Fault Resistance Influence on Faulted Power

Systems with Distributed Generation

A. D. Filomena, Student Member, IEEE, R. H. Salim, Student Member, IEEE, M. Resener, A. S. Bretas, Member, IEEE

Abstract—Fault resistance (RF) is a critical component in possible shunt faults types [3]. Between 70% and 80% of the
power systems protection schemes and fault locations algorithms. line faults are phase-to-ground faults, and 5% involves all
It introduces an error that if not taken into account for, may three-phases [1]. These faults may be initially considered an
cause misoperation of ground distance relays and fault locators.
ideal short-circuit (RF = 0). However, fault resistance may not
The presence of distributed generation (DG) is becoming
common in power systems, and new fault location methods and be negligible in several cases. For multi-phase faults, the fault
power system protection schemes are being developed to consider path may consist of an electrical arc between two high
it. This paper proposes an analysis of the RF influence in power voltages conductors and for faults involving ground, the path
system relaying and fault location algorithms with and without may consists of an electrical arc between the conductor and a
DG, allowing future research for fault resistance compensation. grounded object, such as the shield wire, the transmission
tower or a tree. In both cases there is not negligible RF in the
Keywords: Protective relaying, fault resistance, distributed faults paths.
generation, fault location.
For faults resulted from isolators flash-over, the arc
resistance and the tower footing resistance are series
I. INTRODUCTION
connected. The tower footing resistance ranges 5Ω-50Ω and

