players.[22] A significant dration.[13] One reason for involuntary dehydration
difference was observed between each of these is that 1.5L of body water could be lost before thirst
styles of play (p < 0.05). A study on hard courts had is perceived.[59] By this time, impaired exercise ther-
the percentage of playing time during a match to be moregulation has already started.[59] Exercise per-
≈20% for all types of players.[29] formance (endurance cycling in a laboratory setting)
The intervals of work and rest during high-level has been shown to be impaired when an individual is
tennis play have been shown to vary. Most high- hypohydrated by as little as 2% of their body mass
level matches consist of a work-to-rest ratio between and a loss of 5% can decrease work capacity by
1 : 3 and 1 : 5, with points having an average length ≈30%.[60]
between 3 seconds on some of the faster surfaces During tennis training and match situations, it is
(grass, carpet and indoor) that have been classified important for athletes to consume adequate fluid and
as category 2 and 3 by the International Tennis electrolytes. There is some debate as to the best

 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (3)
Tennis Physiology 195

Table IV. Rally time of tennis matches on different surfaces a warm environment (wet bulb globe temperature
Study (year) Mean SD Surface ITF [WBGT] 27°C).[64] This level of fluid should be
rally time surface
increased in conditions that are >27°C WBGT. This
(sec) rating[52]
Christmass et al.[23] 10.2 0.3 Hardcourt 2
recommendation is equal to 1 L/h, which is not even
(1995) half the amount of fluid that can be lost as a result of
Dawson et al.[13] 10 0.2 Hardcourt 2 sweating.[20] Although recommended fluid intake
(1985) should be individualised for each player, if this is
Elliott et al.[21] (1985) 10 0.8 Hardcourt 2 not possible, it would be appropriate to recommend
König et al.[39] (2001) 7–10 Hardcourt 2 a fluid intake of ≥400mL of fluid every 15 minutes
Morgans et al.[30] 7.5 0.7 Hardcourt 2 (1.6 L/h). This volume is chosen because it was
(1987)
slightly higher than the gastric emptying rate,[55,56]
Richers[40] (1995) 8 Hardcourt 2
which will limit the amount of body fluid losses
Smekal et al.[26] 8.2 Hardcourt 2
(2001)
during hot and humid conditions.
Therminarias et al.[33] 12 1 Hardcourt 2
CHO supplementation has been utilised in other
(1991) sports with varied results. The ingestion of a CHO
Chandler[38] (1991) 12.2 Hardcourt 2 solution did not improve performance in a 3-hour
Kovacs[2] (2004) 6.0 Hardcourt 2 simulated tennis match;[65] however, this is contrary
Kovacs et al.[1] (2004) 6.2 Hardcourt 2 to previous results carried out on aerobic cycling
Yoneyama et al.[41] 6.6 Unspecified performance.[66-68] Nevertheless, aerobic cycling
(1999) performance tests differ substantially from the ten-
O’Donoghue and 8 Hardcourt 2 nis performance tests, which were primarily anaer-
Ingram[42] (2001)
obic tasks. There is no apparent benefit in including
O’Donoghue and 7.6 Clay 1
Ingram[42] (2001) CHO in fluid-replacement drinks during <2 hours of
O’Donoghue and 4.3 Grass 3 tennis play. However, when athletes need to play or
Ingram[42] (2001) train for two or three sessions during the same day, it
Hughes and Clark[44] 2.52 Grass 3 is vital to replenish glucose levels. Negative distur-
(1995) bances of glucose levels occured most frequently
ITF = International Tennis Federation.
after the rest period between a first and second
match during the tournament study.[69] Then, while
types of fluid to be ingested while on court. Despite the players warm up for the subsequent match, there
the favourable osmotic gradient of water for absorp- was a sudden drop in glucose levels. In this study,
tion, most investigators have shown that a carbohy- the decreased glucose levels did not appear to affect
drate (CHO)-electrolyte drink promotes fluid ab- competitiveness; however, in highly competitive sit-
sorption better than plain water.[20,61-63] The two uations this could have a large bearing on the atti-
major reasons for this are: (i) without active solute tude and readiness of the player to compete at the
transport, the intestine cannot transport water effec- highest level.[70] A CHO drink in long-duration cy-
tively; and (ii) in the presence of glucose, water cling activities has been shown to help delay the
transport is enhanced. The actual amount of fluid to onset of exercise-induced muscle cramps, but has
be consumed by tennis players during a match de- not been shown to prevent the cramps.[69]
pends on the individual, the environment, intensity
level, body mass and sweat rate. A tennis player who 5. Clinical and Practical Applications
has a 2.0 L/h sweat rate would need to drink 0.25L The physiology of tennis play is complex be-
during each change of ends (assuming five change- casue of the start-stop intermittent nature and incon-
overs per hour) to replace just 62.5% of the fluid lost sistent length of matches. Therefore, rigid and strict
each hour.[20] training guidelines are inappropriate. Interindividual
It has been suggested that 200mL of fluid every variation must be considered when designing train-
15 minutes, is an adequate rate to maintain body ing programmes, as mean values from many group
fluid balance during moderate to intense exercise at research studies may not show statistically signifi-

