Introduction to Common Lisp.

 Lisp is a functional language well-suited to symbolic

AI, based on the λ-calculus and with list structures as
a very flexible basic data type; programs are
themselves list structures, and thus can be created
and manipulated just like other data.
 Basic characteristics of Lisp and Common Lisp:
o Lisp is primarily intended for manipulating

symbolic data in the form of list structures,

e.g., (THREE (BLIND MICE) SEE (HOW (THEY
RUN)) !)
o Arithmetic is included, e.g., (SQRT (+ (* 3 3)

(* 4 4))) or (sqrt (+ (* 3 3) (* 4 4))) (Common

Lisp is case-insensitive, except in strings
between quotes " ... ", specially delimited
symbols like |Very Unusual Symbol!|, and
for characters prefixed with “\”).
o Common Lisp (unlike John McCarthy’s

original “pure” Lisp) has arrays and record

structures; this leads to more
understandable and efficient code, much as
 in typed languages, but there is no
obligatory typing.
o All computation consists of expression
evaluation. For instance, typing in the
above (SQRT ...) expression and hitting the
enter key immediately gives 5.
o Lisp is a functional language based on
Alonzo Church’s λ-calculus (which like
Turing machines provides a complete basis
for all computable functions). For instance,
a function for the square root of the sum of
two squares can be expressed as (lambda (x
y) (sqrt (+ (* x x) (* y y)))). We can save this
function by giving it a name using defun
(examples will be seen soon), or we can
apply it directly, as in ((lambda (x y) (sqrt (+
(* x x) (* y y)))) base height), where base
and height are assumed to be variables that
have been assigned some numerical values.
o Since data are list structures and programs
are list structures, we can manipulate
programs just like data. We can also easily
 define special-purpose list-structured 1
languages (e.g., for planning or for NLP) and
write interpreters for these languages in
Lisp.
o List structures are a very flexible data type
– it’s hard to think of any types of
information that can’t be easily represented
as list structures. And as long as we’re using
list structures as our data types, we can
enter data just by supplying list structures –
we need not write special reading or
structure-building functions. For instance,
(SETQ X ’(THREE (BLIND MICE) SEE (HOW
(THEY RUN)) !)) sets the variable X to the
indicated list structure value; and (READ)
will read in any list structre. Similarly
printing out list structures requires no
special printing functions (the functions
PRINT and FORMAT do almost everything
we need). Common Lisp arrays and record
structures are also pretty easy to handle in
I/O.
 o The simplicity and elegance of Lisp, and its
unmatched flexibility and ease of use for AI
applications, have made it very durable: it is
the second-oldest high-level programming
language (after FORTRAN), yet is still in
common use.
AI classical systems:

General Problem Solver

 Problem: the perceived difference between the desired object and the
current object.
 Objects: the things that the problem is about. (E.g. theorems in logic.) –
Differences exist between pairs of objects.
 Operator: something that can be applied to objects in order to produce
different objects. (E.g. the rules of inference in logic.) – Operators are
restricted to apply to only certain kinds of objects. – Indexed with respect
to the differences that these operators are able to mitigate.
 Heuristic information: that which aids the problem-solver in solving a
problem. – Relating operators to differences between objects. – What is
and what is not (heuristic) information is relative to the problem at hand.
 Theory of problem solving: discovering and understanding systems of
heuristics.

Rules
Simple search
Search is finding a sequence of actions/operators that achieve a goal from an
initial state.
Idea: An agent that can predict the results of its actions can return better actions.
Assumptions: Operators are deterministic.
Relevant features of initial state and goal can be perceived
Means-ends analysis.
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 A way of controlling search in problem solving.