P OWER systems are exposed to different causes of service

interruption, like faults and erroneous operation. A fault in
a circuit is defined as any failure which interferes with the
can be considered constant during the fault. The arc resistance
is negligible in the first miliseconds, and increases with the
time [3]. For relaying consideration, the arc resistance is
normal flow of current [1]. Electric power systems are assumed constant and given by (1).
normally subject to these permanent and non-permanent
76 ⋅ V 2 (1)
faults. These faults can take out-of-service the faulted Rarc =
S sc
component for seconds or even hours depending on the fault
type. The fault phenomenon is associated with different where V is the system voltage in kV and Ssc is the short circuit
causes, like lightning, insulation breakdown, wind, trees capacity in kVA at the fault location [3].
falling across lines, animals or any contact with electrical
equipments. II. FAULT RESISTANCE INFLUENCE IN DISTANCE RELAYING
Most faults on transmission lines of 115kV and higher Distance relaying is commonly used as the primary
voltages are caused by lightning. The high voltage between protection scheme on transmission lines. Based on the
conductors and ground causes ionization, which provides a information of the line impedance per length unit, distance
path to ground for the charge induced by the lightning stroke. relays determines the apparent positive sequence impedance
After about 20 cycles with circuit breakers (CB) opened, to seen from the measuring point and compares it with the
allow deionization, the CB may be re-closed to restore the pickup setting, which is based on a line percentage to be
line. If re-closing is not successful, the fault may be protected. If the measured impedance is inside the protection
permanent [1]. In this case, the maintenance crew has to zone, an internal fault is diagnosed and a trip command is sent
search the faulted line to remove the fault using a fault to the circuit breaker [4].
location estimative. Distance relaying uses several zones to protect a
Faults may be classified as shunt, an unbalance between transmission line, called stepped distance protection. The first
phases or between phase and neutral, or series, an unbalance zone, usually designated as Zone 1, is set to trip with no
in the line impedance and does not involve the neutral or intentional time delay, the set is usually 80–90% of the
ground, neither any interconnection between phases [2]. transmission line impedance. For faults outside Zone 1,
On three-phase power systems, there are 10 distinct distance relays are used as backup protection, using over-
reaching zones of protection with time delay [5].
During a low resistance fault, the measured apparent
This work was supported by CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento impedance is close to the effective impedance between the
Científico e Tecnológico) and CEEE (Companhia Estadual de Energia Elétrica
do Rio Grande do Sul). relay and earth. Distance relay equations are developed
The authors are with the Electrical Engineering Department, Federal considering a fault with negligible fault resistance [6].
University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil (e-mail: However, the fault resistance introduces an error in the
[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected];
distance estimation due to the fact that in these cases the
[email protected]).
Presented at the International Conference on Power Systems apparent impedance measured by the relay is not directly
Transients (IPST’07) in Lyon, France on June 4-7, 2007 proportional to the distance between the relay and the fault
location. For a symmetrical fault [3], the apparent positive In (3), as in (2), it is shown that for high RF the apparent
sequence impedance seen by the relay is given by (2): impedance measured is higher than the impedance between
E ⎡I ⎤ the relay and the fault point, resulting in distance relay miss-
Z A = = Z F + R F ⋅ ⎢ R + 1⎥ (2)
I I operation.
⎣ S ⎦
A common technique to minimize the RF influence in
where ZA is the apparent positive sequence impedance, E and I distance relaying is the use of the quadrilateral operational
are the voltage and current phasors calculated at the relay characteristic, which provides more fault resistance coverage
point, ZF is the line impedance between the relay and the fault and arc compensation than circular mho [6]. Some works
point, RF is the fault resistance and IR and IS are respectively suggest the RF estimation while using distance relaying [9]-
the currents flowing from the remote end and the sending end [11]. Those works provide estimative and RF compensation
of the line. prior to the trip decision.
Eq. (2) demonstrates clearly the RF influence in a distance
relay, influence that can lead into possible problems as under- III. FAULT RESISTANCE INFLUENCE IN FAULT LOCATION
reaching phenomenon. The phenomenon is illustrated in Fig.
1. In this example, the distance relay would miss-operate for When a line is out-of-service due to a fault, the power
an internal fault, especially for faults close to zones system looses reliability. If the fault is non permanent, the line
boundaries or with high RF. is back in service in seconds, if there is automatic re-closing,
X Primary Zone of Protection or minutes, for manual re-closing. Usually, non permanent
faults are caused by lightning. If the fault is permanent, the
IR
RF
IS
+1 line is usually out-of-service for a longer time period. In this
ZF case maintenance teams must find the permanent fault and
remove it before restoring the system.
R
In both cases, a good estimative of the fault location could
Fig. 1. Distance relaying R-X diagram subject to under-reaching due to RF
reduce the maintenance team search time considerably. This
For shunt faults with high RF, not only the apparent estimative can be provided by the numeric relays or by
positive sequence impedance depends on the fault resistance, specialized software. The traditional methods for fault
but also on the power system structural and operational location estimation are based on positive sequence impedance
conditions, like short circuit levels at both ends of the line. estimative methods and traveling wave methods [12].
The operational conditions can be expressed by the ratio of Traveling wave techniques uses as input data the line
voltage magnitudes at the line ends (h) and the load angle (δ) length and the wave velocity. It estimates the fault location
of the line, i.e. E R / E S = he − jδ [7]. For a phase-ground fault energizing the faulted line and measuring the return time of a
with RF, illustrated in Fig. 2, the apparent impedance reflected wave. The comparison between the known line
measured by the relay at terminal S [8] is given by: length and the determined length obtained by the return time
3R F (3) of the reflected wave results in the fault distance [12].
Z A = Z 1LS +
(Z Σ + 3R F ) ⋅ (1 − h ⋅ e ) − jδ Positive sequence impedance methods use one-terminal or
+ 2C1 + C 0 ⋅ (1 + 3K 0 L ) two-terminal data and apply similar technique used by
Z 1 S + h ⋅ Z 1 S ⋅ e − jδ
distance relays. From voltages and currents measured, the
where: apparent impedance from the relay point is determined and
2 Z 1S ⋅ Z 1 R Z ⋅Z (4) compared with the total line impedance, resulting in the fault
ZΣ = + 0S 0R
Z 1S + Z 1 R Z 0 S + Z 0 R location estimative.
Z 1R (5)
C1 = A. One-terminal data methods
Z 1S + Z 1 R
One-terminal data fault locators are the mostly common
Z 0R (6) technique used nowadays. The only information needed is the
C0 =
Z 0S + Z 0S total line impedance and the local currents and voltages data.
Z − Z 1L (7) Several works [13]-[15] were developed to obtain the fault
K 0L = 0L
3Z 1L distance using this technique for transmission and distribution
where Zp = ZpLT + ZpST, for p = 0,1, and subscriptions “0” and systems.
“1” means zero and positive sequence components and T As distance relays, for zero fault resistance the apparent
means the terminal S or R. ZpLT is the line impedance, ZpST is positive-sequence impedance measured is proportional to the
the source impedance, Z1L and Z0L are the positive and zero fault distance, which can be estimate for each fault type [12]
sequence line impedance. as shown in table 1.
ES S ER TABLE I
R
ZSS ZLS ZLR ZSR SINGLE IMPEDANCE EQUATION FOR NEGLIGIBLE FAULT RESISTANCE

