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 CONTENTS
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OVERVIEW OF CONTENTS OF MODULE ix

Study unit 1: EXPLORING WHAT IT MEANS TO ‘DO’

MATHEMATICS1
WELCOME 1
UNIT OUTCOMES 2
AN INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS EDUCATION 2
The history of mathematics education 2
Mathematics education in South Africa 3
Why is educational change needed in South Africa? 4
What is mathematics? People’s views 5
How does CAPS define mathematics? 7
WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO ‘DO’ MATHEMATICS? 8
Contrasting perceptions of teaching school mathematics 10
Mathematics as a science of pattern and order 11
The verbs of doing mathematics 15
What is basic mathematics? 17
An environment for doing mathematics 19
EXAMPLES OF DOING MATHEMATICS 21
The five content areas 21
EXPLORING PATTERNS IN MATHEMATICS 27
Repeating patterns 28
Growing patterns 29
UNIT SUMMARY 36
SELF-ASSESSMENT 36
REFERENCES 37

Study unit 2: DEVELOPING UNDERSTANDING IN

MATHEMATICS38
WELCOME 38
UNIT OUTCOMES 40
INTRODUCTION 40
A CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING 41
The construction of ideas 42
Implications for teaching 45
Examples of constructed learning 45
Construction in rote learning 46
Understanding47
Examples of understanding 49
Benefits of relational understanding 51

LADMMM6/1/2021(iii)
CONTENTS

TYPES OF MATHEMATICAL KNOWLEDGE 56

Conceptual understanding of mathematics 58
Procedural knowledge of mathematics 61
Procedural knowledge and doing mathematics 63
A CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH TO TEACHING THE
FOUR OPERATIONS 64
Classroom exercises on the basic operations 64
THE ROLE OF MODELS IN DEVELOPING UNDERSTANDING 68
Using models in the teaching of place value 71
Using an abacus to explain grouping in tens 72
Models and constructing mathematics 74
Explaining the idea of a model 76
Using models in the classroom 77
Models in your classroom 77
STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING 78
UNIT SUMMARY 79
SELF-ASSESSMENT 80
REFERENCES 81

Study unit 3: TEACHING THROUGH PROBLEM-SOLVING82

WELCOME 82
INTRODUCING PROBLEM-SOLVING 83
Discussion of case studies 84
What then is problem-solving? 85
DEVELOPING PROBLEM-SOLVING TASKS 85
Problem-solving activities for space and shape 85
Starting where the learners are 88
Developing different kinds of mathematical ideas 92
Concepts and relationships constructed by connecting ideas 93
Developing procedures and processes 95
Good problems have multiple entry points 97
Designing and selecting effective tasks 98
A THREE-PART LESSON FORMAT 99
Before, during and after 100
Teacher’s actions in the before phase 101
Things to think about 102
Teacher’s actions in the during phase 102
Teacher’s actions in the after phase 103
Working towards problem-solving goals 104
Different levels of cognitive demands in tasks 104
THE VALUE OF TEACHING USING A PROBLEM-BASED
APPROACH 107
UNIT SUMMARY 108
SELF-ASSESSMENT 109
REFERENCES 110

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 Contents

Study unit 4: PLANNING IN THE PROBLEM-BASED

CLASSROOM 111
WELCOME 111
UNIT OUTCOMES 112
INTRODUCTION 113
PLANNING A PROBLEM-BASED LESSON 113
Variations of the three-part lesson 115
Workstations and games as problem-based activities 115
TEACHING AND LEARNING IN SMALL GROUPS 116
Why ‘group work’? 116
What is group work? 118
What makes co-operative learning work? 120
Individual and group accountability 120
Reflecting on the work of the groups 122
Arranging learners into groups 123
ASSESSING GROUP WORK 127
Self-assessment in group participation 128
Peer assessment in group participation 128
Teacher assessment of group interaction 129
DEALING WITH DIVERSITY 130
Plan for multiple entry points 131
Listen carefully to learners 131
DRILL AND PRACTICE 132
What drill provides 132
What practice provides 133
LESSON PLANNING 133
UNIT SUMMARY 138
SELF-ASSESSMENT 139
REFERENCES 140

Study unit 5: BUILDING ASSESSMENT INTO TEACHING

AND LEARNING141
WELCOME 141
UNIT OUTCOMES 143
INTRODUCTION 143
WHY ASSESS? 145
Programme of assessment 145
The purposes of assessment 146
Continuous assessment 147
WHEN TO ASSESS? 148
An example of assessment before teaching and learning 149
WHAT TO ASSESS? 153
Assessing for reasoning, understanding and problem-solving 154
Reflecting on what to assess through the teaching of data handling 156

LADMMM6/1(v)
CONTENTS

HOW TO ASSESS 158

The phases of assessment 158
Assessment methods, tools and techniques 159
Methods of assessment 162
Self-assessment162
Peer or group assessment 163
Observation164
Performance-based tasks 165
Tools for assessment 166
Portfolios166
Rubrics169
HOW TO INTERPRET THE RESULTS OF ASSESSMENT? 174
Three points of reference 175
HOW TO REPORT 177
SELF-ASSESSMENT 179
REFERENCES 180

Study unit 6: EXERCISES ON TEACHING DATA HANDLING181

OVERVIEW 181
Tables, lists and tallies 181
REPRESENTING DATA 183
Pictograms184
Bar graphs 185
Pie charts 188
Line graphs and broken line graphs 189
INTERPRETING DATA 192
Interpreting pictograms 193
Misleading pictograms 193
Interpreting bar graphs 194
Misleading bar graphs 195
Interpreting pie charts 195
Interpreting line graphs 196
Misleading line graphs 197

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 Contents

Study unit 7: EXERCISES ON TRANSFORMATION

GEOMETRY199
TRANSFORMATION GEOMETRY 199
Pre-knowledge199
ISOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS 201
Translation201
Reflection 202
Rotation206
SYMMETRY 210
Line symmetry 210
Line symmetry of a pair of points 211
Rotational symmetry 213
Point symmetry 214
ENLARGEMENTS (DILATIONS) 215
The centre of enlargement 216
The factor of enlargement 217
TESSELLATIONS 217

LADMMM6/1(vii)
(viii)
 1 OVERVIEW OF CONTENTS
OF MODULE

Dear Student

We would like to welcome you all as students studying the module: Teaching Mathematics
(SP Subject Didactics).

This module focuses on the approach to the teaching of mathematics and how the
learning of mathematics occurs. This learning area requires a strong emphasis on
basic and applied mathematical principles. This module will empower you with
mathematics teaching skills and methods; and will equip you with techniques that
allow you as the mathematics teacher and facilitator to expose the learners to the
basics of mathematics, and to the application and use of mathematics in the real
world outside the classroom.

The module Teaching Mathematics (SP Subject Didactics) is intended as a guide to teaching
mathematics for in-service teachers in primary schools.

In order to teach mathematics in this twenty first century, teachers need to understand
what it means to do mathematics; where will the journey of mathematics education take
our learners and how we can help them adapt in the current knowledge generation.
Furthermore, teachers need awareness that the twenty first century includes an era
of the fourth industrial revolution, where technology knowledge and usage is critical.

To help learners, we need to answer a few important questions:

• What is mathematics? What is mathematics learning and teaching in South Africa
about today?
• How does mathematical learning take place?
• How can we teach mathematics effectively, particularly in diverse classrooms?
• What is ‘basic’ in mathematics? What is the fundamental mathematical knowledge
that all learners need, irrespective of the level of mathematics learning they will
ultimately achieve?
• How do we assess mathematics learning most effectively?

These questions are important for all learning and teaching, but particularly for
learning and teaching mathematics in diverse classrooms. In terms of the policy on
inclusive education, all learners – whatever their barriers to learning or particular
circumstances in life – must learn mathematics.

The module is divided into six units, each of which addresses the above questions from
a different perspective. Although the units can be studied separately, they should be
read together to provide comprehensive guidance in answering the above questions.

LADMMM6/1(ix)
OVERVIEW OF CONTENTS OF MODULE

UNIT 1: E
 XPLORING WHAT IT MEANS TO ‘DO’
MATHEMATICS
This unit gives a historical background to mathematics education in South Africa.
The traditional approach to teaching mathematics is then contrasted with an approach
to teaching mathematics that focuses on ‘doing’ mathematics, and mathematics as
a science of pattern and order in which learners actively explore mathematical ideas
in a conducive classroom environment.

UNIT 2: DEVELOPING UNDERSTANDING IN MATHEMATICS

In this unit, the theoretical basis for teaching mathematics – constructivism – is
explored. Varieties of teaching strategies based on constructivist understandings of
how learning best takes place are described.

UNIT 3: TEACHING THROUGH PROBLEM-SOLVING

In this unit, the shift from the rule-based, teaching-by-telling approach to a problem-
solving approach to mathematics teaching is explained and illustrated with numerous
mathematics examples.

UNIT 4: PLANNING IN THE PROBLEM-BASED CLASSROOM

In addition to outlining a step-by-step approach for a problem-based lesson, this
unit looks at the role of group work and co-operative learning in the mathematics
class, as well as the role of practice in problem-based mathematics classes.

UNIT 5: B
 UILDING ASSESSMENT INTO TEACHING AND
LEARNING
This unit explores the following questions in terms of assessment in mathematics
classrooms: Why assessment? (the purposes of assessment); What to assess?
(achievement of learning, but also understanding, reasoning and problem-solving
ability); How to assess? (methods, tools and techniques); How to interpret the results
of assessment? (the importance of criteria and rubrics for assessment in mathematics);
and How to report on assessment? (developing meaningful report cards).

UNIT 6: EXERCISES ON TEACHING DATA HANDLING

UNIT 7: EXERCISES ON TRANSFORMATION GEOMETRY

(x)
 Overview of contents of module

THE STRUCTURE OF THE UNITS

Each unit consists of the following:
• Welcome to the unit – from the three teachers who discuss their challenges and
discoveries about mathematics teaching
• Unit outcomes
• Contents of the unit, divided into sections
• A unit summary
• Self-assessment
• References (sources used in the unit)

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(xii)
 1 UNIT 1
1 EXPLORING WHAT IT MEANS TO ‘DO’ MATHEMATICS

WELCOME

“Eish!” remarks Jackson, “This was a tough week. I started by trying to get my
IP learners to identify number patterns and many of them seemed to battle to identify
all but the most obvious patterns. Then I found myself having to repeat almost the
same struggle with my Maths Lit learners. I ended up teaching almost the same
contents to both groups; it’s like my Grade 10 learners missed out all the earlier work.”

“You’ll get used to it,” responds Bobo. “Every time I want to teach a new concept,
I find myself having to go back and revise things I thought they’d already mastered.
I think you’re right that whole chunks of maths get left out in earlier grades. I think
the problem starts with a poor grasp of the basics. I don’t know what happens at
the beginning.”

“Well,” replies Millicent, “we do our best. We do a lot of practical work with objects
like bottle tops and stones to try to get them to understand numbers and then we
build on that to introduce them to basic operations. We seem to get on best when
we don’t tell them that they’re doing maths! It’s like as soon as they hear the word
‘maths’ they freeze up. Just this week, for example, I had my Grade 3s working in
groups of six and pretending to be in a taxi. They had to take turns at being in the
front seat and sorting out the change. When they thought they were playing, they
seemed to get on OK, but as soon as I gave them some sums to practise, they started
to make mistakes.”

Think about the following:

(1) Have you ever started to teach a mathematics concept and then found yourself
having to go back to repeat something that you thought learners had already
mastered? Does this happen in some areas more than in others? How do you
respond?
(2) Millicent makes an interesting point about learners’ attitudes. Have you ever
had a similar experience? Why do you think this sometimes happens?

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(3) For Jackson, ‘doing maths’ involves looking for number patterns, among other
things; for Millicent it involves working with concrete objects, role-playing
and doing sums. What does ‘doing’ mathematics mean to you? Do you think
it means the same to your learners? How can you find out?

Comments
It would be useful to compare your responses to these questions with those of some
of your colleagues. We suspect that there will be a lot of similarities but also a few
differences. Come back to your responses to these questions once you have worked
through unit 1 to see if your thinking has changed in any way.

UNIT OUTCOMES
Upon completion of unit 1 you should be able to

• discuss critically the thinking that the traditional approach to teaching

mathematics rewards the learning of rules, but offers little opportunity to
‘do’ mathematics.
• explain the phrase ‘mathematics is a science of pattern and order’.
• evaluate a collection of action verbs that is used to reflect the kind of activities
engaged in by the learners when doing mathematics.
• construct a list of features of a classroom environment considered as
important for learners engaged in doing mathematics.
• think about appropriate and interesting activities to help learners explore the
process of problem-solving through number patterns and logical reasoning.

AN INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS EDUCATION

The word ‘mathematic’ come from the Greek word máthema which means ‘science,
knowledge or learning’; the word mathematikós means ‘fond of learning’. Today, the
term refers to a specific body of knowledge and involves the study of quantity,
structure, space and change.

Mathematics education is the study of the practices and methods of teaching and
learning mathematics. The term ‘mathematics education’ refers to the practices in
the classrooms and also to an academic discipline.

Before we get into what it means to ‘do’ mathematics, let us have a brief look at the
historical background to mathematics education. There have been so many changes
in mathematics curricula and assessment in recent years that it is important to
understand the context in which there has been the need for these changes.

The history of mathematics education

Mathematics is not a new discipline – it has been around for centuries. Elementary
mathematics was part of the education system in most ancient civilisations, including
Ancient Greece, the Roman Empire, Vedic society and ancient Egypt. In this time
formal education was usually available only to male children of wealthy families
with status in the community.

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 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

In the times of Ancient Greece and medieval Europe the mathematical fields of
arithmetic and geometry were considered to be ‘liberal arts’ subjects. During these
times, apprentices to trades such as masons, merchants and money-lenders could
expect to learn practical mathematics relevant to their professions.

During the Renaissance in Europe, mathematics was not considered to be a serious

academic discipline because it was strongly associated with people involved in
trade and commerce. Although mathematics continued to be taught in European
universities, philosophy was considered to be a more important area of study than
mathematics. This perception changed in the 17th century when mathematics
departments were established at many universities in England and Scotland.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, the industrial revolution led to an enormous increase
in urban populations, and so basic numeracy skills, such as the ability to tell the
time, count money and carry out simple arithmetic, became essential in this new
urban lifestyle. This meant that the study of mathematics became a standard part
of the school curriculum from an early age.

By the 20th century, mathematics was part of the core curriculum in all
developed countries. However, diverse and changing ideas about the purpose of
mathematical education led to little overall consistency in the contents or methods
that were adopted. At different times and in different cultures and countries,
mathematical education has attempted to achieve a variety of different objectives.
At one time or other these objectives have included the teaching of
• basic numeracy skills to all school pupils
• practical mathematics to most pupils, to equip them to follow a trade or craft
• abstract mathematical concepts (such as set theory and functions)
• selected areas of mathematics (such as Euclidean geometry or calculus)
• advanced mathematics to learners wanting to follow a career in mathematics or
science

Mathematics education in South Africa

At school level, mathematics is often viewed as empowering and as a means of
access to further education, and it is offered at all grade levels. However, the level
of success in mathematics education in South African schools is very low. In the
1998/99 repeat of the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
(TIMSS), which was written by Grade 8 learners, South Africa was ranked last of
the 38 nations who participated in the study for mathematics. This study included
other developing countries. The South African learners scored the lowest across
all five topics in mathematics. In the 2003 TIMSS study, South Africa was ranked
last of 46 participating nations. This poor performance shows that the majority of
South African learners in Grade 8 have not acquired basic knowledge of mathematics
and lack the understanding of mathematical concepts expected at that level. This
situation is compounded by a huge drop-out rate among learners and the fact that
many mathematics teachers are not adequately qualified to teach the subject.

Since 1994 there have been various curriculum reforms in South Africa, culminating
in the current implemented Curriculum and Assessment Statement (CAPS).

As a result of these reforms, schools have moved out of the old system and mathematics
is now offered as pure Mathematics and Mathematical Literacy in the Grades 10 to 12.
The choice for learners will be between Mathematics and Mathematical Literacy.

LADMMM6/13


Mathematics will suit those learners who wish to further their education in fields which
require certain essential mathematical knowledge. Mathematical Literacy provides
an alternative which will equip learners with a more contextualised knowledge of
mathematics-related functions performed in everyday life.