 Input: current state, goals state.
 Output: sequence of operators that, when applied to the current
state, delivers the goal state.
 The output is derived from the input by mapping operators onto
differences. – Presupposes a criterion of two states being the
same. – Presupposes a criterion of identifying the difference
between two states.
 Presupposition to make MEA always succeed:
 For every two objects A and B there exists a sequence F1, Fn such
that Fn (…F1 (A)…) =B.
– Sequence F1, Fn is finite.
– In the search space of finite sequences, F1, Fn can be lifted
out in finite time.
 The subject of search techniques.
Performance Limitations
 Brute force variant: has to try every operator w.r.t. every object.
 Include operator restrictions, i.e. an operator only works on
specific kinds of objects.
  Include operator indexing w.r.t. categories of differences that
they mitigate. – Requires a preliminary categorization of
differences.
 Impose a partial order (PO) on the set of differences (or categories
of differences). – Prefer operators that reduce complex
differences to simpler differences.
 But regardless of all this: it can only see one step ahead.

ElIZA
ELIZA is an early natural language processing computer program created from 1964 to
1966 at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory by Joseph Weizenbaum
Pattern matching
Pattern matching is the process of checking whether a specific
sequence of characters/tokens/data exists among the given data.
Regular programming languages make use of regular
expressions (regex) for pattern matching.

Pattern matching is used to determine whether source files of

high-level languages are syntactically correct. It is also used to
find and replace a matching pattern in a text or code with another
text/code. Any application that supports search functionality uses
pattern matching in one way or another.

Rule based translators

To
process
any

translation, human or automated, the meaning of a text in the original (source)

language must be fully restored in the target language, i.e. the translation. While on
the surface this seems straightforward, it is far more complex. Translation is not a
mere word-for-word substitution. A translator must interpret and analyze all of the
elements in the text and know how each word may influence another. This requires
extensive expertise in grammar, syntax (sentence structure), semantics (meanings),
etc., in the source and target languages, as well as familiarity with each local
region.
Human and machine translation each have their share of challenges. For example,
no two individual translators can produce identical translations of the same text in
the same language pair, and it may take several rounds of revisions to meet
customer satisfaction. But the greater challenge lies in how machine translation can
produce publishable quality translations.

Rule-Based Machine Translation Technology

Rule-based machine translation relies on countless built-in linguistic rules and
millions of bilingual dictionaries for each language pair.

The software parses text and creates a transitional representation from which the
text in the target language is generated. This process requires extensive lexicons
with morphological, syntactic, and semantic information, and large sets of rules.
The software uses these complex rule sets and then transfers the grammatical
structure of the source language into the target language.

Translations are built on gigantic dictionaries and sophisticated linguistic rules.

Users can improve the out-of-the-box translation quality by adding their
terminology into the translation process. They create user-defined dictionaries
which override the system’s default settings.

In most cases, there are two steps: an initial investment that significantly increases
the quality at a limited cost, and an ongoing investment to increase quality
incrementally. While rule-based MT brings companies to the quality threshold and
beyond, the quality improvement process may be long and expensive.

Statistical Machine Translation Technology

Statistical machine translation utilizes statistical translation models whose
parameters stem from the analysis of monolingual and bilingual corpora. Building
statistical translation models is a quick process, but the technology relies heavily
on existing multilingual corpora. A minimum of 2 million words for a specific
domain and even more for general language are required. Theoretically it is
possible to reach the quality threshold but most companies do not have such large
amounts of existing multilingual corpora to build the necessary translation models.
Additionally, statistical machine translation is CPU intensive and requires an
extensive hardware configuration to run translation models for average
performance levels.
Rule-Based MT vs. Statistical MT
Rule-based MT provides good out-of-domain quality and is by nature predictable.
Dictionary-based customization guarantees improved quality and compliance with
corporate terminology. But translation results may lack the fluency readers expect.
In terms of investment, the customization cycle needed to reach the quality
threshold can be long and costly. The performance is high even on standard
hardware.

Statistical MT provides good quality when large and qualified corpora are
available. The translation is fluent, meaning it reads well and therefore meets user
expectations. However, the translation is neither predictable nor consistent.
Training from good corpora is automated and cheaper. But training on general
language corpora, meaning text other than the specified domain, is poor.
Furthermore, statistical MT requires significant hardware to build and manage
large translation models.