RF
Fault type Positive-sequence impedance (xZ1L)
a-ground Va/(Ia+kIR)
Fig. 2. Phase –A to ground fault model
 b-ground Vb/(Ib+kIR) IF/IS is determined by two factors: the current distribution
c-ground Vc/(Ic+kIR) factor (ds), which results from the system impedances and ns,
a-b or a-b-ground Vab/Iab given by the line flow. For homogeneous systems, the angle β
b-c or b-c-ground Vbc/Ibc is zero, and there are no contributions from ds to the fault
c-a or c-a-ground Vca/Ica
resistance reactive component. Also, for a greater IS current in
a-b-c Vab/Iab, Vbc/Ibc, Vca/Ica
relation to the IL current, the angle γ becomes close to zero.
where:
For angles β and γ close to zero, the resulting contributions
Z 0 L − Z1L (8) from factors ds and ns to the fault resistance reactive
k=
3 ⋅ Z 1L component is zero, once this contribution is given by the sum
where Z0L is the zero-sequence line impedance, Z1L is the of both angles (α) [12]. Fig. 4 illustrates the RF influence,
positive-sequence line impedance, x is the per-unit fault given in R-X diagram.
X(Ω)
distance and IR is the residual current (3I0).
R
However, the fault location estimative is affected by many
RF for α>0
parameters, including RF, which may be high for ground faults Reactance
RF for α=0
[12]. The RF influence, combined with the load effects, results Error

RF for α<0
as the main fault location errors source. Fig. 3 illustrates an
equivalent circuit for a symmetrical fault between S and R
terminals. S R(Ω)
VS VR Fig. 4. RF influence depending on α value
IS xZL (1-x)ZL IR
B. Two-terminal data methods
ZS IF ZR
RF The two-ended impedance-based fault locators are based in
the same fundaments of one-ended impedance methods.
Looking to eliminate the errors introduced by the one-ended
Fig. 3. Symmetrical fault between terminals S and R techniques, two-terminal location methods are more accurate
than one-terminal methods as they minimize the fault
The voltage from terminal S is given by: resistance influence, loading and charging current effects [12].
VS = x ⋅ Z L ⋅ I S + RF ⋅ I F (9) Some works [16]-[18] were developed to estimate the fault
where: location using two-terminal data based on synchronized and
VS is the voltage at terminal S unsynchronized data.
x is the distance to the fault in per-unit Supposing a symmetrical fault, as shown in Fig. 3 the
ZL is the line impedance between the two terminals Kirchoff voltage’s law from terminals S and R are given by:
IS is the line current from terminal S VS abc = V F abc + x ⋅ Z L abc ⋅ I S abc (14)
RF is the fault resistance V R abc = V F abc + (1 − x ) ⋅ Z L abc ⋅ I R abc (15)
IF is the fault current
where
The apparent impedance (ZFS) from terminal S is given by:
VS abc Voltage vector at the sending end
V I (10)
Z FS = S = x ⋅ Z L + R F ⋅ F V F abc Voltage vector at the fault point
IS IS
From (10) it is shown that if the currents IF and IS are x Fault distance from the sending end
complex numbers, RF will have an active and a reactive VR abc Voltage vector at the remote end
component. The reactive component will be zero for equal Z L abc Line impedance matrix
angles between IF and IS. Using superposition, supposing IL as
I S abc Current vector from sending end
the load current and the difference ∆I G = I S − I L , (10) results
I R abc Current vector from remote end
in:
VS 1 Subtracting (15) from (14), the unknown voltage vector at
Z FS = = x ⋅ Z L + RF ⋅ (11)
IS d S ⋅ nS the fault point is eliminated, resulting:
V S abc − V R abc + Z L abc ⋅ I R abc = x ⋅ Z L abc ⋅ (I S abc + I R abc ) (16)
where ds is the current distribution factor, given by (12) and ns
is the circuit load factor, given by (13). From (16), the unknown voltage at the fault point, given by
∆I Z + (1 − x) ⋅ Z L VF = RF ⋅ I F is eliminated, as the RF influence. The distance
dS = G = R = d S ∠β (12)
IF ZL + ZS + ZR estimative can be then obtained by manipulating (16):
I [Ya Yb Yc ] = [M a
T
Mb M c ] ⋅ x ⇒ Y = M ⋅ x (17)
T