There is a number of reasons for South Africa’s poor performance in mathematics.

South Africa is one of the most complex and heterogeneous countries in the world.
Van der Horst and McDonald (1997) point out many educational problems that
contribute to the current crisis in education in South Africa. These problems include
• the challenge of providing equal access to schools
• the challenge of providing equal educational opportunities
• irrelevant curricula
• inadequate finance and facilities
• shortages of educational materials
• the enrolment explosion
• inadequately qualified teaching staff
These problems imply that change is needed in the South African educational system.

Why is educational change needed in South Africa?

Van der Horst and McDonald (1997) write that: as a result of the divisions which
existed during the apartheid era, learners were not always taught to appreciate the
different aspirations and perspectives of people who were different, and many did
not receive adequate educational and training opportunities during this era. This
disadvantaged them greatly. This means that educational change must provide equity
in terms of educational provision and promote a more balanced view by developing
learners’ critical thinking powers and problem-solving abilities.

There is a need for a people-centred, success-oriented curriculum that will grant

people the opportunity to develop their potential to the full. The curriculum in South
Africa attempts to cater for these needs. To address these needs, the Curriculum and
Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) in South Africa provides learners with ‘essential
mathematical skills’ (Department of Basic Education [DBE] 2011:8).

What is the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS)?

The Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) was first introduced in
South African schools in 2012. The first implementation, in the Grades 1, 2, 3 and
10, started in 2012. Thereafter, Grades 4, 5, 6 and 11 started implementing CAPS in
2013. In 2014, Grades 7, 8, 9 and 12 completed the cycle of CAPS implementation in
South African schools. CAPS forms one of the three National Curriculum Statements
(NCSs). According to the Department of Basic Education (DBE) (2011), CAPS
forms one of the three pillars of the National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12.
These three pillars are
(1) the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) for all approved
subjects in the CAPS document
(2) the National Policy Pertaining to the Programme and Promotion Requirements
of the National Curriculum Statement Grades R–12
(3) the National Protocol for Assessment Grades R–12

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 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

Through CAPS every school subject has a single, comprehensive and concise policy
document that spells out specific content areas (topics) that must be taught; it also
spells out assessment strategies for assessing the acquired subject-specific knowledge.
CAPS focuses more on the content. The two main features of CAPS are that: (1)
the terms ‘learning outcomes’ (LOs) and ‘assessment standards’ (AS) are no longer
in use and have been replaced by the terms ‘content’ and ‘skills’; and, (2) the word
‘subject’ is now used instead of ‘learning areas’. Learners are still regarded as central
to the process of teaching and learning, hence the phrase ‘learner-centred’ still forms
part of our conversation.

ACTIVITY 1.1
In the light of what you have read so far, reflect on your mathematics teaching and
then answer the following questions:
(1) Write about your experiences as a teacher of mathematics. Your answer
should be about a page long and include a description of at least one good
and one bad experience.
(2) Have you been aware of the importance of mathematics as a subject that can
empower the learners in your classes? If yes, how have you tried to empower
learners? If no, how will you encourage learners in the future?
(3) Summarise the key things you know about the Curriculum and Assessment
Policy Statement (CAPS) for the GET or FET curriculum, depending on the
level at which you are teaching.

• What course(s) have you attended that relate to the new mathematics
curricula?
• Do you have a copy of any of these curricula? If yes, have you read it?
• Do the other teachers at your school who teach mathematics know about
the new curricula?

What is mathematics? People’s views

Most people acknowledge that mathematics is an important subject at school. However,
very few people really understand what mathematics is about and what it means to
‘do’ mathematics. People often define mathematics as being about a collection of
rules: arithmetic computations, mysterious algebraic equations or geometric proofs
that need to be learned in order to pass an examination. In general, people tend to
feel that they are no good at mathematics and that mathematics is difficult.

Such people often believe the following:

• Mathematics requires a good memory.
• Mathematics is based on the memorisation of facts, rules, formulas and procedures.
• You have to have a special brain to do mathematics.
• Mathematics is not creative.
• There is a best way to do a mathematics problem.
• Every mathematics problem has only one correct answer and the goal is to find
that answer.
• Mathematics problems are meant to be solved as quickly as possible.
• Mathematics is all symbols and no words.
• Boys are better at mathematics than girls.
• School mathematics is useless.
• Mathematics is exact and there is no room for innovation, estimation or intuition.
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Much of this restricted (even negative) view of mathematics stems from very
authoritarian (which some people have called ‘traditional’) approaches to the teaching
of mathematics. In such traditional teaching, the teacher explains a mathematical
concept or idea to learners. The teacher explain to the learners how to use a
mathematical idea in a certain way in order to get a correct answer. The learners
then practise the method and rely on the teacher to give them the correct answers.
This way of teaching produces a follow-the-rules, computation-driven, answer-
oriented view of mathematics. Learners exposed to this way of teaching accept that
every problem has only one solution and that they cannot solve a problem without
being taught a ‘solution method’ beforehand. The rules often do not make sense
to the learners and there is little excitement in lessons, particularly if you cannot
remember the rule.

Some students studying Mathematics education at a South African university were

asked to define mathematics. This is what they wrote:

Student 1
Mathematics is the solving of numerical problems using specific rules and laws.
Certain methods are applied to solve equations and obtain an answer which is either
‘definitely’ right or wrong.

Student 2
Mathematics is a discipline which uses one’s cognitive abilities to solve numerical
arguments. Mathematics deals with numerical properties of abstract ideas and
physical things. Mathematics uses symbols to represent quantities and operations
and functions. Operations manipulate numerical ideas and functions show the
relationships between numerical ideas. Maths is an accepted method for interpreting
the world. Maths is a universal language; maths is human numerical consciousness.

Student 3
Mathematics is the means by which we get a hold on the real world and try to make
sense of it. The emphasis in the phrase ‘doing mathematics’ is on the verb ‘doing’.
This is not an exercise in semantics but, on the contrary, a confirmation of the
ability of mathematics to provide the ropes of measurement for a myriad of real-life
problems. In short, mathematics is constructed by society as a tool to handle the
abstract as well as the concrete.

Student 4
Mathematics is part of everyday life, whether apparent or inconspicuous.

Student 5
Mathematics is a group of concepts relating to numbers, patterns, shapes and their
relationships or behaviour.

Student 6
Mathematics is the study of figures or numbers, how they are used in everyday life
and their application to solve complex problems.

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 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

Student 7
Mathematics is an idealised, abstract system of representation used to represent
quantity. It is useful as it can be used to model aspects of reality precisely, and to
make precise and accurate predictions.

An alternative view of mathematics is that it involves ‘making sense’ of mathematical

ideas, patterns and information. This is reflected in some of the student definitions
that you have just read: it involves ‘figuring out’ how to approach problems; it is about
finding and exploring regularity in patterns and making sense of relationships; it is
about finding patterns and order all around us, for example in art, in buildings and
in music. This is the view taken by the new mathematics curriculum in South Africa.

How does CAPS define mathematics?

In CAPS (DBE, 2011:8), mathematics is defined as follows:
Mathematics is a language that makes use of symbols and notations to describe
numeral, geometric and graphical relationships. It is a human activity that
involves observing, representing and investigating patterns and quantitative
relationships in physical and social phenomena and between mathematical
objects themselves. It helps to develop mental processes that enhance logical
and critical thinking, accuracy and problem-solving that will contribute in
decision-making.

ACTIVITY 1.2
(1) In terms of the CAPS definition of mathematics, how do you experience your
classroom practice? Reflect on your practices and explain how you apply the
CAPS definition of mathematics.
• Are we developing learners who are critical thinkers, learners who are
accurate and who are effective problem-solvers?
• How do we assist our learners in applying the ideas espoused in the CAPS
definition of mathematics in real life?
• Would you say the learners are doing well in understanding the language of
symbols and notations which largely characterises mathematics teaching
and learning?
(2) As a teacher of mathematics, there must have been occasions when you have
wondered ‘What is mathematics?’
(a) Write a paragraph to explain what you think mathematics is.
(b) Ask three people in your community (a learner, a teacher who does not
teach mathematics and another mathematics teacher) what they would
answer to questions (a) and (b) above. Write their answers down.
(c) Write a paragraph describing the similarities and differences between
the responses you have received.

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WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO ‘DO’ MATHEMATICS?

How would you describe what you are doing when you are doing mathematics? In the
rest of this unit we explore what it means to ‘do’ mathematics. It is fine to come to
this point with whatever beliefs have been developed from your previous mathematics
experiences. However, after you have worked through this unit, we hope you will
realise that you cannot hold on to outdated ideas about mathematics and still expect
to be an excellent teacher. Combining the best of the old ideas with fresh ideas about
teaching and learning will enable you to become a better mathematics teacher.

Fasheh’s (1982) description of the teaching of mathematics is very similar to that

given by many learners:
• The classroom is highly organised.
• The syllabus is rigid.
• The textbooks are smartly fixed.
• Mathematics is considered as a science that does not make mistakes. There is one
correct answer to every question and one meaning to every word, and measuring
is fixed for all people and for all times.
• Direct instruction remains the dominating mode of teaching in mathematics.

In this approach to teaching the learners are not ‘doing’ mathematics. It is no wonder
that many learners find mathematics a dull and unstimulating subject.

The students who gave definitions of mathematics above were also asked to say what
‘doing mathematics’ involved. This is what they wrote:

Student 1
When you ‘do’ mathematics you are looking at an equation and identifying which
method or rule you will need to apply in order to solve the equation. Then you apply
these rules to obtain the correct answer.

Student 2
Doing mathematics is the writing of those descriptions. It is the using of mathematical
language, to write ‘poetry’ underpinned by the rules of logic and reason which not
only describes but also solves and reasons a problem and is verifiable.

Student 3
When you ‘do’ mathematics you analyse problems and use numerical methods to
solve them. You apply definitions which are always true to reach reliable answers.

Student 4
Doing mathematics amounts to the mathematisation of a real-world problem, the
provision of a solution to the problem, the explanation of the solution and the
translation of mathematics into everyday language.

Student 5
Among the things one may do in mathematics there are data handling, spatial
perception, data manipulation, formulae, interpretation of shapes and figures,
estimation of distance, volume, area mass, to find a gradient, addition, subtraction,

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 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

division and multiplication. A good mathematical mind is one that probes, questions
and does not take all the contents of textbooks without a proper dimensional analysis.

Student 6
When you do mathematics you do calculations, measurements and estimations to
solve a particular problem. The calculation done may solve problems like optimum
amounts required to run the production process efficiently.

When doing mathematics you can predict what the situation is going to be for a
particular process. For example, looking at rate one may calculate projected figures
for a product sale.

Student 7
The process of doing mathematics involves representing the aspects of reality that
relate to a certain problem in precise numerical terms. Mathematics can then be
used to produce precise solutions that will be as accurate as the assumptions upon
which your mathematical formulation was based.

These views show that the students who wrote them have been exposed to a
range of different types of mathematics teaching styles, from the more formalised
authoritarian style to a more flexible constructivist approach. Thinking about what
each of them has said and what this shows about the ways in which they have been
taught mathematics.

ACTIVITY 1.3

Your classroom experience

(1) Write down at least five ideas or viewpoints of your own about what it means
to do mathematics. You should use only one minute to do this activity. Keep
your list somewhere safe so that you can refer to it at a later date.
(2) Reflect on your classroom practice in the light of the following questions. Is
there a tendency in your mathematics teaching …

• to reward only formal knowledge?

• to memorise rules and procedures?
• to spoon-feed (facts, rules, procedures)?
• to devalue the learners’ own way of making sense of their own experiences,
intuition and insights?
• to allow learners to remain passive learners?

As you work through the rest of this study unit, you will be challenged to rethink and
reconstruct your own understanding of what it means to know and do mathematics
so that the learners you work with will have an exciting and more positive vision of
mathematics. Doing mathematics (mathematisation) will be eventful, compelling
and creative.

Teachers need to have ideas about how to structure classrooms so that they can help
learners to develop. Since experience is a powerful teacher, it makes sense for learners
to experience mathematical ways of thinking, reasoning, analysing, abstracting and

LADMMM6/19


generalising – all modelled on good instruction and doing mathematics (Evan &
Lappan, 1994). Therein lies the challenge for South African mathematics teachers.

Contrasting perceptions of teaching school mathematics

The teaching of school mathematics is subject to the same pressure to change as
the teaching of other subjects. In classrooms across the world we see a continuum
of practice. It ranges from a more traditional content- and rule-based approach, in
which teachers spoon-feed learners in the use of rules to get the right answer, to a
more open-ended approach in which the process of learning is equally emphasised
and the learners work in groups to talk about and find innovative solutions to real-
life problems.

There are probably times when the more traditional approach is appropriate and
other times when the more open-ended approach is desirable. CAPS may allow us
to work across the continuum, but many teachers need to develop new teaching
strategies to work at the more open-ended, problem-based end of the continuum.
We must challenge ourselves to make mathematics an interesting way for learners
to engage with and make meaning of their lived experiences now. It is no longer
enough to encourage the learners to pursue mathematics as a compulsory subject
for its own sake because it might have some kind of benefit for them in the future.

ACTIVITY 1.4

The traditional approach: three simple examples

Three simple problems (A, B, C) are given below (at Intermediate Phase level).

(A) Work through these problems:

Problem A
When servicing a car, the mechanic uses 45 l of petrol at R13,09/ l and 2 tins of
oil at R40,11 each. What is the total cost for petrol and oil?

Problem B
The world record for the high jump in a recent year was 2.45 metres.
 1 
On Mars, this jump would be 2  2 times as high. How much higher in metres will
it be?

Problem C
1
John covers of a journey by car, 1 of the journey by bicycle, and walks the
2 3
rest of the way.
(a) What part of the journey does he cover by car and bicycle?
(b) What part of the journey does he walk?

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 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

Indicate by means of a tick () in the blocks below which of the mathematical
skills listed come to the fore for learners attempting to solve each of these
problems using traditional approaches to unpacking and solving the problem.

Skills acquired by learners Problem A Problem B Problem C

Computational skills

Using correct order of operations

Formulating expressions as a
mathematical model

Estimation to assess
reasonableness of answer

Problem-solving thinking skills

Investigatory skills

Exploration of rules and logical

thinking

Self-discovery

Now do the following:

(a) Indicate whether the three problems (A, B, C) are typical of the traditional
way of questioning learners in South Africa. Refer to the skills mentioned
above and briefly explain your response.
(b) What are the essential mathematical skills that we should teach our learners
now to prepare them to cope with the future?

Mathematics as a science of pattern and order

In Van de Walle et al (2016:39) an act of doing mathematics is described in terms
of engaging in the science of pattern and order. This immediately challenges the
popular social view that mathematics is dominated by computation and rules that
learners need not understand but must apply rigorously. As a science, mathematics
is a process of figuring things out (formulating number patterns, investigating,
exploring, conjecturing, generalising, inducing, deducing, etc) or generally making
sense of things.
According to Van de Walle (2004:13; Van der Walle et al, 2016:37), “mathematics is,
therefore a science of things that have a pattern of regularity and logical order.
Finding and exploring this regularity or order and then making sense of it is what
doing mathematics is all about.”
The stereotypical traditional view emphasises procedures and the solving of routine
problems, with teachers showing and telling while learners listen and repeat.
The more progressive constructivist view is that the learning of mathematics is
a process (irrespective of the content material) that emphasises the meaningful
development of concepts, skills and generalisations, and increases the prospects of
real problem-solving, open enquiry and investigation. The learning of mathematics,
according to constructivists, should be characterised mainly by teachers who challenge,
question and guide learners, while the learners’ role is to do, discover and apply.

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These views can be seen as extremes on a continuum. Teachers would locate

themselves at a whole range of positions along this continuum, possibly tending
more to one extreme than the other, but incorporating ideas from both sides in
accordance with their belief and understanding of how one should teach mathematics
in a meaningful way.

If learners do not understand how things work or have not achieved a proper
conceptual understanding – that is if they cannot see the pattern and order – they
could make computational errors. These errors may be the result of different things,
including simple carelessness, an incorrect understanding and misconceptions.
Learners may think they are doing the right thing based on a concept which they
think is ‘correct’ but which is actually incomplete or incorrect. Some examples of
this are given in the next activity.