Rule-Based MT Statistical MT
+ Consistent and – Unpredictable translation quality
predictable quality
+ Out-of-domain – Poor out-of-domain quality
translation quality
+ Knows grammatical rules – Does not know grammar
   
+ High performance and – High CPU and disk space requirements
robustness
+ Consistency between – Inconsistency between versions
versions
   
– Lack of fluency + Good fluency
– Hard to handle exceptions + Good for catching exceptions to rules
to rules
   
– High development and + Rapid and cost-effective development costs
customization costs provided the required corpus exists

OPS-5
OPS5 is a rule-based or production system computer language, notable as
the first such language to be used in a successful expert system, the
R1/XCON system used to configure VAX computers. The OPS family was
developed in the late 1970s by Charles Forgy

Knowledge Representation:
Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting
knowledge. Human knows things, which is knowledge and as per
their knowledge they perform various actions in the real
world. But how machines do all these things comes under
knowledge representation and reasoning. Hence we can
describe Knowledge representation as following:

o Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the

part of Artificial intelligence which concerned with AI agents
thinking and how thinking contributes to intelligent behavior
of agents.
o It is responsible for representing information about the real
world so that a computer can understand and can utilize this
knowledge to solve the complex real world problems such as
diagnosis a medical condition or communicating with
humans in natural language.
o It is also a way which describes how we can represent
knowledge in artificial intelligence. Knowledge
representation is not just storing data into some database,
but it also enables an intelligent machine to learn from that
knowledge and experiences so that it can behave
intelligently like a human.

What to Represent:

Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to be

represented in AI systems:

o Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain.

E.g., Guitars contains strings, trumpets are brass
instruments.
 o Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
o Performance: It describe behavior which involves
knowledge about how to do things.
o Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
o Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what
we represent.
o Knowledge-Base: The central component of the
knowledge-based agents is the knowledge base. It is
represented as KB. The Knowledgebase is a group of the
Sentences (Here, sentences are used as a technical term
and not identical with the English language).

Knowledge: Knowledge is awareness or familiarity gained by

experiences of facts, data, and situations. Following are the types
of knowledge in artificial intelligence:

Types of knowledge

Following are the various types of knowledge:

1. Declarative Knowledge:

o Declarative knowledge is to know about something.

o It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
o It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in
declarativesentences.
o It is simpler than procedural language.

2. Procedural Knowledge

o It is also known as imperative knowledge.

o Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is
responsible for knowing how to do something.
o It can be directly applied to any task.
o It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
o Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can
be applied.

3. Meta-knowledge:

o Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called

Meta-knowledge.

4. Heuristic knowledge:

o Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some

experts in a filed or subject.
o Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous
experiences, awareness of approaches, and which are good
to work but not guaranteed.

5. Structural knowledge:

o Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.

o It describes relationships between various concepts such as
kind of, part of, and grouping of something.
 o It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or
objects.

The relation between knowledge and intelligence:

Knowledge of real-worlds plays a vital role in intelligence and

same for creating artificial intelligence. Knowledge plays an
important role in demonstrating intelligent behavior in AI agents.
An agent is only able to accurately act on some input when he
has some knowledge or experience about that input.

Let's suppose if you met some person who is speaking in a

language which you don't know, then how you will able to act on
that. The same thing applies to the intelligent behavior of the
agents.

As we can see in below diagram, there is one decision maker

which act by sensing the environment and using knowledge. But
if the knowledge part will not present then, it cannot display
intelligent behavior.

AI knowledge cycle:
An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for
displaying intelligent behavior:

o Perception
o Learning
o Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
o Planning
o Execution

The above diagram is showing how an AI system can interact

with the real world and what components help it to show
intelligence. AI system has Perception component by which it
retrieves information from its environment. It can be visual, audio
or another form of sensory input. The learning component is
responsible for learning from data captured by Perception
comportment. In the complete cycle, the main components are
knowledge representation and Reasoning. These two components
are involved in showing the intelligence in machine-like humans.
These two components are independent with each other but also
coupled together. The planning and execution depend on analysis
of Knowledge representation and reasoning.

