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Algebraic Structures Algebraic Structures

This document defines and provides examples of common algebraic structures used in cryptography: groups, rings, fields, and permutation groups. Groups must satisfy properties of closure, associativity, identity, and inverse. Cyclic groups can be generated by a single element. Rings combine a set with two operations like addition and multiplication. Fields are commutative rings where the second operation satisfies all properties of the first. Permutation groups are functions that map a set to itself in a one-to-one and onto manner.

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63 views

Algebraic Structures Algebraic Structures

This document defines and provides examples of common algebraic structures used in cryptography: groups, rings, fields, and permutation groups. Groups must satisfy properties of closure, associativity, identity, and inverse. Cyclic groups can be generated by a single element. Rings combine a set with two operations like addition and multiplication. Fields are commutative rings where the second operation satisfies all properties of the first. Permutation groups are functions that map a set to itself in a one-to-one and onto manner.

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mathi mathi
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ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES

ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
Cryptography requires sets of integers and
specific operations that are defined for those
sets. The combination of the set and the
operations that are applied to the elements of
the set is called an algebraic structure.
structure. In this
chapter, we will define three common
algebraic structures: groups, rings, and fields.
Common Algebraic Structure
Groups
A group (G) is a set of elements with a binary
operation (•) that satisfies four properties (or
axioms). A commutative group satisfies an extra
property, commutativity:
❏ Closure:
❏ Associativity:
❏ Commutativity:
❏ Existence of identity:
❏ Existence of inverse:
Cyclic subgroup
If a subgroup of a group can be generated using
the power of an element, the subgroup is called
the cyclic subgroup.
Cyclic group
A cyclic group is a group that is its own cyclic subgroup.

Examples: Three cyclic subgroups can be made from the group


G = <Z10∗, ×>. G has only four elements: 1, 3, 7, and 9. The cyclic
subgroups are H1 = <{1}, ×>, H2 = <{1, 9}, ×>, and H3 = G.
a. The group G = <Z6, +> is a cyclic group with two generators,
g = 1 and g = 5.

b. b. The group G = <Z10∗, ×> is a cyclic group with two generators,


g = 3 and g = 7
Lagrange’s Theorem
Assume that G is a group, and H is a subgroup of
G. If the order of G and H are |G| and |H|,
respectively, then, based on this theorem, |H|
divides |G|.

Order of an Element
The order of an element is the order of the
cyclic group it generates.
Examples:
• a. In the group G = <Z6, +>, the orders of the elements are:
ord(0) = 1, ord(1) = 6, ord(2) = 3, ord(3) = 2, ord(4) = 3,
ord(5) = 6.

• b. In the group G = <Z10*, ×>, the orders of the elements


are:
ord(1) = 1, ord(3) = 4, ord(7) = 4, ord(9) = 2.
Ring
A ring, R = <{…}, •, >, is an algebraic structure
with two operations.
Example: The set Z with two operations,
addition and multiplication, is a commutative
ring. We show it by R = <Z, +, ×>. Addition
satisfies all of the five properties; multiplication
satisfies only three properties.
Field
A field, denoted by F = <{…}, •, > is a commutative ring
in which the second operation satisfies all five
properties defined for the first operation except that
the identity of the first operation has no inverse.
Permutation Groups
A permutation of a set A is a function from A to A that is
both one to one and onto.
Array Notation:
• Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
• Here are two permutations of A:
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
       
2 3 1 4 2 1 4 3
(2)  3  (4)  3
(4)  4  (1)  2
   4
 (2)   (3)
 

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