ACTIVITY 1.5

Computational errors and misconceptions

Learners make what appear to be computational errors as a result of a lack of
understanding of how things work. Here are a few examples:
Computational, notational or conceptual errors
 18   1   18   1 
(a) = = [Learner cancels the 8s]
 25  5  25  5
[The learner does not understand the concept
of place value].

(b) 0,234 is bigger than 0,85 [Since 234 is bigger than 85]
(c) 3(4 × 5) = (3 × 4) (3 × 5) [Since 3(4 + 5) = 3 × 4 + 3 × 5]
(d) 8 ÷  1  = 4 [Since 8 ÷ 2 = 4 or 8 ×  1  = 4]
 2  2
(e) a × a = 2a [Since a + a = 2a]
(f) Half of 8 = 3 [Since half of the figure 8 is 3, if you cut an 8
in half vertically with a pair of scissors] and
so on
(1) Write down from your own experience a few more examples in which
learners make computational errors as a result of a lack of understanding
(misconceptions) of how procedures or rules actually work. Consult with other
mathematics teachers.
(2) Discuss these examples with your colleagues and explore solutions to these
problems.
(3) Suggest the teaching strategies an innovative teacher could use to avoid such
misconceptions from developing.

NOTE: We encourage you to discuss this activity with your colleagues - we can
learn a lot from each other.

‘Doing’ mathematics
Engaging in the science of pattern and order requires a good deal of effort and often
takes time. This effort is well worth your while because of the quality of learning
that it facilitates. It is more desirable that learners understand and be able to use the
learning rather than merely seem to do so by answering artificially constructed test
questions. The next activity will illustrate this.

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 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

ACTIVITY 1.6

Problem-solving: number pattern activity

Try out the activity, if you can, with a Senior Phase class.

Reflect on the method and solution given to the following problem:

Ten cities in South Africa need to be directly connected to all other cities by a
telephone line. How many direct connections are needed? (Paling & Wardle, 1985).

One approach would be to follow the three steps given below, but you are at liberty
to use any other problem-solving techniques. If you present this problem to one of
the classes you teach, it will be interesting to observe the different strategies that
your learners use. Remember not to guide them too closely. Let them think the
question through and think of how to go about drawing it up and finding the solution.

Step 1: UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM:

For example, three or more cities are not situated in a straight line. What do we
need to do about it? We need to make sure that every one of these ten cities are
connected by a line, which we will use to represent a telephone connection.

Reflection:
To carry out this step, the learners need to have the language skills to read and
interpret the problem; they need to be able to visualise the problem; and then they
must use their mathematical knowledge to move on to the next step in which they
represent the problem symbolically and numerically.

Step 2: DEVISE A PLAN:

Reduce the problem to simpler terms. Start with one city and then two cities, then
three cities and so on.

Reflection:
To carry out this step, the learners need to use their mathematical knowledge
to think about how to represent the problem symbolically and numerically. Here
learners also need to use strategic reasoning. The idea to develop a pattern by
building up the number of cities from one to two and then to three, and so on, is
essential to solving this problem. This is where we see the pattern element of the
problem coming through.

Step 3: CARRY OUT THE PLAN:

Use drawings and write down a sequence to establish the pattern, to formulate
conjectures, to test conjectures and to generalise.

Use drawings, as shown on the next page:

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Reflection:
To carry out this step, the learners need to use their mathematical knowledge to
represent the problem. Here they use procedures and skills that they have been
taught, but they need to reason about the way in which they apply this knowledge.
They must think about doing drawings of the first few cases, but as soon as they
can see that there is a pattern emerging, they need to analyse the nature of the
pattern. They can base their final solution on the basis of this pattern, by using the
same reasoning to find the total number of connections of six cities, seven cities
... and finally ten cities. (Use drawings and test your conjecture or rules.) When
they do this, they are moving on to the next step.

Step 4: EVALUATE AND EXTEND THE PLAN FOR n CITIES:

If there are n cities, how many connections will there be? Let us use a simpler
example again.

For five cities:

Each city will be connected to four other

cities.
i.e. (5 – 1) = 4

There will be five such cases i.e. from A,B, C, D and E. B

C
From this we have 5(5 - 1) connections.

The connection from A to C is the same as C to A. A D

This is the same for each case. So divide by 2.
E

 5(5 – 1)
We therefore get = 10.
  2

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 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

Now write down the number of connections for n cities.

This would give us  n(n – 1) as a formula to work out the number of connections
  2
between n cities
 10(10 – 1)
For 10 cities we therefore get = 45 cities
  2

Reflection:
The solution of this problem illustrates the idea that mathematics can be seen as the
science of pattern and order. The pattern was established though drawings made
of the connections between up to five cities. Using the drawings, a numeric pattern
could be established, which could be used to work out how many connections there
would be between ten cities. Learners will not all follow the same steps or carry
out the steps in the same order. As the teacher, you need to be flexible and follow
the learners’ thinking. You need to probe and guide without leading too explicitly,
so that the learners are able to make connections and develop their mathematical
understanding, in short, so that they can be involved in ‘doing mathematics’.

Does the process of ‘doing’ mathematics (mathematising) …

• provide a real problem-solving situation?
• encourage enquiry, exploration and investigation of numbers?
• stimulate the learning of regularity and order of numbers?
• require the teacher to guide and ask thought-provoking questions?
• involve the learners in actively doing mathematics and discovering rules?
After working through that rather complex example, perhaps you are wondering
what mathematics teachers are supposed to do about basic skills. For example, you
may be asking: don’t learners need to count accurately and know the basic facts of
addition, multiplication, subtraction and division of whole numbers, fractions and
decimals, and so on?

The fact is that when we teach an algorithm in mathematics (like long multiplication)
and then give learners exercises to do in their books, our learners are not ‘doing’
mathematics. This does not mean that teachers should not give learners this kind
of exercise, which is simply drill work, but that drill should never come before
understanding.

Repetitive drilling of the bits and pieces is not ‘doing’ mathematics and will never
result in understanding. Only when learners are capable of making sense of things
by ‘doing’ mathematics in the classroom, are they truly being empowered.

The verbs of doing mathematics

In Systematic instructions in mathematics Farrell and Farmer (1980) state: “Mathematics
is a verb, as well as a noun.”

Two questions arise from this statement:

(1) What do we do when we mathematise?
(2) What do we obtain?

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Mathematics is about processes (expressed in ‘doing verbs’) and it is also about

products (expressed by nouns). In the table below a few examples are given:

What verbs would you use to describe an activity in a classroom where learners
are doing mathematics? Here is a list of verbs that can be associated with doing
mathematics:

explore Represent use

predict Solve construct

justify Verify explain

investigate Discover justify

conjecture Develop formulate

Study these verbs carefully – they describe what action or behaviour is expected
from the learners when doing the classroom activity. If you look closely at the words,
you will see that they are all action words that indicate that learners engaging in
such activities would be actively involved in making sense and figuring things out.
Learners cannot be passive observers and listeners when they are doing mathematics.

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 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

ACTIVITY 1.7

The verbs of doing mathematics

(1) Reflect on the collection of ‘action verbs’ above. Do these verbs clearly indicate
the types of action required of the learner during the process of mathematising?
To answer this question, also study the CAPS documents for mathematics in
the Senior Phase (Grades 7–9).
(2) When specifying the concepts and skills to be learned, does the CAPS
document for the Senior Phase use the action verbs?
(3) Make a list of the verbs that you find in the section of the CAPS document
where the concepts and skills to be learned are discussed.
(4) Do these verbs clearly indicate the type of action required of the learner during
the process of mathematising?
(5) Give an example of a mathematical activity that demonstrates the action
involved in each of these verbs.

Now that you have a better understanding of what it means to do mathematics and
the processes involved, you might like to take another look at activity 1.4.

ACTIVITY 1.8

Action verbs used to identify the process skills in mathematics

(1) Work through activity 1.6 again.
(2) Use appropriate action verbs to write down three mathematical process skills
that learners could actively acquire through this problem-solving activity.

Begin with: The learners should be able to: …

What is basic mathematics?

What is ‘basic’ in mathematics is always a matter of public discussion and debate.
Is it …
• mastering the basic operations?
• demonstrating an understanding of specific skills relating to a particular topic?
• the acquisition of specific skills relating to a topic in mathematics?
• becoming mathematically literate?
• recognising that mathematics is a part of human creative activity?
No matter what position you take on the above question, mathematics must make
sense.

The implications of this statement are the following:

• Learners must experience every day that mathematics makes sense.
• Learners must come to the believe that they are capable of making sense of
mathematics.
• Teachers must stop teaching by telling and start allowing learners to make sense
of the mathematics they are learning.
• To this end, teachers must believe in their learners – all of them!

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This is a profound challenge – mathematics is for everyone without exception. Everyone

have to learn that mathematics makes sense and to make sense of mathematics.

ACTIVITY 1.9

What is basic mathematics?

Van de Walle (2004:14) says:
“All learners are capable of learning all of the mathematics we want them to learn,
and they can learn it in a meaningful manner that makes sense to them if they are
given the opportunity to do so”.
(1) Do you agree with Van der Walle’s position on what he considers basic
mathematics? Do you find it realistic or revolutionary? Discuss your opinion
with your colleagues.
(2) What do your learners think is basic in mathematics? Ask them, and
then compare their ideas with yours.

The following list is what the course developers think is ‘basic in mathematics’ or
fundamental mathematical knowledge for all learners. There are five main focus
areas to be covered in Senior Phase mathematics (DBE, 2011:9).

(1) Content area: Numbers, Operations and Relationships

Place value Operations (conceptual understanding giving rise to understanding
of different strategies for all operations)
(2) Content area: Patterns, Functions and Algebra
• Core concepts (recognition of patterns, using words and drawings to describe
and analyse patterns, generalise rules for patterns, generate other patterns)
• Link working with patterns to everyday situations
(3) Content area: Space and Shape (Geometry)
• 2D and 3D perception (up to Van Hiele’s first three levels: learners should
be able to visualise, recognise and describe shapes)
• Properties of shapes (no calculations of area and volume, simply recognition
of shapes, drawing, describing and naming of polygons and polyhedrons)
(4) Content area: Measurement
• Concept formation using developmental activities and Piaget’s conservation
tests
• The process of quantifying (length, mass, capacity, volume, area and time)
• The stages in the teaching of measurement
(5) Content area: Data Handling
• Collecting, recording, ordering, presenting and analysing
• Awareness of statistics presented in everyday life
This content will be found integrated into the various units of this study guide.
Depending on your own current knowledge of mathematics, you may find some
of the mathematical content presented in the study guide challenging. You need to
make the necessary effort to understand the mathematical content, because, in order
to teach mathematics, you need to have a sound understanding of the fundamental
mathematical content yourself.

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 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

An environment for doing mathematics

It is the job of the teacher to ensure that every child learns to do mathematics, but
this can only happen in the right environment.

An environment that is conducive to mathematics learning is the one in which

learners are allowed to engage in investigative processes where they have the time
and space to explore particular cases (problems). Then they can move slowly towards
establishing, through discovery and logical reasoning, the underlying regularity and
order (in the form of rules, principles, number patterns and so on).

Learners can create a ‘conjecturing atmosphere’ in the classroom if the teacher

provides appropriate tasks and then promotes learner thinking and discussions
about these tasks. This atmosphere is one in which the rightness or wrongness of
answers is not the issue; it encourages learners to make conjectures (guesses) as to the
regularity (sameness) they see and to discuss these conjectures with others without
fear of being judged wrong or stupid, to listen to the ideas expressed by others and
to modify their conjectures as a result.

The mathematical processes involved in doing mathematics are best expressed by

the action verbs. They require reaching out, taking risks, testing ideas and expressing
these ideas to others. (In the traditional classroom the action verbs are listening,
copying, memorising, drilling and repeating – passive activities with very little mental
engagement, involving no risks and requiring very little initiative.)

The classroom must be an environment where every learner is respected regardless

of his or her perceived ‘cleverness’, where learners can take risks without fear that
they will be criticised if they make a mistake. It should be an environment in which
learners work in groups, in pairs or individually, always sharing ideas and engaged in
discussion. The following activity illustrates how even the most apparently ‘routine’
problem can be tackled in a variety of ways.

ACTIVITY 1.10

Doing mathematics: informal methods

Reflect on the following informal strategies attempted by learners in the Intermediate
or Senior Phase and then answer the questions below:

MULTIPLICATION AS REPEATED ADDING:

43 × 6: or Adding speeded by
40 + 3 43 × 6: 43
40 + 3 43
40 + 3 86 (2 × 43)
40 + 3 86
40 + 3 172 (4 × 43)
40 + 3 86
240 + 18 = 258 258 (6 × 43)

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DIVISION AS REPEATED SUBTRACTION:

564 ÷ 18 10 × 18 = 180
10 × 18 = 180
360
10 × 18 = 180
540
1 × 18 = 18
31 = 556
564
– 564

Remainder: 8
564 ÷ 18 = 31 remainder 8

USING A REVERSE FLOW DIAGRAM TO SOLVE AN EQUATION

Solve for ×: 3x2 + 5 = 17

(1) Reverse the flow diagram (see the dotted lines to indicate the inverse operations).
Start with the output and apply inverse operations. What do you find?
(2) Do you agree that the use of informal strategies where learners themselves have
to wrestle to find solutions are never a waste of time? Motivate your response.
(3) Compare the above non-routine strategies with the recipe-type routine methods
and explain which offer better opportunities for ‘doing mathematics’ discussions,
developing reasons, testing reasons and offering explanations.
(4) Have you come across some interesting non-routine methods used by learners
in a particular situation? If you have, describe some of them. You could also
discuss them with your fellow mathematics teachers. What qualities does the
teacher need to create an environment in which learners feel safe and stimulated
to ‘do’ mathematics? The following activity helps to describe these?

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 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

ACTIVITY 1.11

An environment for doing mathematics

Read the following motivational dialogue between Mr Bright and Mr Spark, two
mathematics teachers. Describe the features of an ideal classroom environment
in which learners can engage in doing mathematics.

Mr Bright: A teacher of ‘doing’ mathematics needs to be enthusiastic, committed

and a master of his or her subject.

Mr Spark: He or she needs to have a personal and easier feel for doing mathematics
to create the right environment in the classroom.

Mr Bright: Teachers should provide activities designed to provide learners with

opportunities to engage in the science of pattern and order.

Mr Spark: Yes, a real opportunity to do some mathematics!

Mr Bright: We need to develop this technique and discover as much as we can
in the process.

Mr Spark: Let us invite Mr Pattern and perhaps Mr Order and some of the other
mathematics teachers.

Mr Bright: Yes! We should all be actively and meaningfully engaged in doing

mathematics, and respect and listen to the ideas put forward by the others.

Mr Spark: We will challenge one another’s ideas without belittling anyone.

Having thought about the conditions necessary for doing mathematics, we can now
begin to think about the kinds of activities that will promote doing mathematics.

EXAMPLES OF DOING MATHEMATICS

In this part of the unit, we invite you to explore patterns in mathematics through a
number of different mathematics problems. Mathematics gives us (and our learners)
ways to think about the world. The selection and design of activities for use in a
mathematics classroom are discussed in detail in this guide in unit 4. Here we simply
give examples of doing mathematics relating to each of the content areas in CAPS.
This will give you the opportunity to do mathematics, to reflect on what you have
done, and to think about appropriate and interesting activities to help learners explore
the process of problem-solving through number patterns and logical reasoning.

The five content areas

Read carefully through each problem to make sure that you understand what is
required. None of these problems require any sophisticated mathematics, not even
algebra. Don’t be passive! Express your ideas. Get involved in doing mathematics!

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Content area 1: Doing an activity involving operations

This activity deals with the assessment of the specific concepts and skills that relate
to mental operations from the first content area (content area 1). It also covers the
assessment of specific concepts and skills relating to pattern identification in the
second content area (content area 2).

ACTIVITY 1.12

Exploration – product of numbers

Young children learning facts about basic numbers could be confronted with the
following observation: In a sum, when you make the first number 1 more and the
second number 1 less, you still get the same answer. For example:
7 + 7 = 14 and 8 + 6 = 14
5 + 5 = 10 and 6 + 4 = 10

What can you find out about this?

Your task here is to examine what happens when you change addition to
multiplication in this exploration. Consider the following examples:

A B

7 × 7 = 49 8 × 6 = 48
8 × 8 = 64 9 × 7 = 63
9 × 9 = 91 10 × 8 = 80
10 × 10 = 100 11 × 9 = 99

What happens to the product when you increase the first number by 1 and decrease
the second number by 1 in column A? Compare the products in column B and
identify the pattern. State the pattern in your own words.