n S = S = n S ∠γ (13)
∆I G where
From (12) and (13) it is shown that the angle of the ratio Y j = VS j − V R j + ∑Z
i = a ,b , c
L ji ⋅ I Ri (18)
 Mj = ∑Z L ji (
⋅ I Si + I Ri ) (19) 0), obtained from Park’s transformation. However, when RF is
i = a ,b , c not negligible, the voltages at the machine terminals are not
where j=a b, c. From (17)-(19), the fault location estimative zero, which introduces an error in the model if RF is much
(x) can be obtained by: higher than the synchronous machine armature resistance.
(
x = M + ⋅M )−1
⋅ M + ⋅Y (20)
This influence may interfer on the estimated fault current
contribution from DG, which may cause protection schemes
+
where M is the complex conjugate of M. For unsynchro- or other tasks based on this information miss-operation.
nized data from the two-terminals, the fault distance can be
solved using techniques provided by [19]. V. FAULT LOCATION WITH DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
Several recent impedance based techniques were developed
IV. INFLUENCE ON DISTRIBUTED GENERATION to estimate the fault location on DG systems [24], [25]. The RF
Distributed generation (DG) can be classified as generators effect in this kind of methodologies includes those existing
located at a customer energy service provider or utility site effects on fault location techniques, cited on Section III, and
and may be stand-alone or connected to the power distribution on DG, cited on Section IV, since these methodologies are
system (PDS). The main DG impact in PDS is the change in classic fault location techniques, modified for DG systems.
the system’s power flow, which was characterized by having a In [24], the DG contribution is not considered known, but it
radial power flow, and that now may have a loop power flow. is calculated using the fault state of the system. This could
This characteristic must be considered in the protection lead to fewer errors due to the fault resistance. However, the
system’s design, due to the DG influence in the fault current, fault resistance must be known prior to the location analysis in
in subjects like coordination of protection equipment and the DG’s fault contribution calculation, which is also
selectivity, which must be reevaluated [20]. If not taken unavailable, leading to errors in the same way.
account for, DG may affect the protection schemes as: false In [25], the DG is modeled directly as a Thevenin
feeders tripping, protection blinding, increased or decreased equivalent during the fault period, as described on Section IV,
fault levels, unwanted islanding, prohibition of automatic using the pre-fault condition of the system. Then, its fault
reclosing and unsynchronized reclosing [21]. To avoid this, current contribution is estimated, returning higher errors than
the DG’s fault current contribution estimative must be done in the same methodology for systems without DG, since there
and considered as an infeed current to the PDS. is now a sum of error contributions: the intrinsic ones from the
Synchronous generators are the main source of electric fault location technique and the ones from the erroneous
energy in power systems, and are also commonly used as DG. modeling of the distributed generation.
Its equivalent circuit is considered dynamic, since the
impedance seen by currents entering or leaving the terminals VI. CASE STUDIES
are continually changing. Its dynamic behavior is given by a To emphasize the fault resistance influence on the topics
complex set of differential equations [22]. However, for a shown on Sections II – V, hypothetical case studies were
disturbance as a short circuit, a solution of such set of analyzed using ATP/EMTP and Matlab.
equations would result in a long processing time.
To overcome the computational time limitation, generators A. Distance Relaying
can be replaced by Thevenin equivalents, representing the To analyze the fault resistance influence in distance
worst condition after the fault, rotating machine speed can be relaying, several phase-a-to-ground faults were simulated in a
considered as constant and the fault can be considered to be hypothetical power system, with a total length of 29.3 km with
removed before there is a speed change [2]. The model a total line impedance of 8.0799 + j7.9895 Ω per phase, as