Approaches to knowledge representation:

There are mainly four approaches to knowledge representation,
which are givenbelow:

1. Simple relational knowledge:

o It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the
relational method, and each fact about a set of the object is
set out systematically in columns.
o This approach of knowledge representation is famous in
database systems where the relationship between different
entities is represented.
o This approach has little opportunity for inference.

Example: The following is the simple relational knowledge

representation.

Player Weight Age

Player1 65 23

Player2 58 18

Player3 75 24

2. Inheritable knowledge:
o In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be
stored into a hierarchy of classes.
o All classes should be arranged in a generalized form or a
hierarchal manner.
o In this approach, we apply inheritance property.

o Elements inherit values from other members of a class.

o This approach contains inheritable knowledge which shows a

relation between instance and class, and it is called instance
relation.
o Every individual frame can represent the collection of
attributes and its value.
 o In this approach, objects and values are represented in
Boxed nodes.
o We use Arrows which point from objects to their values.
o Example:

3. Inferential knowledge:
o Inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the
form of formal logics.
o This approach can be used to derive more facts.

o It guaranteed correctness.

o Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:

a. Marcus is a man
b. All men are mortal
Then it can represent as;

man(Marcus)
∀x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s
4. Procedural knowledge:
o Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and
codes which describes how to do specific things, and how to
proceed.
o In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-
Then rule.
o In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages
such as LISP language and Prolog language.
o We can easily represent heuristic or domain-specific
knowledge using this approach.
o But it is not necessary that we can represent all cases in this
approach.

Requirements for knowledge Representation system:

A good knowledge representation system must possess the
following properties.

1. 1. Representational Accuracy:
KR system should have the ability to represent all kind of
required knowledge.
2. 2. Inferential Adequacy:
KR system should have ability to manipulate the
representational structures to produce new knowledge
corresponding to existing structure.
3. 3. Inferential Efficiency:
The ability to direct the inferential knowledge mechanism
into the most productive directions by storing appropriate
guides.
4. 4. Acquisitional efficiency- The ability to acquire the new
knowledge easily using automatic methods.

Techniques of knowledge representation

There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which
are given as follows:
 1. Logical Representation
2. Semantic Network Representation
3. Frame Representation
4. Production Rules

1. Logical Representation

Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules

which deals with propositions and has no ambiguity in
representation. Logical representation means drawing a
conclusion based on various conditions. This representation lays
down some important communication rules. It consists of
precisely defined syntax and semantics which supports the sound
inference. Each sentence can be translated into logics using
syntax and semantics.

Syntax:
o Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct
legal sentences in the logic.
o It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge
representation.
 o How to write those symbols.

Semantics:
o Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the
sentence in the logic.
o Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each
sentence.

Logical representation can be categorised into mainly two logics:

a. Propositional Logics
b. Predicate logics

Note: We will discuss Prepositional Logics and Predicate logics in

later chapters.
Advantages of logical representation:
1. Logical representation enables us to do logical reasoning.
2. Logical representation is the basis for the programming
languages.

Disadvantages of logical Representation:

1. Logical representations have some restrictions and are
challenging to work with.
2. Logical representation technique may not be very natural,
and inference may not be so efficient.

Note: Do not be confused with logical representation and logical

reasoning as logical representation is a representation language and
reasoning is a process of thinking logically.

2. Semantic Network Representation

Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for

knowledge representation. In Semantic networks, we can
represent our knowledge in the form of graphical networks. This
network consists of nodes representing objects and arcs which
describe the relationship between those objects. Semantic
networks can categorize the object in different forms and can also
link those objects. Semantic networks are easy to understand and
can be easily extended.