How do these results differ when the two factors are 1 apart?

A B

6 × 7 = 42 7 × 6 = 42

7 × 8 = 56 8 × 7 = 56

8 × 9 = 72 9 × 8 = 72

10 × 10 = 100 11 × 9 = 99

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 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

Compare the products in column A to the products in column B and identify the
change (if any).

How these results differ when the two factors are 2 apart or 3 apart?

Example: (The numbers are 2 apart.)

A B

6 × 4 = 24 7 × 3 = 21

9 × 7 = 63 10 × 6 = 60

10 × 8 = 80 11 × 7 = 77

How do the results differ from the results above? What happens if you adjust the
factors up and down by 4?

Example:

A B

7 × 3 = 21 8 × 2 = 16

9 × 5 = 45 10 × 4 = 40

Find the difference between the products in column A and column B.

Does it make any difference to the results if you use big numbers instead of small
ones?

Content area 2: Doing an activity involving patterns

This activity deals with the assessment of the specific concepts and skills that relate
to pattern identification from the second content area (content area 2). It also covers
the assessment of specific concepts and skills relating to mental operations in the
first content area (content area 1).

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ACTIVITY 1.13

Start and jump numbers, searching for numbers

(adapted from Van de Walle, 2004)
Make a list of numbers that begin with a ‘start number’ and increase it by a fixed
amount, which we will call the ‘jump number’. First try 3 as the start number and
5 as a jump number. Write the start number first and then 8, 13 and so on ‘jumping’
by 5 each time until your list extends to about 130.

Your task is to examine this list of numbers and find as many patterns as you
possibly can. Share your ideas with the group and write down every pattern you
agree really is a pattern.

Here are some suggestions to guide you:

• Look for alternating patterns.
• Look for repeating patterns.
• Investigate odd and even numbers.
• What is the pattern in the unit place?
• What is the pattern in the tens place?
• What happens when you go over 100?
• What happens when you add the digits in the numbers?
• Extend the pattern where you see a gap in the following table.

Which of the following are number patterns (in the columns)?

Complete the table by filling in the empty spaces and then analyse the numbers
in each column:

Separate the Add terms Subtract terms Multiply terms

consecutive terms (in columns 1 and 2) (in columns 1 and 2) (in columns 1 and 2)

3 8 11 5 (or –5) 24

13 18 31 5 234

23 28 51 5 644

33 38 71 5 1 254

43 48 91 5 2 064

53 58 111 5 3 074

63 68 131 5

73 78 151 5

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 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

Content area 3: Doing an activity involving space and shape

This activity deals with the assessment of the specific concepts and skills that relate to
geometric shapes and compass directions from the third content area (content area 3).
It also covers the assessment of specific concepts and skills relating to measurement
(length and area) in the fourth content area (content area 4).

ACTIVITY 1.14

Gardening problem
Jamal had a garden in the shape of a square.

Owing to the construction of a new road, the garden will lose a three-metre-long
strip on the south side. Jamal wants to know if he can make up for this difference
by adding an extra three metres on the east side.
(1) Work out the area of the original garden.
(2) Cut out a template to represent the area of the garden.
Use a scale of 1 cm = 1 m. Mark off the centimetres with a ruler.
(3) Cut off a three metre strip from the south side of your template.
(4) Work out the area of the strip that has been lost.
(5) Attach the strip to the east side.
(6) What has Jamal not considered if he wants to keep his garden rectangular?
(7) What will the area of the strip on the east side need to ensure that the garden
remains rectangular?
(8) What is the area of the new garden?
(9) Does this area differ from the original area at all? If so, in what way?
(10) Explain the reason for your answer above.

Content area 4: Doing an activity involving measurement

This activity deals with the assessment of the specific concepts and skills that relate
to measurement (time) from the fourth content area (content area 4). It also covers
the assessment of specific concepts and skills relating to problem-solving with ratios
from the first content area (content area 1).

ACTIVITY 1.15

Two machines, one job

(adapted from Van de Walle, 2004)
Ron’s Recycle Shop was started when Ron bought a used paper-shredding machine.
Business was good, so Ron bought a new shredding machine. The old machine
could shred a truckload of paper in four hours. The new machine could shred the
same truckload in only two hours. How long will it take to shred a truckload of
paper if Ron runs both shredders at the same time?

Make a serious attempt to figure out a solution. (You could use drawings or
counters, coins and so on.) If you get stuck, ask yourself the following questions:

• Are you overlooking any assumptions made in the problem?

• Do the machines run at the same time?

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• Do they run as fast when working together as when they work alone?
• Does it work to find the average here? Explain your answer.
• Does it work to use ratio and proportion here? Explain your answer.

Content area 5: Doing an activity involving data handling

This activity deals with the assessment of the specific concepts and skills that relate
to the representation of data, which form part of the fifth content area (content
area 5). This is another activity that shows how we can use mathematics to solve
real-life problems.

ACTIVITY 1.16

Interpreting bar graphs

Jairos sells bicycles. He is thinking about expanding his business and he needs to
borrow money from the bank. He wants to show the bank manager that his sales
are growing fast. These are his sales for the last six months:

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June

Number of bikes sold 26 27 29 34 44 55

Jairos draws two graphs as shown below:

26
 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

(1) In what way are the graphs different?

(2) Do you think the graphs tell the same story? Why or why not?
(3) Which chart do you think Jairos should show to the bank manager? Why?

Reflecting on doing mathematics

Even if you have worked very hard on the above activities, you may not have found
all of the patterns or solutions. The important thing, however, is to make an effort
and take risks. Engaging with mathematics as the science of patterns and order is
rewarding, but requires effort. As you will have noticed, the examples cover a wide
range of mathematical content, all of which are part of the bigger picture of doing
mathematics. As you reflect on your experience, ask yourself the following questions:
• What difficulties did you encounter?
• How did you overcome them?
• If you did not overcome the difficulty, can you identify WHY NOT?
• Having identified why you were unable to solve the problem, are you able to get
to the root of this problem? You may need to engage with colleagues or refer to
books; it is important that you do so, since as a teacher of mathematics, you will
always have to master the content that you need to present.
• What methods did you use that were successful?
• Why were they successful?
• How would you like to present these activities (or other similar activities,
appropriate to the grades that you teach) to your learners?
• How would you ensure that your learners are able to solve the problems given
to them?

This will help you to develop your ability to do mathematics and to teach mathematics
in a developmental way. Instead of concentrating on explaining rules and procedures,
a developmental approach to teaching mathematics is learner-centred and allows
learners to grapple with ideas, to discuss and explain solutions, and to challenge
their own ideas and the ideas of others. Reflective thinking is the most important
underlying tool required to construct ideas, to develop new ideas and to uncover a
rich web of interrelated ideas.

In the rest of this unit we give examples of pattern activities that you could do and
reflect on – first by yourself, and then with your learners. In the other units that
follow you are given the opportunity to try out problems relating to the other content
areas of the mathematics curriculum.

EXPLORING PATTERNS IN MATHEMATICS

The ability to recognise patterns, to use words and drawings to describe and analyse
patterns, to generalise rules for patterns and to generate other patterns is fundamental
to understanding mathematics. Learners need to be able to describe patterns observed
using words or mathematical symbols. It is important for learners to recognise patterns
by looking for common differences. Learners also need to be able to extend numeric
and geometric patterns, which helps them to recognise a variety of relationships in
the patterns and to make connections between mathematical topics. Identifying
patterns like repeating patterns and growing patterns helps learners to become aware
of the structures of various pattern types. Teachers need to show their learners how
to make generalisations for patterns and understand these generalisations.

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Repeating patterns
According to Van de Walle (2004),
• Identifying and extending patterns is an important process in algebraic thinking.
• Simple repetitive patterns can be explored as early as kindergarten.
• Young children love to work with patterns such as those made with coloured
blocks, connecting cubes and buttons.

The topic of patterns is covered in the second content area of the CAPS mathematics
document for the Senior Phase, and it progresses through the GET phase. Patterns
may be geometric, numeric or algebraic. Working with patterns develops learners’
logical reasoning and leads naturally to thinking algebraically. The work on patterns
that follows has been taken from the RADMASTE (2006) materials for the Number
Algebra and Pattern module at WITS.

Learners can work independently or in small groups to extend (continue) the patterns
given on strips. To do this activity with your class, you should prepare enough pattern
strips for the whole class.

Van de Walle (2004) points out that the core of a repeating pattern is the shortest
string of elements that repeat.

Each pattern must repeat completely and never be partially shown. In mathematics
there is a convention that if a repetition of a pattern is seen three times, the observer
can assume that she or he has identified a repeating pattern. Here is an example of
a visual pattern strip in which the pattern is repeated three times:

The core of the pattern shown above has two elements. Having each of the arrows
in the first two frames in a different colour would highlight the repeating elements.

Here is another easy pattern to continue. The core has three elements, but the
detail on the shapes might make it more difficult for young learners to identify:

The pattern below has four elements in its core:

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 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

The strip below with letters A and B translates the pattern above it from one medium
to another: geometric to variable. Using variables, learners can identify similar types
of patterns. The two patterns below are the same type of pattern. They both follow
a sequence of a, b, b, a, b, b, a, b, b.

ACTIVITY 1.17
Try this with your class and write a report. Your report should include copies of
all of the patterns you used in the lesson. Your report should cover at least the
following points:

• Describe what you did.

• How did your learners respond?
• Were there any changes you needed to make?
• Why did you make these changes?
• Mention any other important observations or findings.

(1) An overhead projector may be used to display a numbered set of different

patterns. Teach the learners to use the A, B, C …  method of reading a pattern.
Half the class can close their eyes, while the other half can read aloud the
pattern you point to. The learners who had their eyes closed must then open
them and select the correct pattern(s).
(2) Suggest an alternative way to present this lesson for a teacher who does not
have an overhead projector in his or her class.

Growing patterns
The patterns below are made up of geometric shapes, but they also have elements that
can be counted. They pictorially illustrate sequences of numbers. You could supply
the learners with pattern cards of the type below and have them copy and extend
the pattern given in the first three frames. Let them explain why their extension is
appropriate, by determining how each frame in the overall pattern differs from the
preceding frame. For example, the simple pattern below begins with one brick and
increases by one brick from frame to frame, representing the sequence 1; 2; 3; …

LADMMM6/129


Learners should be given time to study the patterns. They can then extend the
patterns, giving explanations of why their extension follows from the given sequence.
The use of language to explain the extension is important as it develops the learners’
mathematical reasoning skills.

The next pattern is more complex. The pattern illustrated includes two sequences.
• The horizontal shapes increase from three shapes, by one shape from frame to
frame, representing the sequence 3; 4; 5, …
• The vertical shapes increase from one shape, by two shapes from frame to frame,
representing the sequence 1; 3; 5, …
• The full pattern grows as a sum of the two: (1 + 3), (3 + 4), (5 + 5), …
• The next picture in the pattern will have seven dots going down and six dots
going across and can be written numerically as (7 + 6).

Patterns can be identified (and hence extended) in different ways. This illustrates
how different people may see the same pattern in different ways. You need to listen
carefully to your learners’ explanations to assess whether they are valid or not. They
might use different reasoning, but still be reasoning correctly. Look at the example
of the pattern below. It can be used to illustrate two different relationships.

One explanation could be that from frame to frame we add one row and one column
to the display:

Another explanation could be that in each frame we make a bigger square and add a
column. The squares have been enclosed in dotted lines to illustrate this explanation:

30
 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

We can also express this geometric pattern numerically. It is a good idea to use a
table to write up the pattern. This helps the observer to identify the pattern, as it
presents the information neatly and accessibly.
The frame number and the number of blocks in the frame are tabulated to calculate
the number of blocks in successive frames. If a general formula can be found, then
any term in the sequence can be found using the general formula.
Let’s say we want to find out the number of blocks in the 8th display of this pattern.

So the 8th frame will have 72 blocks in the display.

Learners up to Grade 7 could use the method above to determine the numbers of
blocks in the display. Learners in Grade 8 or 9 might be ready to use the second
explanation of the visual pattern to generate a simple rule for the successive terms
in this pattern. The rule can easily be generalised and expressed algebraically. This
algebraic rule can then be used to find the number of blocks in any display.

Frame number Number of blocks Pattern

1 2 (1 × 1) + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2

2 6 (2 × 2) + 2 = 4 + 2 = 6

3 12 (3 × 3) + 3 = 9 + 3 = 12

4 20 (4 × 4) + 4 = 16 + 4 = 20

5 30 (5 × 5) + 5 = 25 + 5 = 30

6 42 (6 × 6) + 6 = 36 + 6 = 42

7 56 (7 × 7) + 7 = 49 + 7 = 56

8 72 (8 × 8) + 8 = 64 + 8 = 72

General (nth term) B (n × n) + n = B

In conclusion to this brief introduction to exploring pattern in mathematics, try out

the following activities, which have been taken from the RUMEP lecture notes on
patterns and functions (Stoker, 2001). First see if you can do them, and then see
how your learners manage them.

LADMMM6/131


The solutions to these activities are not given in this study guide. You may need to do
extra research, discuss these activities with colleagues and think more deeply about
how to do these activities and how they would benefit your learners. Remember that
such activity on your behalf will enrich your teaching of mathematics and would
be very worthwhile.
The selection and design of activities are also not discussed here, since this theory is
discussed in unit 4 of this study guide. Here we simply provide you with some activities
to further your own understanding of mathematical pattern work. As a teacher, you
should think not only about the solutions to the given problems, but also about the
wording and presentation of the problems. In unit 4 we discuss the complex issue
of teaching mathematics to classes with diverse learner groups. As you work though
the activities which follow, you could also start to think about which of them would
be accessible to all learners and which would not, and why this would be the case.
You might even begin to think about how to adapt the activities to suit the needs of
all learners, though further guidance on how to do this is given in unit 4.

ACTIVITY 1.18

Patterns
(1) Pascal’s triangle and the leg-foot pattern
Pascal’s Triangle is a fascinating display of numbers in which many patterns
are embedded. The Pascal Triangle was named after Blaise Pascal, a famous
French mathematician and philosopher. Chinese mathematicians had known
about Pascal’s Triangle long before Pascal was born, so it is also called a
Chinese Triangle. It was documented in Chinese writings 300 years before
Pascal was born.

In the triangle below, some ‘leg-foot’ patterns have been shaded. Can you
shade more of the patterns that form a leg-foot in this Pascal’s Triangle? First
look at the two examples that have been done for you. Then shade some
more leg-foot patterns in the triangle.
• Now look at the numbers in the patterns that you have shaded.
• Can you see a relationship between the numbers shaded in the leg and
the foot of the leg-foot patterns that you have shaded? Describe this
relationship in words.
• Write a numeric rule for the relationship you have identified.

32
 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

(2) Study the following patterns and then extend them by drawing in the next
two stages.

• Draw a table to display the information above.

• What type of numbers are these?
• Use the following to show different representations of square numbers:
i. square grid
ii. isometric dotty paper
iii. square dotty paper

(3) The following pattern will help Sipho to calculate the number of blocks he
needs to build the stairs to his house:

• Help him to find the number of blocks he will use for 15 steps.
• Extend this pattern by drawing the next two stages of these steps.
• Enter your data in the following table:
Step 1 2 3 4 5 8 15 20 100

Number of 1 3 6
blocks

• Find and explain a rule that generates the above pattern.

• What type of numbers are these?
• Use the following to show different representations of triangular numbers:
i. square grid
ii. isometric dotty paper
iii. square dotty paper

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(4) The following function machine creates a number pattern:

• Investigate the rule that it uses. Write up your findings.

• What type of numbers are these?
(5) Study the following number pattern and then complete the table that follows:

Step 1 2 3 4 5 8 15 20 100

Number 1 6 15 28
of dots

• Investigate a general rule that generates the above pattern.

• What type of numbers are these?
The next page is a blank sheet of grid paper that you may use.

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 UNIT 1:  Exploring what it means to ‘do’ mathematics

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UNIT SUMMARY
This study unit has been designed to help teachers to change the way in which
learners perceive their role in the mathematics classroom – from being passive
recipients of mathematics, involving facts, skills and knowledge, to becoming active
participants in ‘doing’ mathematics and doing the spadework for the creation of
mathematical problems in the future. Accomplishing such a task has called for the
development of stimulating activities and explanations in mathematics that would
involve all learners, provide opportunities for more mathematical communication
in the classroom, and link creative thinking with mathematical content.