proposed by [23], illustrated in Fig. 5, represents the illustrated in Fig. 6. For apparent positive sequence impedance
synchronous generator in the subtransient period, composed estimation (Z1E), Table I equations are used, as proposed by
by the machine d-axis sub-transient reactance Xd’’, its [12], and zone 1 is set to 85% of the line length (24,85 km)
armature resistance Ra’’ and its internal voltage Eg’’, which with a mho characteristic. Results are shown in Table II.
can be considered constant during the fault. TABLE II
Ra Xd
’’ ’’
Is RESULTS FOR DISTANCE RELAYING SIMULATIONS
+ Fault distance (km) Z1E (Ω) RF (Ω) Zone 1
+
Eg
’’
VS
’’
0.418 4.8343 + 0.2207i 5 Internal
- 0.418 12.8116 + 0.8879i 15 External
-
12.55 45.8114 +12.3282i 100 External
Fig 5. Model of a synchronous generator in the subtransient period
16.74 30.5870 + 7.8077i 40 External
16.74 5.6035 + 4.5692i 1 Internal
The Thevenin equivalent in Fig. 5 was obtained from a 25.1 6.9253 + 6.8469i 0 External
solid (RF = 0) symmetrical short-circuit, which imposes the 24.69 5.7713 + 5.7057i 0 Internal
voltages at the terminals machine equal to zero (Va = Vb = Vc 24.69 6.7569 + 5.7103i 1 Internal
= 0), resulting a zero voltage to d-axis and q-axis (Vd = Vq = 24.69 8.1883 + 5.7331i 2.5 External
 L = 29.3 km
contingency analysis, as presented on Section IV, several
ZL = 8.08 +j7.99 Ω symmetrical faults were simulated at ATP/EMTP on the
ZLOAD = 64.8 +j21.6 Ω machine terminals for different fault resistances. The internal
Fig. 6. Case study for distance relaying voltage (Eg) is obtained by:
E g = Vs + Z syn ⋅ I s (24)
Analyzing the results presented in Table II, it can be seen where Vs is the machine terminal voltages, Zsyn is the machine
the direct influence of RF, resulting on underreaching for impedance and Is is the current flowing out of the synchronous
faults with high RF, even at the begging of the line, resulting generator.
on distance relay miss-operation for faults with high RF. From (24), the subtransient fault current from the machine
B. Fault Location may be obtained by:
To show the RF influence on fault locators, the system (
I a = Vs − E g ⋅ Z sub ) (25)
shown in Fig. 5 is simulated for phase a-to-ground faults. The where Zsub is the machine’s subtransient impedance. The
method applied a one-terminal apparent impedance based, estimated fault currents are shown in Table IV, compared with
proposed in [15]. The fault location is given by: the simulated ones.
Va ( r ) ⋅ I f (i ) − Va (i ) ⋅ I f ( r ) TABLE IV
x= (21) RESULTS FOR SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE FAULT CURRENT
A ⋅ I f (i ) − B ⋅ I f ( r ) RF (Ω) Estimated Is(kA) Simulated Is (kA) Absolute Error (%)
A = Zl aa ( r ) ⋅ I a ( r ) − Zl aa (i ) ⋅ I a (i ) + Zl ab ( r ) ⋅ I b ( r ) 0 10.443∠126.99 o 10.874∠ - 50.83 o -3.962
(22) 1 3.4928∠154.97 o 4.8812∠ - 32.67 o -28.4434
− Zl ab (i ) ⋅ I b (i ) + Zl ac ( r ) ⋅ I c ( r ) − Zl ac (i ) ⋅ I c (i ) 5 3.0974∠149.89 o 4.7572∠ - 32.45 o -34.8906
25 3.0196∠148.67 o 4.7321∠ - 32.41o -36.1890
B = Zl aa ( r ) ⋅ I a (i ) + Zl aa (i ) ⋅ I a ( r ) + Zl ab ( r ) ⋅ I b (i )
(23) 40 3.0123∠148.55 o 4.7297∠ - 32.41o -36.3106
+ Zl ab(i ) ⋅ I b ( r ) + Zl ac ( r ) ⋅ I c (i ) + Zl ac (i ) ⋅ I c ( r ) 100 3.0051∠148.43 o 4.7274∠ - 32.41o -36.4322
300 3.0019∠148.37 o 4.7263∠ - 32.40 o -36.4861
where Va is the voltage at the relay point of phase a, If is the
fault current, Zlmn is the line impedance between phases m and The results show a correct current estimation only for solid
n, Im is the current at the relay point, the subscripts (i) and (r) faults. For other RF, the current estimation has a considerable
are imaginary and real part and m, n the phases a,b,c. error, making this model inadequate for such analysis.
TABLE III D. Fault Location with Distributed Generation
RESULTS FOR FAULT LOCATION ESTIMATION
To emphasize the RF influence on the techniques described
Fault distance (km) Fault distance estimated (km) RF (Ω) Error (%)
on Section V, 67 three-phase faults were simulated in the
2.0921 2.1875 1k -0.3255
system described in [25], with RF = 0 Ω and 10 Ω, which can
12.5528 12.6776 1k -0.4261
16.7371 16.7331 0 0.0136
be considered low resistance values. The results are shown in
16.7371 16.7440 40 0.0238 Fig. 8.
16.7371 16.8318 1k -0.3235
16.7371 17.2939 5k -1.9012
25.1056 25.1988 1k -0.3180

