Network Software
Protocol Hierarchies
Layers, protocols, and interfaces
Design Issues for the Layers
Addressing
Error Control
Multiplexing
Routing
Connection-Oriented and Connectionless
Services
• Protocol Hierarchies
• Design Issues for the Layers
• Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services
• Service Primitives
• The Relationship of Services to Protocols
• In order to reduce the design complexities most
networks are organized as a stack of layers or levels
• The number of layers, the name of each layer, the
contents of each layer, and the function of each layer
differ from network to network.
• The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to
the higher layers hiding the details how the offered
services are actually implemented.
• In a sense, each layer is a kind of virtual machine,
offering certain services to the layer above it.
• Layer n on one machine carries a
conversation with layer n on another machine
• Rules and conventions used during this
conversation are known as Layer n protocol
• Protocol is an agreement between the
communicating parties on how
communication is to be proceed
Layers, protocols, and interfaces
• No data is directly transferred from layer n on
one machine to layer n on another machine.
• Each layer passes data and control
information to the layer immediately below
it, until the lowest layer is reached.
• Below --- layer 1 is the physical medium
through which actual communication
occurs
Layers, protocols, and interfaces.
• Two philosophers (layer 3), one of whom speaks Urdu and English and one of whom speaks Chinese and French.
• Since they have no common language, they each engage a translator (layer 2)
• Translators in turn contacts a secretary (layer 1).
• Philosopher 1 passes a message (in English) across the 2/3 interface to his translator, saying ‘‘Ilike rabbits,’’
• The translators have agreed on a neutral language known to both of them, Dutch, so the message is converted to ‘‘Ik vind
konijnen leuk.’’ The choice of language is the layer 2 protocol and is up to the layer 2 peer processes.
• The translator then gives the message to a secretary for transmission, by, for example, fax (the layer 1 protocol).
• When the message arrives, it is translated into French and passed across the 2/3 interface to philosopher 2.
• Each protocol is completely independent of the other ones
• The translators can switch from Dutch to say, HINDI, provided that they both agree, and neither changes his interface with
either layer 1 or layer 3.
• Similarly, the secretaries can switch from fax to e-mail or telephone without disturbing (or even informing) the other layers.
• Each process may add some information intended only for its peer. This information is not passed upward to the layer above.
The philosopher-translator-secretary architecture.
M Layer4 Protocol M
4 4
Layer3 Protocol
3 H M H M 3
Layer2 Protocol
2 H1 M1 H2
H MM1 H1H M1
M HH2 M M1 2
1 1
Source Machine Destination Machine
• Addressing
• Error Control
• Flow Control
• Multiplexing
• Routing
• A Network has many computers
• Some means is needed to specify with whom sender wants to talk.
• Since multiple destinations are there, -----some form of addressing
is needed in order to specify a specific destination.
• Rules for data transfer
• In some systems, data only travel in one direction; in others,
data can go both ways
• The protocol must also determine how many channels the
connection corresponds to and what their priorities are.
• Many networks provide at least two channels per connection,
one for normal data and one for urgent data.
• Error control is an important issue because
physical communication circuits are not
perfect.
• Many error-correcting codes are known, but
both ends of the connection must agree on
which one is being used.
• Also the receiver must have some way of
telling the sender which messages have been
correctly received and which have not.
• Not all communication channels preserve the
order of messages sent on them.
• To deal with a possible loss of sequencing,
the protocol must make explicit provision for
the receiver to allow the pieces to be
reassembled properly.
• An obvious solution is to number the pieces
• Fast Sender and Slow receiver
• Solns like acknowledgement
• Other solutions -------
• limit the sender to an agreed-on transmission
rate. This subject is called flow control.
• Inability to accept long messages.
• This property leads to mechanisms for
disassembling, transmitting, and then
reassembling messages
• To set up a separate connection for each pair
of communicating processes is inconvenient
or expensive
• the underlying layer may use the same
connection for multiple, unrelated
conversations
• Multiplexing is needed in the physical layer
• When there are multiple paths between Source &
Destination– A Route must be chosen.
• Sometimes this decision must split over two or
more Layers.
• High Level Decision Vs. Low Level Decision
based on current traffic load, Known as Routing.
• Following a proper route to come to conclusion.
Layers can offer two types of service to the
layers above them
• Modeled after Telephone System
• You pick up phone---dial num---talk—n hang up
• Similarly connection oriented service first
establish the connection---uses the connection
and then releases it
• In most cases bits arrive in the same order as
released.
• In some cases sender and receiver negotiate
about parameters like maximum message size,
quality of service etc
Modeled after a postal service
Each message carries full destination address
Each one is routed through the system
independent of all the others
Order may not be necessarily followed