Through the practices of explanation, investigation and ‘doing’ mathematics in general,

learners will begin to experience the full impact of the process of solving problems
and, thereafter, generating problems. If we are truly committed to the notion that
mathematics is for everyone, then we must begin to look for alternative methods to
the stereotypical traditional approach to facilitating learning in the classroom for
all learners. Perhaps the creative aspect of ‘doing’ mathematics might be the key
that will open doors to mathematical learning for previously uninterested learners.
Simultaneously, active participation in problem-solving and problem investigation
might serve to cultivate the talents of learners who maintain an interest in ‘doing’
mathematics.

SELF-ASSESSMENT
Tick the boxes to assess whether you have achieved the outcomes for this unit.

If you cannot tick the boxes, you should go back and work through the relevant
part in the unit again.

Am I able to do the following:

# Checklist

1 Critically discuss the thinking that the traditional approach to teaching mathematics £
rewards the learning of rules, but offers little opportunity to ‘do’ mathematics.

2 Explain the phrase ‘mathematics as a science of pattern and order’. £

3 Evaluate a collection of action verbs that is used to reflect the kind of activities engaged £
in by learners when doing mathematics.

4 Construct a list of features of a classroom environment considered as important for £

learners engaged in doing mathematics.

5 Think about appropriate and interesting activities to help learners explore the process
of problem-solving through number patterns and logical reasoning.

36
 REFERENCES

Davis, RB. 1988. The world according to McNeill. Journal of Mathematical Behaviour
7:51–78.
Department of Basic Education (DBE). 2011. Curriculum and assessment policy statement
(CAPS): Senior Phase (Grades 7–9). Mathematics.
Evan, R & Lappan, G. 1994. Constructing meaningful understanding of mathematics
content. In NCTM, Professional teachers of mathematics. MCTM, Massachusetts:
Addison-Wesley.
Farell, MA & Farmer, WA. 1980. Systematic instruction in mathematics for the middle and
high school years. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.
Fasheh, M. 1982. Mathematics, Culture, and Authority. For the Learning of Mathematics,
3(2), pp. 2–8. Retrieved November 10, 2020 from: https://www.jstor.org/
stable/40248126.
McNeill, R. 1988. A reflection on when I loved math and how I stopped. Journal of
Mathematical Behaviour 7:45–50.
Moodley, M. 1992. Teaching/Learning mathematics: what counts. In Moodley, M,
Mathematics education for in-service and pre-service teachers. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter
& Shooter.
Mullis, IVS. 2005. TIMSS. TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Centre, Boston
College, USA.
Paling, DC & Wardle, ME. 1985. Oxford comprehensive mathematics: 1 teacher’s book.
London: Oxford University Press.
RADMASTE Centre, University of the Witwatersrand. 2006. Mathematical reasoning.
EDUC 263.
RADMASTE Centre, University of the Witwatersrand 2006. Number Algebra and
Pattern. EDUC 264.
Stoker, J. 2001. Patterns and functions. ACE lecture notes, RUMEP, Rhodes
University, Grahamstown.
Van der Horst, H & McDonald, R. 1997. OBE: outcome-based education. Pretoria: Kagiso.
Van de Walle, JA. 2004. Elementary and middle school mathematics: teaching developmentally.
New York: Pearson.
Van de Walle, JA, Karp, KS & Bay-Williams, JM. 2016. Elementary and middle school
mathematics: teaching developmentally. 9th edition. New York: Pearson.

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2 UNIT 2
2 DEVELOPING UNDERSTANDING IN MATHEMATICS

WELCOME

“I was thinking about our conversation last week,” says Millicent. “I remembered
something I read a long time ago. The writers said that teaching and learning were a
bit like building a bridge; we can provide the means and the support, but the learners
have to cross the bridge themselves – some will walk, some will run and some will
need a lot of prompting to get to the other side.”
“That sounds a bit philosophical to me,” remarks Bobo. “How does that help in
practice?”
“Well,” Millicent replies, “it helped me to understand that my learners learn in
different ways; if I could understand how they thought about things I could probably
help them better.”
“Let me give you an example. I gave some of my learners the following problem:
26 – 18. This is how Thabo and Mpho responded:

“Thabo wrote T U
2 6
- 1 8
1 2

“Mpho wrote T U
1 1
2 6
- 1 8
2 8

38
 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

“I then tried to work out what thinking processes Thabo and Mpho had gone through
to get to their answers and that helped me to work out how I could help them.”

“But that must take hours for the big classes we have,” responds Bobo.

“Well, yes it can,” says Millicent, “but not everybody has problems all the time and
often I notice that several learners have the same kinds of problems so I can work
with them separately while the rest are busy with something else. Then I get them to
explain to each other how they have arrived at solutions to the problems I set them.
I find that often as they explain their thinking process to somebody else, they spot
errors themselves or discover more efficient ways of doing things without needing
me to help.”

Think about the following:

(1) Consider Thabo’s and Mpho’s responses to Millicent’s task. What seems to be the
reasoning used by these two learners and how could you use this understanding
to support them?
(2) Have you ever tried to get learners to explain to each other how they have come
to a particular solution to a problem? Can you suggest some potential advantages,
disadvantages and alternatives to this approach?
(3) From her practice, what seems to be Millicent’s view of teacher and learner
roles in developing understanding? Are you comfortable with this view? Why
or why not?

Comments
(1) Thabo seems to have learned that you always take the smaller number away from
the bigger number. Mpho seems to know the rule to ‘borrow’ from the tens and
add to the units. Once that has been done, Mpho thinks she has completed the
calculation. Now she just needs to complete the sum and, since addition seems
most natural, she adds the 1 and 1 in the tens column to get 2. In both cases
the learners are working through what they think is a correct formal process
without regard to what the sums really mean. It might help to get them to
estimate the answers first. Further, learners would probably benefit more from
talking about the processes used in solving real-life problems and how these
thinking processes can be captured in writing.
(2) Van Heerden and Brown (2003:30–31) point to the work of Resnick and Ford
(1984) who remind us that “one of the fundamental assumptions of cognitive
psychology is that the new knowledge is in large part constructed by the learner”.
Getting children to talk through their reasoning with others helps them, their
peers and you as the teacher to understand the assumptions and leaps of logic
that learners make when they are in the process of constructing their own
understanding. This unit explores this process and how you can support it in
more detail.
(3) For Millicent, it seems that the learners must be active participants in the
meaning-making process. Using her wider experience, she can be both guide
and facilitator, but she cannot simply transfer her own reasoning into the heads
of her learners.

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UNIT OUTCOMES
Upon completion of unit 2 you should be able to

• critically reflect on the constructivist approach as an approach to learning

mathematics.
• cite with understanding some examples of constructed learning as opposed
to rote learning.
• explain with insight the concept ‘understanding’ in terms of the measure of
quality and quantity of connections.
• explain with insight the benefits of relational understanding.
• distinguish and explain the differences between the two types of knowledge
in mathematics, namely conceptual knowledge and procedural knowledge.
• critically discuss the role of models in developing understanding in
mathematics (and give examples).
• justify the three related uses of models in a developmental approach to
teaching.
• describe the foundations of a developmental approach based on a
constructivist view of learning.
• evaluate the seven strategies for effective teaching based on the perspectives
of this unit.

INTRODUCTION
In recent years there has been an interesting move away from the idea that teachers
can best help their learners to learn mathematics by deciding in what order and
through what steps new material should be presented to learners. It has become
a commonly accepted goal among mathematics educators that learners should be
enabled to understand mathematics.

• A widely accepted theory, known as constructivism, suggests that learners must

be active participants in the development of their own understanding.
• Each learner, it is now believed, constructs his or her own meaning in his or her
own special way.
• This happens as learners interact with their environment, as they process different
experiences and as they build on the knowledge (or schema) which they already have.

In Mathematics education, Njisane (1992) explains that learners never mirror or reflect
what they are told or what they read; it is in the nature of the human mind to look
for meaning, to find regularity in events in the environment, whether or not there
is suitable information available. The verb ‘to construct’ implies that the mental
structures (schemas) the child ultimately possesses are built up gradually from
separate components in a manner initially different from that of an adult.

Constructivism derives from the cognitive school of psychology and the theories of
Piaget and Vygotsky. It first began to influence the educational world in the 1960s.
More recently, the ideas of constructivism have spread and gained strong support
throughout the world in countries like Britain, Europe, Australia and many others.

Here in South Africa the constructivist theory of mathematics learning has been
strongly supported by researchers, by teachers and by the Department of Basic
Education (DBE). In particular, the DBE’s advocacy of constructivist theory has been
observed throughout various curriculum reforms since 1994. The current curriculum

40
 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

also promotes a constructivist approach to teaching and learning mathematics, as

you have seen in unit 1, particularly in the section where the action words of doing
mathematics are discussed.

Constructivism provides teachers with insights into how children learn mathematics
and guides us to use instructional strategies developmentally, beginning with the
children and not with ourselves. This unit focuses on understanding mathematics from
a constructivist perspective and reaping the benefits of a relational understanding
of mathematics, that is, linking procedural and conceptual knowledge to set the
foundations of a developmental approach.

A CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING

The constructivist view requires a shift from the traditional approach of direct
teaching to the facilitation of learning by the teacher. Teaching by negotiation has
to replace teaching by imposition; learners have to be actively involved in ‘doing’
mathematics. This doing need not always be active and involve peer discussion,
though it often does. Learners will also engage in constructive learning on their
own, working quietly through set tasks, allowing their minds to sift through the
materials they are working with, and consolidating new ideas with existing ideas.
Constructivism rejects the notion that children are ‘blank slates’ with no ideas,
concepts and mental structures. Children do not absorb ideas as teachers present
them, but rather are the creators of their own knowledge. The question you should
be asking now is: How are ideas constructed by the learners?

The activity below will get you thinking about different ways in which teachers try to
help learners construct their own understanding of key concepts. You should complete
the activity according to your own experience as a mathematics learner and teacher.

ACTIVITY 2.1

Constructing ideas
Read through the following approaches that a teacher may employ to help learners
to construct concepts, rules or principles.

Think about them for a while and then rate each approach from 1 to 4 to indicate
its effectiveness in constructing meaningful ideas for the learner.

In the box next to the stated approach, write 1, 2, 3 or 4.

(1) means that the approach is not effective.
(2) means that the approach is partially effective.
(3) means that the approach is effective.
(4) means that the approach is very effective.

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Instructing learners to memorise rules

Explaining the rules/concepts to the learners.

Repetitive drilling of facts/rules/principles

Providing opportunities to learners to give expression to their personal

constructions

Providing a supportive environment where learners feel free to share

their initial conclusions and constructions

Providing problem-solving approaches to enhance the learner

construction of knowledge

Providing for discovery learning, which results from the learner

manipulating and structuring so that he or she finds new information

Using games to learn mathematics

Reflection

• What criteria did you use in rating the above approaches?

• In each of the above approaches, consider the extent to which all learners are
involved in ‘doing’ mathematics.
• Is it possible that different approaches could be weighted differently depending
on particular learning outcomes and context being explored? If so, can you
give an example?

The construction of ideas

A key idea of constructivism is simply this: children construct their own knowledge. It
is not just children who do this: everyone is involved all the time in making meaning
and constructing their own understanding of the world.

The constructivist approach views the learner as someone with a certain amount of
knowledge already inside his or her head, not as an empty vessel which must be
filled. The learner adds new knowledge to the existing knowledge by making sense
of what is already inside his or her head. We therefore infer that the constructive
process is one in which an individual tries to organise, structure and restructure his
or her experiences in the light of available schemes of thought. In the process these
schemes are modified or changed. Njisane (1992) explains that concepts, ideas,
theories and models as individual constructs in the mind are constantly being
tested by individual experiences, and it will last as long as it is interpreted by the
individual. No lasting learning takes place if the learner is not actively involved in
constructing his or her knowledge.

Piaget (Farrell & Famer, 1980) insists that knowledge is active; that is, to know an
idea or an object requires that the learner manipulates it physically or mentally and
thereby transforms (or modifies) it. According to this concept, when you want to
solve a problem relating to finance, in the home, at a garage or at a church, you will
spontaneously and actively interact with the characteristics of the real situation that
you see as relevant to your problem.

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 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

A banker faced with a business problem may ‘turn it over in his mind’; he may
prepare charts or look over relevant data and confer with colleagues. In so doing,
he transforms the set of ideas in a combination of symbolic and concrete ways and
so understands or ‘knows’ the problem.

The tools we use to build understanding are our existing ideas, the knowledge that
we already possess. The materials we act on to build understanding may be things
we see, hear or touch – elements of our physical world. Sometimes the materials
are our own thoughts and ideas to build our mental constructs upon. The effort
that must be supplied by the learner is active and reflective thought. If the learner’s
mind is not actively thinking, nothing happens.

In order to construct and understand a new idea, you have to think actively about it.
Mathematical ideas cannot be ‘poured into’ a passive learner with an inactive mind.
Learners must be encouraged to wrestle with new ideas, to work at fitting them into
existing networks of ideas, and to challenge their own ideas and those of others.

In Van de Walle et al (2016:50) and Van de Walle (2004) the term ‘reflective thought’
is used to explain how learners actively think about or mentally work on an idea.
According to Van de Walle (2004:23), reflective thought means “sifting through
existing ideas to find those that seem to be the most useful in giving meaning to
the new idea”.

Through reflective thought, we create an integrated network of connections

between ideas (also referred to as cognitive schemas). As we are exposed to more
information or experience, the networks are added to or changed – so our cognitive
or mental schemas are always being modified to include new ideas.

Below is an example of the web of association that could contribute to the

understanding of the concept ‘ratio’:

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ACTIVITY 2.2

Cognitive schema: a network of connections between ideas

Select a particular skill (with operations, e.g. the addition of fractions) that you
would want your learners to acquire with understanding. Develop a cognitive
schema (mental picture) for the newly emerging concept (or rule).

You should consider the following:

• Develop a network of connections between existing ideas (e.g. whole numbers,

concept of a fraction, operations).
• Add the new idea (e.g. addition of fractions).

Draw in the connecting lines between the existing ideas and the new ideas used
and formed during the acquisition of the skill.

The general principles of constructivism are based largely on the work of Piaget.

Piaget says that when a person interacts with an experience, a situation or an idea,
one of two things happens: either the new experience is integrated into his or her
existing schema (a process called assimilation) or the existing schema has to be
adapted to accommodate the new idea or experience (a process called adaptation).
• Assimilation refers to the use of an existing schema to give meaning to new
experiences. Assimilation is based on the learner’s ability to notice similarities
among objects and match the new ideas to those he or she already possesses.
• Accommodation is the process of altering existing ways of seeing things or ideas
that do not fit into existing schemata. Accommodation is facilitated by reflective
thought and results in the changing or modification of existing schemata.

The following activity will help you work through these ideas with a mathematical
example:

ACTIVITY 2.3

Daniel, a learner in Grade 4, gives the following incorrect response:

1 1 2
2 + 2 = 4

(1) Explain the conceptual error made by the learner.

(2) What mental construct (or idea) needs to be modified by the learner to overcome
this misconception? (Think of the addition of whole numbers and so on.)
(3) Describe a useful, constructive activity that Daniel could engage in to remedy
the misconception. (He could use drawings, counters, etc.)
(4) What kind of process will take place as a result of the modification of Daniel’s
mental construct: accommodation or assimilation? Explain your answer.

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 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

Implications for teaching

Mathematics learning is likely to happen when we
• use activities which build upon learners’ experiences.
• use activities which the learners regard as powerful and interesting.
• provide feedback to the learners.
• develop and use correct mathematical language.
• challenge learners within a supportive framework.
• encourage learner collaboration, consensus and decision-making.

Examples of constructed learning

When learners construct their own conceptual understanding of what they are being
taught, they will not always produce solutions that look the same. The teacher needs
to be open to evaluating the solution of the learner as it is presented. Computational
proficiency and speed are not always the goal. Confidence, understanding and a belief
in their ability to solve a problem should also be valued.

Case Study A

Consider the following two solutions to a problem:

Both solutions are correct and demonstrate conceptual understanding on behalf of

the learners. An algorithm is a procedural method for doing a computation. Neither
Michael nor Romy (above) has used formal division algorithms (such as long or
short division).