From Table III it can be seen that the method proposed by

[15] has no fault resistance effects, once the errors are only
near to 2% for RF =5kΩ, as illustrated in Fig. 7.
Fig. 8. RF influence on fault location with DG
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0.5

0
Fig. 8 shows that for faults with no resistance, the error
obtained in the fault location technique described in [25] is
Error (%)

-0.5
-1
very low, almost insignificant, since its maximum value stays
-1.5

-2
near 0% of the total line length for all the fault location cases
Fault Resistance (Ohm ) simulated (from the beginning of the feeder until its end).
However, as RF increases, the fault location methodology
Fig. 7. RF influence on a fault at 16.7371 km
described in [25] returns higher error values, even for low RF
values. The smallest error obtained was more than 3% for a
C. Distributed Generation 10Ω fault, while the highest one was around 30% of the total
To emphasize the fault resistance influence on the line length, which represents almost 10km, and is also
synchronous generator model used in short-circuit associated with the RF influence to the DG model, as shown in
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André Darós Filomena was born in Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil,
Press, 1995.
on October 27, 1982. He received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering
[4] G. Ziegler, Numerical Distance Protection. B. U. M. Siemens
from the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, in 2005. He is
Aktinengesellschaft, Ed. Publicis Corporate Pubishing, Erlang, 2006.
currently with CEEE-GT (Companhia Estadual de Geracão e Transmissão de
[5] S. Horowitz and A. Phadke, “Third zone revisited,” IEEE Transactions
Energia Elétrica) and also working in his M.Sc. degree in electrical
on Power Delivery, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 23–29, Jan. 2006.
engineering at UFRGS. His research interests include power system protection
[6] M. Eissa, “Ground distance relay compensation based on fault resistance
and reliability.
calculation,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 21, no.4,
pp.1830-1835, Oct. 2006.
[7] S. Jamali and H. Shateri, “Robustness of Distance Relay with Rodrigo Hartstein Salim was born in Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul,
Quadrilateral Characteristic against Fault Resistance” presented at Brazil, on September 15, 1983. He received the B.Sc. degree in electrical
IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference & Exhibition: engineering from the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, in
Asia and Pacific, Dalian, China, 2005. 2006. He is currently working in his M.Sc. degree in electrical engineering at
UFRGS. His research interests include power system protection, digital signal
[8] Y. Q. Xia, K. K. Li and A. K. David, “Adaptive relay setting for stand-
processing for power system applications and distributed generation.
alone digital distance protection,” IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, vol. 9, no. 1, pp 480 – 491, Jan. 1994.
[9] D. L. Waikar, S. Elangovan, and A. Liew, “Fault impedance estimation Mariana Resener was born in Passo Fundo, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, on
algorithm for digital distance relaying,” IEEE Transactions on Power April 8, 1984. She is currently working in hers B.Sc. degree in electrical
Delivery, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 1375–1383, July 1994. engineering. Her research interests include fault detection and location.
[10] D. L. Waikar, S. Elangovan, and A. Liew, “Further enhancements in the
symmetrical components based improved fault impedance estimation Arturo Suman Bretas was born in Bauru, São Paulo, Brazil, on July 5, 1972.
method part i. mathematical modelling,” Electric Power Systems He received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in electrical engineering from the
Research, vol. 40, pp. 189–194, 1997. University of São Paulo, Brazil, in 1995 and 1998, and the Ph.D. degree in
[11] D. L. Waikar and P. S. M. Chin, “Fast and accurate parameter estimation electrical engineering from Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, in 2001.
algorithm for digital distance relaying,” Electric Power Systems Currently, he is an Associate Professor at the Electrical Engineering
Research, vol. 4, pp. 53–60, 1998. Department at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre,
[12] IEEE Guide for Determining Fault Location on AC Transmis- Brazil. His research interests include power system protection, control and
sion and Distribution Lines, IEEE Standard C37.114, Jun. 2005. restoration.