 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (3)
196 Kovacs

cant results, but individual means might show strong quate fluids during play a physiological challenge. It
or weak responses. Different playing styles, sur- is recommended that athletes drink ≈200mL during
faces, ball types and environmental conditions each change of ends in mild temperatures (<27ºC
should be major factors for consideration when de- WBGT). Also, it would be highly recommended that
termining training programmes for high-level tennis each athlete is on a specific hydration routine, which
players. Recommendations for the design and im- has been developed through the monitoring of sweat
plementation of training programmes for high-level changes throughout practice and match sessions. It
tennis players include the following: is recommended that athletes drink between 200mL
1. As attacking players will play shorter points, and 400mL during each change of ends in hot and
training should incorporate a higher percentage of humid conditions (>27ºC WBGT).
short, anaerobic-focused speed, strength and power
activities. 6. Conclusion
2. Players with a more defensive style should train
with the intent of developing longer points and Competitive tennis play requires a fine interac-
should focus on developing muscular endurance and tion between the tactical, technical, psychological
train accordingly. and physical components. However, limited re-
3. All types of players must have a good base level search is available concerning how best to structure
of all physiological areas, as the playing style of the and train these four distinct components. Further
opponent, court surface, environmental conditions sport science research is required in all areas of
and ball type will dictate, to a certain degree, the tennis competition and practice, but there seems to
nature of the physiological requirements. be a scarcity of information on recovery, perform-
4. The work-to-rest ratios for training exercises, ance, hormonal and injury levels during tourna-
which are focused on developing tennis-specific ments and multi-day events. An area of discrepancy
endurance, should fall somewhere between 1 : 3 and in the literature concerns the effects of competitive
1 : 5, in order to simulate the match conditions. tennis on lactate levels. Further research is required
5. The work-to-rest ratios for speed, agility and to determine the production and utilisation of lactate
power training should be much longer to allow for during tennis play. Another area in need of more
appropriate recovery (from 1 : 25 to 1 : 40). research is that of tennis-specific endurance; more
tennis-focused endurance testing and monitoring is
6. As fatigue limits the hitting accuracy by as much
required. As tennis is one of the most popular sports
as 81%,[7] it is important to train technical and
in the world, the need for continual tennis research
tactical aspects when athletes are fresh and well
in all of the sport sciences is required to help devel-
rested. Shorter rest periods (3–5 seconds of rest for
op programmes to be more effective, efficient and
every second of work) should be used to develop
safe for improved performance and injury preven-
energy systems specifically for improved tennis
tion.
play.
7. Tennis players should strive for body-fat percent-
Acknowledgements
ages to be <12% (males) and <23% (females).
8. A V̇O2max level >50 mL/kg/min for males and The author would like to thank Philip Bishop and Mat-
>42 mL/kg/min for females is recommended as a thew Green for their insightful guidance throughout the prep-
minimum standard and preferably a higher V̇O2max aration of this article. No sources of funding were used to
assist in the preparation of this review. The author has no
value is encouraged for tennis athletes to be able to conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of
practice and compete at a high level. this review.
9. More emphasis should be placed on developing
intermittent, anaerobic performance rather than
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