ACTIVITY 2.4
Subtraction using the vertical algorithm:

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(1) What calculation error did the learner make in subtraction?

(2) What conceptual error did the learner make? (Think of place-value concepts.)
(3) Was the rule ‘borrow from the next column’ clearly understood by the learner?
Explain your answer.
(4) In many instances, the learner’s existing knowledge is incomplete or inaccurate
– so he or she invents an incorrect meaning. Explain the subtraction error in
the light of the above statement.

Construction in rote learning

All that you have read so far shows that learning and thinking cannot be separated
from each other (especially not in mathematics). In many classrooms, reflective
thought (or active thinking) is still often replaced by rote learning that focuses on
the acquisition of specific skills, facts and the memorising of information, rules and
procedures – most of which is very soon forgotten once the immediate need for its
retention has passed.

Learners needs information, concepts, ideas or a network of connected ideas in

order to think and they think according to the knowledge they already have at their
disposal (in their cognitive schemata). The dead weight of facts learned off by heart,
by memory without thought to meaning (that is rote learning), robs learners of the
potential excitement of relating ideas or concepts to one another and the possibility
of divergent and creative thinking (Grossmann, 1986).

Constructivism is a theory about how we learn. Even rote learning is a construction.

However, the tools or ideas used for construction in rote learning are minimal. You
may well ask: To what is knowledge learned by rote connected?

In many cases what is inflicted on children as a result of rote-memorised rules is the

manipulation of symbols that have little or no attached meaning.

This makes learning much more difficult, because rules are much harder to remember
than integrated conceptual structures which are made up of a network of connected
ideas. In addition, careless errors are not picked up because the task has no meaning
for the learners and so they have not anticipated the kind of result that might emerge.

Mathematics has traditionally been regarded as a ‘tool subject’ that consists of a

series of computational skills: the rote learning of skills is all-important, and rate
and accuracy are the criteria used for measuring learning. This approach, labelled as
the ‘drill theory’, is described by William Brawnell (Paul Trapton, 1986) as follows:
Arithmetic consists of a vast host of unrelated facts and relatively independent
skills. The pupil acquires the facts by repeating them over and over again until
he is able to recall them immediately and correctly. He develops the skills by
going through the processes in question until he can perform the required
operations automatically and accurately. The teacher need give little time to
instructing the pupil in the meaning of what he is learning.

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 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

This approach has numerous weaknesses:

• Learners perform poorly, neither understanding nor enjoying the subject.
• They are unable to apply what they have learned to new situations; they soon
forget what they have learned.
• Learning occurs in a vacuum; the link to the real world is rarely made.
• Little attention is paid to the needs, interests or development of the learner.
• Knowledge learned by rote is hardly connected to the child’s existing ideas (that
is, the child’s cognitive schemata) so that useful cognitive networks are not
formed – each newly formed idea is isolated.
• Rote learning almost never contributes to a useful network of ideas.
• Rote learning can be thought of as a ‘weak construction’.

ACTIVITY 2.5

Rote learning
An enthusiastic class in the Senior Phase is put through a rigorous process of
rote learning in mathematics.
(1) While teaching one of the CAPS topics in your Senior Phase mathematics
class, would you approve of rote learning procedures?
(2) Ask your learners to think of creative ways of remembering that 7 × 8 = 56.
They should create their own useful mathematical networks. (You could engage
your learners in the Intermediate Phase in this activity.) Consider the clever
ways the class figures out the product.
• Now explain some clever ways the class could use to remember that
16 × 25 = 400.
• Compare the memorisation of these facts (7 × 8 = 56 or 6 × 9 = 54) by rote
to the network of profitable mental constructions (leading to these products).
Which approach would you prefer? Explain your response briefly.
(3) Do you think that ultimately all Senior Phase learners should have the
multiplication tables at their fingertips? Give reasons for your answer.

Understanding
We are now in a position to say what we mean by ‘understanding’. Grossman (1986)
explains that to understand something means to assimilate it into an appropriate
schema (cognitive structure). Recall that ‘assimilation’ refers to the use of an existing
schema (or a network of connected ideas) to give meaning to new experiences and
new ideas. It is important to note that the assimilation of information or ideas to an
inappropriate (faulty, confusing or incorrect) schema will make the assimilation to
later ideas more difficult and in some cases perhaps impossible (depending on how
inappropriate the schema is).

Grossmann (1986) cites another obstacle to understanding, namely the belief that
one already understands fully. Learners are very often unaware that they have
not understood a concept until they put it into practice. How often has a teacher
given a class a number of similar problems to do (after demonstrating a particular
number process on the board) only to find that a number of learners cannot solve
the problems? Those children thought that they understood, but they did not. The
situation becomes just as problematic when there is an absence of a schema: that is, no

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schema to assimilate to, just a collection of memorised rules and facts. For teachers
in the Intermediate Phase the danger lies in the fact that mechanical computation can
obscure the fact that schemata are not being constructed or built up, especially in the
first few years – this is to the detriment of the learners’ understanding in later years.

Understanding can be thought of as the measure of the quality and quantity of

connections that an idea has with existing ideas. Understanding depends on the
existence of appropriate ideas and the creation of new connections. The greater the
number of appropriate connections to a network of ideas, the better the understanding
will be. A person’s understanding exists along a continuum. At one pole, an idea is
associated with many others in a rich network of related ideas. This is the pole of so-
called ‘relational understanding’. At the other pole, the ideas are loosely connected or
isolated from one another. This is the pole of so-called ‘instrumental understanding’.

Knowledge learned by rote is almost always at the pole of instrumental understanding

– where ideas are nearly always isolated and disconnected.

Grossman (1986) draws attention to one of Piaget’s teaching and learning principles,
namely the importance of the child learning by his or her own discovery. When
learners come to knowledge through self-discovery, the knowledge has more meaning
because discovery facilitates the process of building cognitive structures (constructing
a network of connected ideas). Recall of information (concepts, procedures) is easier
than recall of unrelated knowledge transmitted to the learner.

Through the process of discovery (or investigation), a learner passes through a

process of grasping the basic relations (or connections) of an event while discarding
irrelevant relations and so he or she arrives at a concept (idea) together with an
understanding of the relations that give the concept meaning: the learner can,
therefore, go on to handle and cope with a good deal of meaningful new, but in fact
highly related, information.

We infer from the above that the learner arrives at a concept that is derived from a
schema (a network of connected ideas) rather than from direct instruction from the
teacher. This produces the kind of learner who is independent and able to think,
express ideas and solve problems. This represents a shift to learner-centeredness,
where learners are knowledge developers and users rather than storage systems
and performers (Grossman, 1986).

ACTIVITY 2.6

Relational and instrumental understanding

(1) Explain the difference between relational understanding and instrumental
understanding.
(2) Explain why relational understanding has a far greater potential than
instrumental understanding for promoting reflective thinking.
(3) Explain what it means to say that understanding exists on a continuum from
relational to instrumental. Give an example of a mathematical concept and
explain how it might be understood at different places along this continuum.
(4) Explain the difference between the use of a rule, an algorithm or an idea, and
the thinking strategies, processes and concepts used to construct a solution
(or a new idea).

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 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

Examples of understanding
Understanding is about being able to connect ideas together, rather than simply
knowing isolated facts. The question ‘Does the learner know it?’ must be replaced with
‘How well does the learner understand it?’ The first question refers to instrumental
understanding and the second leads to relational understanding. Memorising rules
and using recipe methods diligently in computations is knowing the idea. Where
the learner connects a network of ideas to form a new idea and arrive at solutions,
this is ‘understanding the idea’ and contributes to how a learner understands.

Let’s illustrate this with an example. Look at the subtraction skill involved in the
following:
15
- 6
…

Reflect on the thought processes at different places along the understanding continuum
(that is, the continuous closing of ‘gaps’ for the understanding of the idea at hand).

IDEA A Instrumental understanding – concept of subtraction is isolated, vague

or flawed.
IDEA B Concept of whole numbers (including the skill involved in counting).
IDEA C Existing concept of the operation ‘addition’ and its application to the
whole numbers (e.g. 4 + 11 = 15 and so on).
IDEA D Addition and subtraction are opposite operations (e.g. if 5 + 4 = 9,
then 9 – 4 = 5 or 9 – 5 = 4).
IDEA E Relational understanding of the operation subtraction.

Three strategies are referred to below, indicating the connecting ideas required for
15 – 9 = 6.

Strategy 1: Start with 6 and work up to 10.

That is, 6 and 4 more is 10 and 5 more makes 15. The difference between 6 and
15 is 4 + 5 = 9.

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On the number line:

4 5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

15 – 9 = 6

Strategy 2: Start with 6 and double this number.

We get 6 + 6 = 12 and 3 more is 15. The difference between 6 and 15 is
6 + 3 = 9.

On the number line:

6 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

15 – 9 = 6

Strategy 3: The ‘take away’ process

Start with 15. Take away 5 to get 10 and taking away 1 more gives 9.

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 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

On the number line:

1 5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

15 – 6 = 9

This kind of analysis of steps that learners could follow when answering a question
can help you, the teacher, to help learners to overcome their difficulties and
misunderstandings. There is not a ‘magic wand’ that one can wave to make problems
go away. Each individual learner needs attention and help at the point at which they
experience difficulty, and you need to be able to find the step at which they need
help and take it from there.

Benefits of relational understanding

Reflect again on the involvement of the learners in the science of pattern and order
when ‘doing’ mathematics. Perhaps they had to share ideas with others, whether right
or wrong, and had to defend these ideas; or they had to listen to their peers and had
to make sense of their ideas. Together they tried to come up with a solution and had
to decide whether the answers were correct without looking in an answer book or
even asking the teacher. This process takes time and effort.

When learners do mathematics like this on a daily basis in an environment that

encourages risk and participation, formulating a network of connected ideas (through
reflecting, investigating and problem-solving), it becomes an exciting endeavour,
a meaningful and constructive experience.

In order to maximise relational understanding, it is important for the teacher to:

• Select effective tasks and mathematics activities that lend themselves to
exploration, investigation (of number patterns for example) or self-discovery.
• Make instrumental material available (in the form of manipulatives, worksheets,
mathematical games and puzzles, diagrams and drawings, paper-folding, cutting
and pasting, and so on) so that the learners can engage with the tasks.
• Organise the classroom for constructive group work and maximum interaction
with and among the learners.
The important benefits derived from relational understanding (that is, this method of
constructing knowledge through the process of ‘doing’ mathematics in problem-
solving and thus connecting a network of ideas to give meaning to a new idea)
make the whole effort not only worthwhile but also essential.

Van de Walle (2004:24) provides a clear account of seven benefits of relational

understanding (see also Van de Walle et al, 2016:45).

Benefit 1: It is intrinsically rewarding.

Nearly all people, and certainly children, enjoy learning. (‘What type of learning?’ you
may ask.) This is especially true when new information, new concepts and principles
connect with ideas already at the learner’s disposal. The new knowledge now makes

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sense, it fits (into the learner’s schema) and it feels good. The learner experiences
an inward satisfaction and derives an inward motivation to continue, to search
and explore further – he or she finds it intrinsically rewarding.

Children who learn by rote (memorise facts and rules without understanding) must
be motivated by external means: for the sake of a test, to please a parent, from fear
of failure, or to receive some reward. Such learning may not result in sincere inward
motivation and stimulation. It will neither encourage the learner nor create a love
for the subject when the rewards are removed.

Benefit 2: It enhances memory.

Memory is a process of recalling or remembering or retrieving of information.

When mathematics is learned relationally (with understanding) the connected

information (or the network of connected ideas) is simply more likely to be retained
over time than disconnected information.

Retrieval of information is also much easier. Connected information provides an

entire web of ideas (or network of ideas). If what you need to recall seems distant,
reflecting on ideas that are related can usually lead you to the desired idea eventually.

Retrieving disconnected information or disorganised information is more like finding

a needle in haystack.

Look at the example given below. Would it be easier to recall the set of disconnected
numbers indicated in column A, or the more organised list of numbers in column
B? Does the identification of the number pattern in column B (that is, finding a rule
that connects the numbers) make it easier to retrieve this list of numbers?

Organised and connected list of

numbers
Disconnected list of numbers

Benefit 3: There is less to remember.

Traditional approaches have tended to fragment mathematics into seemingly endless
lists of isolated skills, concepts, rules and symbols. The lists are so lengthy that
teachers and learners become overwhelmed from remembering or retrieving hosts
of isolated and disconnected information.

Constructivists talk about how ‘big ideas’ are developed from constructing
large networks of interrelated concepts. Ideas are learned relationally when they are
integrated into a web of information, a ‘big idea’. For a network of ideas that is well
constructed, whole chunks of information are stored and retrieved as a single entity
or as a single of related concepts rather than isolated bits.

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 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

Think of ‘ratio and proportion’ and how they connect and integrate various aspects of
the mathematics curriculum: the length of an object and its shadow, scale drawings,
trigonometric ratios, similar triangles with proportional sides, the ratio between the
area of a circle and its radius, and so on. Another example – knowledge of place
value – underlies the rules involving decimal numbers:

and so on.

Benefit 4: It helps with learning new concepts and procedures.

An idea which is fully understood in mathematics is easily extended to learn a new idea.
• Number concepts and relationships help in the mastery of basic facts.
Example:

8 + 7 = 15 35
=5
 7
15 - 8 = 7
15 - 7 = 8 15 × 7 = 35

• Fraction knowledge and place-value knowledge come together to make decimal

learning easier.
Example:

0,65 + 0,07
65 7
= 100 + 100

72
= 100

= 0,72

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• The proper construction of decimal concepts will directly enhance an understanding

of percentage concepts and procedures.
Example:
Convert 0,125 to a percentage.
1 2   5 
0,125 = 10 + 100 + 1 000

 10 2 0,5 12,5

= 100 + 100 + 100 +   100 = 12,5%

Many of the ideas of elementary arithmetic become the model for ideas in algebra.
Example:
3×5+4×5=7×5
3×7+4×7=7×7
3 × 12 + 4 × 12 = 7 × 12
Leads to: 3� + 4� = 7�

Take careful note of how connections are made and how new constructs or ideas
are generated. Without these connections, learners will need to learn each new
piece of information they encounter as a separate unrelated idea.

Benefit 5: It improves problem-solving abilities.

The solution of novel problems (or the solution of problems that are not familiar
routine-type problems) requires transferring ideas learned in one context to new
situations. When concepts, skills or principles are constructed in a rich and
organised network (of ideas), transferability to a new situation is greatly enhanced,
and so is problem-solving.

Consider the following example:

Learners in the Intermediate Phase are asked to work out the following sum in
different ways:
14 + 14 + 14 + 14 + 14 + 14 + 14 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 6

Learners with a rich network of connected ideas about the addition of whole numbers,
multiplication as repeated addition and the identification of number patterns might
well construct the following solutions to this problem:
7 × (14 + 6) = 7 × 20 (since there are seven pairs of the sum 14 + 6) = 140
or
7 × 14 + 7 × 6 (seven groups of 14 and seven groups of 6) = 98 + 42 = 140

Adding the numbers from left to right would be, you must agree, a tedious exercise.

Benefit 6: It is self-generative.
A learner who has constructed a network of related or connected ideas can move
much more easily from this initial mental state to a new idea, a new construct or
a new invention. This learner can create a series of mental pathways, based on the
cognitive map of understanding (a rich web of connected ideas) at his or her disposal,
to a new idea or solution.

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 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

That is, the learner finds a path to a new goal state. Van de Walle (2004) agrees
with Hiebert and Carpenter that a rich base of understanding can generate new
understandings. The authors claim that Inventions that operate on understanding
can generate new understanding, suggesting a kind of snowball effect; as networks
grow and become more structured, they increase the potential for invention.

Consider as an example, the sum of the first ten natural numbers:

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10

A learner with insight into and an understanding of numbers may well realise that
each consecutive number from left to right increases by one and each consecutive
number from right to left decreases by one.

Hence the following five groups of 11 are formed:

1 + 10 = 11; 2 + 9 = 11; 3 + 8 = 11; 4 + 7 = 11; and 5 + 6 = 11

The sum of the first ten natural numbers is simply:

10
(10 + 1) × = 11 × 5 = 55
 2

The connection of ideas in the above construct may well generate an understanding
of the following new rule:
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ............. + n = (n + 1) × n
2

Use this rule to add up the first 100 natural numbers.