This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:

a. IS-A relation (Inheritance)

b. Kind-of-relation

Example: Following are some statements which we need to

represent in the form of nodes and arcs.

Statements:
a. Jerry is a cat.
b. Jerry is a mammal
c. Jerry is owned by Priya.
d. Jerry is brown colored.
e. All Mammals are animal.

In the above diagram, we have represented the different type of

knowledge in the form of nodes and arcs. Each object is
connected with another object by some relation.
Drawbacks in Semantic representation:
1. Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime
as we need to traverse the complete network tree to answer
some questions. It might be possible in the worst case
scenario that after traversing the entire tree, we find that
the solution does not exist in this network.
2. Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which
has 1015 neurons and links) to store the information, but in
practice, it is not possible to build such a vast semantic
network.
3. These types of representations are inadequate as they do
not have any equivalent quantifier, e.g., for all, for some,
none, etc.
4. Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for
the link names.
5. These networks are not intelligent and depend on the
creator of the system.

Advantages of Semantic network:

1. Semantic networks are a natural representation of
knowledge.
2. Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent
manner.
3. These networks are simple and easily understandable.

3. Frame Representation

A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of

attributes and its values to describe an entity in the world.
Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge into
substructures by representing stereotypes situations. It consists
of a collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be of any
type and sizes. Slots have names and values which are called
facets.

Facets: The various aspects of a slot is known as Facets. Facets

are features of frames which enable us to put constraints on the
frames. Example: IF-NEEDED facts are called when data of any
particular slot is needed. A frame may consist of any number of
slots, and a slot may include any number of facets and facets
may have any number of values. A frame is also known as slot-
filter knowledge representation in artificial intelligence.

Frames are derived from semantic networks and later evolved

into our modern-day classes and objects. A single frame is not
much useful. Frames system consist of a collection of frames
which are connected. In the frame, knowledge about an object or
event can be stored together in the knowledge base. The frame is
a type of technology which is widely used in various applications
including Natural language processing and machine visions.

Example: 1

Let's take an example of a frame for a book

Slots Filters

Title Artificial Intelligence

Genre Computer Science

Author Peter Norvig

Edition Third Edition

Year 1996

Page 1152

Example 2:

Let's suppose we are taking an entity, Peter. Peter is an engineer

as a profession, and his age is 25, he lives in city London, and the
country is England. So following is the frame representation for
this:

Slots Filter

Name Peter

Profession Doctor

Age 25

Marital status Single

Weight 78

Advantages of frame representation:

1. The frame knowledge representation makes the
programming easier by grouping the related data.
2. The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by
many applications in AI.
3. It is very easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.
4. It is easy to include default data and to search for missing
values.
5. Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.

Disadvantages of frame representation:

1. In frame system inference mechanism is not be easily
processed.
2. Inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by
frame representation.
3. Frame representation has a much generalized approach.

4. Production Rules
Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs
which mean, "If condition then action". It has mainly three parts:

o The set of production rules

o Working Memory
o The recognize-act-cycle

In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the

condition exists then production rule fires and corresponding
action is carried out. The condition part of the rule determines
which rule may be applied to a problem. And the action part
carries out the associated problem-solving steps. This complete
process is called a recognize-act cycle.

The working memory contains the description of the current state

of problems-solving and rule can write knowledge to the working
memory. This knowledge match and may fire other rules.

If there is a new situation (state) generates, then multiple

production rules will be fired together, this is called conflict set.
In this situation, the agent needs to select a rule from these sets,
and it is called a conflict resolution.

Example:
o IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get into
the bus)
o IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN action
(sit down).
o IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).

o IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get down

from the bus).