Relational understanding therefore has the welcome potential to motivate the learner
to new insights and ideas, and the creation of new inventions and discoveries in
mathematics.

When gaining knowledge is found to be pleasurable, people who have had that
experience of pleasure are more likely to seek or invent new ideas on their own,
especially when confronting problem-based situations.

Benefit 7: It improves attitudes and beliefs.

Relational understanding has the potential to inspire a positive feeling, emotion or
desire (affective effect) in the learner of mathematics, as well as to promote his or
her faculty of knowing, reasoning and perceiving (cognitive effect). When learning
relationally, the learner tends to develop a positive self-concept, a sense of self-worth
and confidence in his or her ability to learn and understand mathematics.

Relational understanding is the product of a learning process where learners

are engaged in a series of carefully designed tasks which are solved in a social
environment.

Learners make their own discoveries, share experiences with others, engage in helpful
debates about methods and solutions, invent new methods, articulate their thoughts,
borrow ideas from their peers and solve problems – and in so doing, conceptual
knowledge is constructed and internalised by the learner, improving the quality and
quantity of the network of connected and related ideas.

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The effects may be summarised as follows:

• Relational understanding promotes self-reliance and self-esteem.
• It promotes confidence to tackle new problems.
• It reduces anxiety and pressure.
• It develops an honest understanding of concepts.
• Learners do not rely on interpretive learning, but on the construction of knowledge.
• Learners develop investigative and problem-solving strategies.
• Learners do not forget knowledge they have constructed.
• Learners enjoy mathematics.
There is no reason to fear or to be in awe of knowledge learned relationally.
Mathematics now makes sense – it is not some mysterious world that only ‘smart
people’ dare enter. At the other end of the continuum, instrumental understanding
has the potential to produce mathematics anxiety or fear and avoidance behaviour
towards mathematics.

Relational understanding also promotes a positive view of mathematics itself. Sensing

the connectedness and logic of mathematics, learners are more likely to be attracted
to it or to describe it in positive terms.

We conclude this section with the emphasis that every mathematics teacher should
strive to promote relational understanding or learning with understanding, which is
not only possible, but essential. That is, all learners can and must learn mathematics
with understanding. Learning with understanding is the only way to ensure that
learners will be able to cope with the many unknown problems that will confront
them in the future.

ACTIVITY 2.7

Benefits of relational understanding

Examine the seven benefits of relational understanding discussed above.

Select the benefits that you think are most important for the learning (with
understanding) of mathematics. Discuss this with fellow mathematics teachers.

Describe each of the benefits chosen above and then explain why you personally
believe each one is significant. Illustrate your thinking with a practical example
from your own classroom.

TYPES OF MATHEMATICAL KNOWLEDGE

All knowledge, whether mathematical or other knowledge, consists of internal or
mental representations of ideas that the mind has constructed. The concept itself
exists in the mind as an abstraction. To illustrate this point, Farrell and Farmer
refer to the formation of the concept of a ‘triangle’ as follows:
When you learned the concept of ‘triangle’ you may have been shown all kinds
of triangular shapes like cardboard cut-outs, three pipe cleaners tied together,
or pictures of triangular structures on bridges or pictures of triangle in general.

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 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

Eventually, you learned that these objects and drawings were representations
or physical models of a triangle, not the triangle itself. In fact, you probably
learned the concept of triangle before you were taught to give a definition
and you may have even learned quite a bit about the concept before anyone
told you its name. So a concept is not its label, nor is it any physical model or
single example. The concept of the triangle, therefore, resides in the mental
representation of the idea that the mind has constructed.

You may also include terms such as integer, pi (π), locus, congruence, set addition,
equality and inequality as some of the mental representations of ideas that the mind
has constructed in mathematics.

According to Njisane (1992), Piaget distinguishes three types of knowledge, namely

social, physical and logico-mathematical knowledge:
• Social knowledge is dependent on a particular culture. In one culture it is
acceptable to eat with your fingers, in another it may be considered as bad manners.
Social knowledge is acquired through interaction with other people and the best
way to teach it in the classroom would presumably be through telling.
• Physical knowledge is gained when one abstracts information about objects
themselves. The colour of an object, its shape, what happens to it when it is
knocked against a wall and so on are examples of physical knowledge.
• Logico-mathematical knowledge is made up of relationships between
objects which are not inherent in the objects itself, but are introduced through
mental activity.

For example, to acquire a concept of the number 3, a learner needs to experience

different situations where three objects or elements are encountered. Logico-
mathematical knowledge is acquired through reflective abstraction, depending
on the child’s mind and the way he or she organises and interprets reality. It seems
that each one of us arrives at our own logico-mathematical knowledge.

It is important to note that the acquisition of logico-mathematical knowledge without

using social and physical knowledge as a foundation is bound to be ineffective. Since
relational understanding depends on the integration of ideas into abstract networks
of ideas (or a network of interconnected ideas), teachers of mathematics may just
view mathematics as something that exists ‘out there’, while forgetting the concrete
roots of mathematical ideas. This could result in a serious mistake – teachers must
also take into account how these mental representations of the mind are constructed,
that is, through effective interaction and ‘doing mathematics’.

ACTIVITY 2.8

Logico-mathematical knowledge
Read the text above and then answer the following question:
Can logico-mathematical knowledge be transmitted from the teacher to the learner
while the learner remains passive? Explain your response.

Remember to consider that

• mental ideas or representations need to be constructed by the learner

• the learner requires interaction and mental activity to establish relationships
between objects

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Conceptual understanding of mathematics

Conceptual knowledge of mathematics consists of logical relationships constructed
internally and existing in the mind as a part of the greater network of ideas:
• It is the type of knowledge Piaget refers to as logico-mathematical knowledge,
that is, knowledge made up of relationships between objects which are not
inherent in the objects itself, but are introduced through mental activity.
• By its very nature, conceptual knowledge is knowledge that is understood.

You have formed many mathematical concepts. Ideas such as seven, nine, rectangle,
one/tens/hundreds (as in place value), sum, difference, quotient, product, equivalent,
ratio, positive and negative are all examples of mathematical relationships or
concepts.

At this stage we need to look at the nature of mathematical concepts.

Richard R Skemp (1964) writes the following:
Mathematics is not a collection of facts, which can be demonstrated, seen or
verified in the physical world (or external world), but a structure of closely
related concepts, arrived at by a process of pure thought.

Think about this: that the subject matter of mathematics (or the concepts and
relationships) is not to be found in the external world (outside the mind), and is not
accessible to our vision, hearing and other sense organs. These mathematical concepts
have only mental existence – so in order to construct a mathematical concept or
relationship, we have to turn away from the physical world of sensory objects to an
inner world of purely mental objects.

This ability of the mind to turn inwards on itself, that is, to reflect, is something
that most of us use so naturally that we may fail to realise what a remarkable ability
it is. Do you not consider it odd that we can ‘hear’ our own verbal thoughts and
‘see’ our own mental images, although no one has revealed any internal sense organs
which could explain these activities? Skemp (1964) refers to this ability of the mind
as reflective intelligence.

Are mathematical concepts different from scientific concepts? Farrell and Farmer
(1980) explain that, unlike concepts such as cow, dog, glass, ant, water and flower, you
cannot see or subject to the other senses examples of triangle, points, pi, congruence,
ratio, negative numbers and so on. ‘But we write numbers, don’t we?’ you may ask.
No, we write symbols, which some prefer to call numerals, the names for numbers.
Now reflect on the following key difference between mathematics and science:
Scientific concepts include all those examples which can be perceived by
the senses, such as insect and flower, and those whose examples cannot be
perceived by the senses, such as atom and gravity. These latter concepts are
taught by using physical models or representations of the concepts (as in the
case of mathematics) (Farrell & Farmer, 1980).

Skemp (1964) urges us to see that the data of sensorimotor learning are sense data
present in the external world. However, the data for reflective intelligence are
concepts, so these must have been formed in the learner’s own mind before he
or she could reflect on them. A basic question that you may ask at this stage is: How
are mathematical concepts formed?

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 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

Skemp (1964) points out that to give someone a concept in a field of experiences
which is quite new to him or her, we must do two things:

Arrange for a group of experiences which have the concept in common and, if it is
a secondary concept (that is a concept derived from the primary concepts), make
sure that the learner has the other concepts from which it is derived in place (that is,
the prerequisite concepts need to be in place in the mental schema of the learner).

Returning now to mathematics: ‘seven’ is a primary concept, representing that which

all collections of seven objects have in common. ‘Addition’ is another concept and
it is derived from all actions or processes which combine two collections into one.
To learn these concepts, the learner requires a variety of direct sensory experiences
(counters, manipulatives and so on) from the external world that exemplify them.

The weakness of our present teaching methods comes, according to Skemp (1964),
during and after the transition from primary to secondary concepts, and other
concepts in the hierarchy. For example, from working through the properties of
individual numbers to generalisation about these properties; from statements like
9 × 6 = 54 to those like 9(� + y) = 9� + 9y.

Do you agree that many learners never understand what these algebraic statements
really mean, although they may, by rote-learning, acquire some skills in performing
certain tricks with the symbols? Understanding these statements requires the
formation or construction of the appropriate mathematical concepts.

Are there any limitations to the understanding of mathematical concepts learned

through the use of physical objects and concrete manipulatives from the external
world? Skemp (1964) outlines that to enable learners to form a new concept, we must
give them a number of different examples from which to form the concept in their
own mind – for this purpose some clever and attractive concrete embodiments (or
representations) of algebraic concepts in the form of balances, peg-boards, coloured
shapes and frames and the like are available.

However, these concrete embodiments fail to take into account the essential
difference between primary and higher order concepts; that is, only primary
concepts can be exemplified in physical or concrete objects, and higher order
concepts can only be symbolised.

To explain this, think of the concept 3 + 4 = 7, which can be demonstrated physically

with three blocks and four blocks or with beads or coins, but
3� + 4� = 7�

is a statement that generalises what is common to all statements such as

3×5+4×5=7×5
3 × 8 + 4 × 8 = 7 × 8 etc.
and which ignores particular results such as:
3 × 5 + 4 × 5 = 35.

Do you agree, therefore, that understanding of the algebraic statement is derived

from a discovery of what is common to all arithmetical statements of this kind,
not of what is common to any act or actions with physical objects?

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As new concepts and relationships are being assimilated in the network of connected
ideas, the direction of progress is never away from the primary concepts. This progress
results in the dependence of secondary concepts upon primary concepts. Once
concepts are sufficiently well formed and independent of their origins, they become
the generators of the next higher set – and in so doing lead to the construction of
a hierarchy of concepts.

Van de Walle (2004:26) cautions us that the use of physical (or concrete) objects in
teaching may compromise the meaningful understanding of concepts. This
happens if there are insufficient opportunities for the learner to generalise the concept:
Dienes blocks are commonly used to represent ones, tens and hundreds.
Learners who have seen pictures of these or have used actual blocks may
labour under the misconception that the rod is the ‘ten’ piece and the large
square block is the ‘hundreds’ piece. Does this mean that they have constructed
the concepts of ten and hundred? All that is known for sure is that they have
learned the names for these objects, the conventional names of the blocks.
The mathematical concept of ten is that a ten is the same as ten ones. Ten
is not a rod. The concept is the relationship between the rod and the
small cube – the concept is not the rod or a bundle of ten sticks or any other
model of a ten. This relationship called ‘ten’ must be created by learners in
their own minds.

Here is another interesting example that distinguishes the concept from the physical
object. In this example the shapes are used to represent wholes and parts of wholes.
In other words, this is an example dealing with the concept of a fraction.

Reflect carefully on the three shapes (A, B and C) which can be used to represent
different relationships:

A B C

If we call shape B ‘one’ or a whole, then we might refer to shape A as ‘one-half ‘.

The idea of ‘half’ is the relationship between shapes A and B, a relationship that
must be constructed in our mind as it is not in the rectangle.

If we decide to call shape C the whole, shape A now becomes ‘one-fourth’. The
physical model of the rectangle has not changed in any way. You will agree that the
concepts of ‘half’ and ‘fourth’ are not in rectangle A – we construct them in our
mind. The rectangles help us to ‘see’ the relationship, but what we see are rectangles,
not concepts. Assigning different rectangles, the status of the ‘whole’ can lead to
generalisation of the concept.

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 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

ACTIVITY 2.9

The formation of concepts

For this activity you are required to reflect on conceptual knowledge in mathematics.

(1) Richard R Skemp states that ‘mathematics is not a collection of facts which
can be demonstrated and verified in the physical world, but a structure of
closely related concepts, arrived at by a process of pure thought’.

• Discuss the above statement critically with fellow teachers of mathematics.

Take into account how the concepts and logical relationships are constructed
internally, and how they exist in the mind as part of a network of ideas.
• In the light of the above statement, explain what Skemp (1964) means
when he refers to ‘reflective intelligence’ (the ability of the mind to turn
inwards on itself).
• Why are ‘scientific concepts’ different from ‘mathematical concepts’? Explain
this difference clearly and give appropriate examples.

(2) Skemp (1964) points out that to help learners construct a concept in a field of
experience which is quite new to them, we must do two things. Mention the
two activities that the teacher needs to do to help learners acquire ‘primary
concepts’, ‘secondary concepts’, and other concepts in the hierarchy of
concepts.
(3) Skemp (1964) distinguishes between ‘primary concepts’ and ‘secondary
concepts’ in the learning of mathematics. Reflect on the difference between
concepts which are on different levels. Name some secondary concepts that
learners in the Senior Phase may encounter.
(4) Analyse the three shapes (A, B and C) shown in the text on the previous page.
Explain why the concepts ‘half’ and ‘quarter’ are not physically present in
rectangle A – but are created in the mind of the learner. Explain the implications
of this for teaching using manipulatives (concrete apparatus).

Procedural knowledge of mathematics

Procedural knowledge of mathematics is knowledge of the rules and procedures
that one uses in carrying out routine mathematical tasks. It includes the symbolism
that is used to represent mathematics.

You can therefore infer that knowledge of mathematics consists of more than
concepts. Step-by-step procedures exist for performing tasks such as the following:
56 × 74 (Multiplying two digit numbers)
1 932 ÷ 28 (Long division)
3 5
8
+6 (Addring fractions)

0,85 × 0,25 (Multiplying decimal numbers)

and so on.

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Concepts are represented by special words and mathematical symbols (such as

π, =, <, >, //, ≡, ∠ABC = 45° and so on). These procedures and symbols can be
connected to or supported by concepts – but very few cognitive relationships are
needed to have knowledge of a procedure (since these could be diligently memorised
through drill and practice).
In mathematics, we use a number of different symbols which indicate procedures that
need to be followed. For example, if we write (8 + 7) ÷ 3 + 10, it means a different
procedure has to be followed than if we write this as 8 + 7 ÷ (3 + 10). We get different
answers when we follow the different procedures. So we find that
(8 + 7) ÷ 3 + 10 = 15 ÷ 3 + 10 = 5 + 10 = 15 and
15 2
8 + 7 ÷ (3 + 10) = 15 ÷ 13 = 13
= 113

However, the meaning we attach to symbolic knowledge depends on how it is

understood – what concepts and other ideas we connect to the symbols.

What are procedures? They are the step-by-step routines learned to accomplish some
task, like a computation in the classroom situation.

ACTIVITY 2.10

Procedures
Reflect on the following example of a procedure:

To add two three-digit numbers, first add the numbers in the right-hand column.
If the answer is 10 or more, put the 1 above the second column, and write the
other digit under the first column. Proceed in a similar manner for the second two
columns in order.

• Use an appropriate example to test the above procedure (or recipe) for the
addition of two three-digit numbers.
• Give another example for a procedure for the purpose of computation.
Describe the step-by-step procedure operative in the calculation.

We can say that someone who can work through the variations of the procedures
in activity 10 has knowledge of those procedures. The conceptual understanding
that may or may not support the procedural knowledge can vary considerably from
one learner to the next.

In mathematics, we often use the term ‘algorithm’ to refer to a procedure. An

algorithm, according to Njisane (1992), is a procedure which consists of a finite
number of steps that lead to a result.
A simple example of an algorithm is the set of steps used to perform
the addition of frantions, e.g. 15 + 13 .

The use of algorithms is often helpful, but to be helpful, algorithms must be

understood. Njisane (1992) comments that an algorithm which is properly understood
may free the mind for further thinking, whereas using an algorithm without insight
may be frustrating. This is the difference between the ‘how’ and the ‘why’; or between
procedural understanding and relational understanding (that is, forming a network

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 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

of connected ideas). If the procedure refers to what we do when following a set of

steps, then relational understanding refers to why we do what we do.