Advantages of Production rule:

1. The production rules are expressed in natural language.
2. The production rules are highly modular, so we can easily
remove, add or modify an individual rule.
Disadvantages of Production rule:
1. Production rule system does not exhibit any learning
capabilities, as it does not store the result of the problem for
the future uses.
2. During the execution of the program, many rules may be
active hence rule-based production systems are inefficient.
https://www.javatpoint.com/propositional-logic-in-artificial-intelligence

https://www.javatpoint.com/rules-of-inference-in-artificial-intelligence

Natural language

The semantic representation of knowledge originally formulated

in natural language plays a central part, because it connects all
components of natural language processing systems, be they
the automatic understanding of natural language (analysis), the
rational reasoning over knowledge bases
Rules

Productions

Predicate logic

Semantic network

Frames

Objects

Scripts
A script is a structured representation describing a stereotyped sequence
of events in a particular context. Scripts are used in natural language
understanding systems to organize a knowledge base in terms of the
situations that the system should understand.
Searching
https://www.javatpoint.com/search-algorithms-in-ai

Depth first search, Breadth first search

https://www.javatpoint.com/ai-uninformed-search-algorithms

Best first search

https://www.javatpoint.com/ai-informed-search-algorithms

Hill climbing
https://www.javatpoint.com/hill-climbing-algorithm-in-ai

Min-max search.
https://www.javatpoint.com/mini-max-algorithm-in-ai

Symbolic Mathematics:

Student solving algebra problems

Translating English equations

Solving algebraic equations

Simplification rules

Rewrite rules

Meta-rules

Macsyma

PRESS

ATLAS.

Logic Programming:
Logic programming is a programming paradigm which is largely based on formal logic.
Any program written in a logic programming language is a set of sentences in logical form,
expressing facts and rules about some problem domain.

Resolution
https://www.javatpoint.com/ai-resolution-in-first-order-logic#:~:text=Resolution%20is%20a
%20theorem%20proving,Robinson%20in%20the%20year%201965.&text=Resolution%20is%20a
%20single%20inference,normal%20form%20or%20clausal%20form.

https://www.tutorialandexample.com/resolution-method-in-ai/

Unification
https://www.javatpoint.com/ai-unification-in-first-order-logic#:~:text=Unification%20is%20a%20process
%20of,makes%20them%20identical%20using%20substitution.

horn-clause logic
https://artint.info/html/ArtInt_122.html#:~:text=A%20Horn%20clause%20is%20either,disjunctions
%20of%20negations%20of%20atoms.

Prolog
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/prolog-an-introduction/

Prolog programming.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolog#Programming_in_Prolog
Sample case studies of shells and Knowledge Based Systems.
 Knowledge representation formalisms & Inference KR Inference
1. Logic Resolution principle
2. Production rules backward (top-down, goal directed) forward
(bottom-up, data-driven)
3. Semantic nets & Frames Inheritance & advanced reasoning
4. Case-based Reasoning Similarity based
 KBS tools - Shells
1. Consist of KA Tool
2. Database & Development Interface
3. Inductive Shells
 simplest
 example cases represented as matrix of known data (premises)
and resulting effects (conclusions)
 matrix converted into decision tree or IF-THEN statements -
examples selected for the tool
o Rule-based shells - simple to complex –
o IF-THEN rules
4. Hybrid shells - sophisticate & powerful - support multiple KR
paradigms & reasoning schemes - generic tool applicable to a wide
range-
 5. Special purpose shells - specifically designed for particular types of
problems - restricted to specialised problems
6. Scratch - require more time and effort - no constraints like shells -
shells should be investigated first
 Some example KBSs(1)
1. DENDRAL (chemical)- Pioneering work developed in 1965 for NASA
at Stanford University by Buchanan & Feigenbaum- DENDRAL infers
the molecular structure given mass spectral data- Traditional method
of generate-and-test, difficulty: millions of possible structures might
be generated to account for data- Experts used rules-of-thumb to
weed-out structures that are unlikely to account for the data-
Encoded this expertise & produced program which performed as well
as an expert chemist
2. MYCIN (medicine)- Developed in 1970 at Stanford by Shortcliffe-
Assist internists in diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases:
meningitis & bacterial septicemia- When patient shows signs of
infectious disease, culture of blood and urine set to lab (>24hrs) to
determine bacterial species- Given patient data (incomplete &
inaccurate) MYCIN gives interim indication of organisms that are
most likely cause of infection & drugs to control disease- Drug
interactions & already prescribed drugs taken into account- Able to
provide explanation of diagnosis (limited)
3. XCON/RI (computer) - Configures DEC’s VAX, PDP11 and µVAX - DEC
offers the customer a wide choice of components when purchasing
computer equipment, so that client achieves a custom-made system
- Given the customer’s order, configuration is made, perhaps
involving component replacement or addition - Problem: information
subject to rapid change & configuring a computer system requires
skills and effort - Since 1981, XCON with XSEL assists DEC agents in
drawing up orders.
4. DRILLING ADVISOR (industry) - Developed in 1983 by Teknowledge
for oil company to replace human drilling advisor - Problem:drill bits
becoming stuck - Difficulty: lack of subsurface information on
location & condition on end of drill - (scarcity) expert examines rock
pieces, mud, lubricant brought up by drilling to determine cause -
 Drilling Advisor uses geological site information, conditions of
problem, historical information about other problems experienced in
the past - Provide recommendation to correct problem & advice on
how to change current practices to avoid problem
5. Human Resource Managementy HRM facilitates the most effective
use of employees to achieve organisational and individual goalsy
HRM KBS forms part of overall strategy (includes DSS & EIS)y KBS
helps decision making for HRM managers with heuristic knowledge in
unstructured & semi-structured problems (job placement & pay
rises)y Using semantic nets & Prolog, illustrates use of KBS in HR
planning, recruiting, compensation & labour- management relations
(see Human resource management expert systems technology, Byun
& Suh, ES, May 94, 11:2)
 Typical tasks of KBS
1. Diagnosis - To identify a problem given a set of symptomsor
malfunctions.e.g. diagnose reasons for engine failure(2)
Interpretation - To provide an understanding of a situationfrom
available information. e.g. DENDRAL(3) Prediction - To predict a
future state from a set of data orobservations. e.g. Drilling Advisor,
PLANT(4) Design - To develop configurations that satisfy
constraintsof a design problem. e.g. XCON(5) Planning - Both short
term & long term in areas like projectmanagement, product
development or financial planning.e.g. HRM
2. Monitoring - To check performance & flag exceptions.e.g., KBS
monitors radar data and estimates the position ofthe space shuttle(7)
Control - To collect and evaluate evidence and form opinionson that
evidence.e.g. control patient’s treatment(8) Instruction - To train
students and correct their performance.e.g. give medical students
experience diagnosing illness(9) Debugging - To identify and
prescribe remedies formalfunctions.e.g. identify errors in an
automated teller machine network andways to correct the errors
 Advantages & Limitations
1. Advantages - Increase availability of expert knowledge expertise not
accessible training future experts - Efficient and cost effective -
 Consistency of answers - Explanation of solution - Deal with
uncertainty
2. Limitations -Lack of common sense -Inflexible, Difficult to modify -
Restricted domain of expertise - Lack of learning ability - Not always
reliable
 Traditional AI & its limitations for real-world problem solving- KBS
emergence in 60’s emphasis on specific domain-knowledge rather than GPS
separation of knowledge and reasoning - KBS basic components:
knowledge-base, inference engine & user-interface- Examples- Advantages
& limitations

A brief appreciation of state of the art computational techniques like neural

networks, genetic algorithm, fuzzy sets.
Neural Networks

https://www.javatpoint.com/artificial-neural-network

https://pathmind.com/wiki/neural-network

Genetic Algorithm

https://www.javatpoint.com/artificial-neural-network-genetic-algorithm

Fuzzy Set

https://www.javatpoint.com/fuzzy-logic#:~:text=contradiction%20and%20tautologies%3A-,Fuzzy
%20Set,exist%20between%200%20and%201.