Procedural knowledge and doing mathematics

As you read on, you need to understand why the connections between procedural
knowledge and the underlying conceptual knowledge and relationships are vital
for the construction of relational understanding in mathematics. You will see that
the ability to make connections plays a very important role both in learning and in
‘doing’ mathematics.
• Algorithmic procedures help us to do routine tasks easily and thus free our
minds to concentrate on more important tasks (like developing problem-solving
strategies).
• Symbolism (which is part of procedural knowledge) is a powerful mechanism
for conveying mathematical ideas to others and for manipulating an idea as we
do mathematics.
• The efficient use of the procedures and symbolism of mathematics does not
necessarily imply an understanding of these things.

For example, think of the endless long-division and long-multiplications exercises

in the classroom. Will these algorithmic exercises help the learner understand what
division and multiplication mean? Carrying out the step-by-step computation does
not necessarily translate into understanding the underlying concepts and relationships.
In fact, learners who are skilful with a particular procedure are often reluctant to
attach meaning to it after the fact.

Why the focus on concept and relationships? Recall that we have said that learning
and thinking cannot be separated from each other.

If the focus of learning is on the acquisition of specific skills, facts, procedures and
the memorisation of information and rules, then thinking is suppressed. Learners
require concepts and information in order to think and they will think according
to the knowledge already at their disposal. As mentioned before, you should reflect
on how the weight of facts, rules and procedures robs the learner of the potential
excitement of relating concepts to one another and the possibility of divergent
and creative thinking. The acquisition of procedural knowledge also instils in the
learner the habit of separating thinking and learning, and it often leaves learners
with feelings of low self-esteem (Grossman, 1986). Procedural knowledge with little
or no attached meaning results in inflicting on the learner the manipulation of
symbols according to a number of memorised rules, which makes it much harder
to remember what you have learned than when you have constructed an integrated
conceptual structure (or a network of connected ideas).

To construct and understand a new idea (or concept) requires actively thinking
about it. Recall again that mathematical ideas cannot be ‘poured into’ a passive
learner. Learners must be mentally active for learning to take place – they must be
seriously engaged in ‘doing mathematics’. In the classroom, the learners must be
encouraged to
• grapple with new ideas
• work at fitting them into existing networks
• challenge their own ideas and those of others

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Simply put, constructing knowledge requires reflective thought, actively thinking

about or mentally working on an idea – all this to overcome the acquisition of
procedural knowledge without relational understanding.

ACTIVITY 2.11

Meaningful construction of procedural knowledge

Reflect on the following statement:
From the view of learning mathematics, the question of how procedures and
conceptual ideas can be linked is much more important than the usefulness
of the standard procedure.

Use this statement to explain why the inventions of the two learners to solve 156 ÷ 4
(illustrated earlier in case study A) are considered more meaningful and enduring
than the recipe-type solutions.

A CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH TO TEACHING THE FOUR

OPERATIONS
The understanding of the four basic operations is crucial to all other areas of
mathematics. A solid foundation needs to be established in basic number work,
especially in the earlier phases of schooling. However, in order to support constructivist
teaching of mathematics, this should not be done simply by using traditional algorithms.
Though the aim is for learners to calculate fluently using all four basic operations,
they should learn to do this by creating or inventing their own strategies. They must
be able to explain what they have done, rather than simply to do it mechanically.

Devising strategies for doing operations relates to the problem-solving approach

of devising a plan, carrying out the plan and then evaluating the plan, which are
explored fully in unit 3. If taught properly, the four basic operations also illustrate
the constructivist theory of learning, which is the subject of this unit.

For constructivist mathematics teaching, it is critical to develop a variety of strategies

rather than simply to teach using a single strategy. In this section, we provide a
range of alternative strategies so that you can vary your teaching and assessment of
operations.

Mental mathematics should be done daily, as drill and practice play an important role
in the mastery of computational skills. But even when doing mental mathematics
learners need to explain how they have arrived at a solution. Posing problems on
flash cards for five to ten minutes each day helps learners to think about alternative
problem-solving strategies and encourages reasoning skills, mental speed, accuracy,
interaction and communication.

Classroom exercises on the basic operations

The following exercises for developing a number sense have been developed by
Penlington (2000). They help learners to refine their basic operation strategies and
can be adapted for decimal fractions and percentages. These exercises will give you
the opportunity to develop your own understanding of the operations (which are

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 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

part of the first content area in the CAPS document for Senior Phase mathematics
[DBE, 2011:9]).
(1) Let learners count in multiples. For example, start at 21 and count in 7s, or
count back from 64 in 8s.
(2) Doubling and halving of whole numbers, decimals and fractions.
(3) Tables: draw up tables of patterns using the doubling strategy.
(4) Breaking up numbers: 3 584 = 3 000 + 500 + 80 + 4 (decomposition).
(5) Add on and back in multiples.
(6) Pattern recognition (see number 3).
32 - 5 = 27 27 + 5 = 32
42 - 5 = 37 37 + 5 = 42 Do + and - together
52 - 5 = 47 47 + 5 = 52
Do � and ÷ together.
1 × 4 = 4 4÷4=1
2 × 4 = 8 8÷4=2
4 × 4 = 16 16 ÷ 4 = 4
8 × 4 = 32 32 ÷ 4 = 8
3 × 4 = 12 12 ÷ 4 = 3
6 × 4 = 24 24 ÷ 4 = 6
9 × 4 = 36 36 ÷ 4 = 9
(7) How many …
6s in 42?
60’s in 420?
WHY?
(8) Which numbers without a remainder can be divided into 24?
(9) What numbers between 70 and 700 are divisible by 7?
(10) Take the number 48. Make it 100, make it 500, make it 1 000.
(11) How much must I go back from 36 to get to 3?
(12) How much must I add to get from 31 to 46?
(13) What minus 6 is 5?
(14) What is the difference between 32 and 21?
(15) What is the total of 45, 2 and 9?
(16) What is the product of 9 and 12?

Strategies for addition for foundation phase learners

(1) Putting the larger number first when counting on or adding
3 + 12 → 12 + 3
(2) Partitioning problem
24 + 13 → 20 + 4 + 10 + 3
→ 20 + 10 + 3 + 4
= 30 + 7 = 37
(3) Bridging through 10 using familiar numbers bonds 1 to 10
18 + 6 = 18 + 2 + 4 = 24
(4) Counting on in 10s
23 + 40 to find the answer, count on in tens … 23; 33; 43; 53; 63
(5) Compensation, for example adding by using ‘+ 10 – 1’
43 + 9 = 43 + 10 – 1 = 53 – 1 = 52

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An example of a simple word problem using four different strategies:

I have 27 cents. I get 35 cents more. How much do I now have?
27 + 35 = *
(1) 20 + 30 → 50 + 7 → 57 + 5 → 62
(2) 20 + 30 = 50
7 + 5 = 12
50 + 12 = 62
(3) 27 + 3 = 30; 35 – 3 = 32; 30 + 32 = 62
(4) 27 + 30 → 57 + 5 → 62
Strategies for subtraction for Foundation and Intermediate Phase learners
(1) Partitioning
23 – 5 = 20 – 5 + 3 = 15 + 3 = 18
(2) Complementary addition or ‘shopkeeper’s addition’ (adding on)
31 – 18 = 18 + 2 → 20 + 10 → 30 + 1 → 31
(3) Compensation
28 – 9 = 28 – 10 + 1 = 19

Strategies for multiplication for Foundation and Intermediate Phase learners

(1) Using doubles
I want to know what 6 × 6 is.
I want to know what 2 × 6 is. It is 12, so 3 × 6 = 18 doubled is 36.
1×6=6
3 × 6 = 18
This doubled is 6 × 6 = 36.
(2) Using repeated doubling
13 × 4 = 4 × 13
2 × 13 = 26
4 × 13 = 26, therefore, 26 doubled is 52.
4 × 13 = 52 So 13 × 4 is 52.
(3) Using the effect of multiplying numbers by 10
Example: 20 × 7 = 2 × 7 × 10 = 14 × 10 = 140

Strategies for division for Foundation and Intermediate Phase learners

(1) Using known facts
Half of 46 is 23.
(2) Using repeated halving
100 ÷ 4 =
Half of 100 = 50
Halve again: half of 50 is 25.
(3) Using multiplication facts
28 ÷ 7 = 4 since 4 × 7 = 28
180 ÷ 3 = 60 since 18 ÷ 3 = 6

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 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

(4) Partitioning larger numbers

116 ÷ 4
100 ÷ 4 = 25
16 ÷ 4 = 4
116 ÷ 4 = 29

Example:
A farmer picks 338 oranges. They are packed into bags with 13 oranges in each bag.
How many bags of oranges are there?
(1) 338 ÷ 13 = *
13 × 10 → 130 + 130 → 260 + 52 → 312 + 26 → 338
10 + 10 + 4 + 2 = 26
There are 26 bags of oranges.
(2) 338 ÷ 13 = 26 We can do this calculation by partitioning:
(3) 260 ÷ 13 = 20 13 × 20 = 260
78 ÷ 136 13 × 6 = 78
therefore, 26 × 13 = 338

Strategies for addition for Intermediate and Senior Phase learners

(1) Bridging through a decade using multiples of 10 and making use of complements (number
bonds within 10 or 20)
67 + 35 is solved by using 3 + 7 = 10 and expressing the 5 (from the 35) as the
sum of 3 and 2.
67 + 35 → 67 + 3 = 70 then add 70 + 30 + 2
or 67 + 35 → 35 + 5 = 40 then add 40 + 60 + 2
A more sophisticated ‘bridge’ might be
78 + 27 → 78 + 22 = 100
100 + 5 = 105
(2) Partitioning splits numbers into 10s and 1s using place value
24 + 37 → 20 + 30 + 7 + 4
This can develop so that only the smaller number is split.
24 + 37 → 37 + 20 + 4
(3) Using known facts
75 + 30
I know 75 plus 25 is 100, so 75 plus 30 must be 105.
(4) Using known fact flexibly: doubles
35 + 38 → (2 × 35) + 3
(5) Using known facts flexibly: compensating
Round off the 38 to 40 and subtract 2
35 + 38 → (35 + 40) – 2

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Strategies for subtraction for Intermediate and Senior Phase learners

(1) Counting on
75 – 38 is solved as:
75 – 5 → 70 – 30 → 40 – 3 → 37
-5 + -30 + -3 = -38
(2) Partitioning as in the addition strateg y uses place value to split numbers into 10’s and 1’s
74 – 42 is broken into 70 – 40 and 4 – 2
Look at this example: 34 – 27 is broken into (30 – 27) + 4 or (34 – 20) – 7
Even this is a good way learners use: (30 – 20) + (4 – 7) = 10 + -3 = 7

Strategies for multiplication for Intermediate and Senior Phase learners

(1) Making use of number patterns
35 × 100 = 3 500
35 × 300 = 35 × 3 (100)
Extend this to decimals: 4,7 × 20 → 4,7 × 2 × 10
Another example: 3,4 × 8 = (3,4 × 10) – 6,8 = 34 – 6,8 = 27,2. This is a very
sophisticated approach indicating a well-developed number sense.
(2) Extending the doubling strateg y with some recording
24 × 13 =
13 = 8 + 4 + 1 and 1 × 24 = 24
2 × 24 = 48
4 × 24 = 96
8 × 24 = 192 so my 13 is made up of 8 ×
which is 192, 4 × which is 96 and 1 × which is 24
Or, since 24 × 13 = 24 × (8 + 4 + 1) = (24 × 8) + (24 × 4) + (24 × 1)
we get 24 × 13 = 192 + 96 + 24 = 312

Strategies for division for Intermediate and Senior Phase learners

Doubling and halving may be combined
(1) 48 ÷ 5 → 48 ÷ 10 × 2 = 4,8 × 2 → 9,6
(2) 140 ÷ 4 = (140 ÷ 2) ÷ 2 = 70 ÷ 2 → 35

THE ROLE OF MODELS IN DEVELOPING UNDERSTANDING

Today we find common agreement that effective mathematics instruction in the
primary grades includes the liberal use of concrete materials. However, we should not
simply use concrete materials uncritically in the teaching of mathematics. The aim
in this section is to reflect on how to use concrete materials and models in teaching
judiciously and reflectively for understanding.

Our primary question should always be:

What, in principle, do I want my learners to understand?

But too often it is:

What shall I have my learners learn to do?

If you can answer only the second question, then you have not given sufficient
thought to what you hope to achieve by a particular set of instructions on the use

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 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

of models. The activities that you plan for your learners must be guided by what you
would like them to understand.

Manipulatives, or concrete, physical materials used to model mathematical

concepts, are certainly important tools available for helping children to learn
mathematics, but they are not the miracle cure that some educators seem to believe
them to be.

It is important that you have a good perspective on how manipulatives (concrete,

physical models) can help or fail to help learners to construct ideas.

Models for mathematical concepts

Mathematical concepts have only mental existence; that is, the subject matter of
mathematics is not to be found in the external world, accessible to our vision, hearing
and other sense organs. We can only ‘do’ mathematics because our minds have what
Skemp (1964) refers to as ‘reflective intelligence’: the ability of the mind to turn
away from the physical world and turn towards itself. We can use physical objects
to represent mathematical ideas and to help us in the teaching of these ideas, but in
the end learners have to form the idea in their own heads, as a concept, unattached
to any real object.

ACTIVITY 2.12

Models
(1) You may talk of 100 people, 100 rand or 100 acts of kindness. Reflect on
the above statement and then explain what is meant by the concept of 100.
Discuss the concept of 100 with fellow mathematics teachers. If you do not
agree about the meaning of 100, establish why there is a difference of opinion
in your understanding.
(2) Explain what a ‘model’ for a mathematical concept is. Give an example.
(3) List some models (apparatus/manipulatives) that you have used in your
mathematics teaching. Indicate in each case how you have used the particular
model mentioned.
(4) Why is it incorrect to say that a model ‘illustrates’ a concept? Explain your
answer.

Seeing mathematical ideas in materials can be challenging. The material may be

physical (or visual), but the idea that learners are intended to see is not in the material.
The idea, according to Thompson (1994) is in the way learners understand the
material and understand their interaction with it. Let’s follow this idea through by
considering the use of models in the teaching of fractions.

A common approach to teaching fractions is to have learners consider collections of

objects, some of which are distinct from the rest, as depicted in the following figure:

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The above collection is certainly concrete (or visual). But what does it mean to the
learners?
Three circles out of five? If so, they see a part and a whole, but not a fraction.
Three-fifths of one? Perhaps. Depending on how they think of the circle and collections,
they could also see three-fifths of five, five-thirds of one, or five-thirds of three.
Thompson (1994) provides the following example of multiple interpretations of
materials (or models) of the figure you see on the next page.

ACTIVITY 2.13

Multiple interpretations of models

Various ways to think about the circles and collections in the figure:

(1) If we see as one collection,

then, is one fifth of one, so, is three fifths of one.

(2) If we see as one collection, then is one-third

of one, so, is five-thirds of one.

(3) If we see as one circle, then

is five circles, so is one-fifth of five and

is three-fifths of five.

(4) If we see as one circle and as three circles,

then is one-third of three and

is five-thirds of three.

(5) Analyse each example in the above figures in order to reach a specific
interpretation of the fraction involved.
(6) It is important for learners to construct multiple interpretations of materials
(or physical models). Discuss the implications of multiple interpretations with
fellow colleagues in mathematics teaching.
(7) Present this example to learners at your school and then direct them to make
multiple interpretations. Observe the learners’ activities during this lesson.
Record your observations.
(8) Discuss your observations of the lesson above.

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 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

A teacher of mathematics needs to be aware of multiple interpretations of models in

order to hear the different hints that learners actually give. Without this awareness it
is easy to presume that learners see what we intend them to see, and communication
between teacher and learner can break down when learners see something different
from what we presume they see.

Good models (or concrete materials) can be an effective aid to learners’ thinking
and to successful teaching. However, effectiveness depends on what you are trying
to achieve. To benefit maximally from learners’, use of models, you as the teacher
must continually direct your actions, keeping in mind the question: What do I want
my learners to understand? The question that follows this is: How will I know
that my learners understand it? Your assessment of the learners will enable you
to answer this question. The unit on assessment in this study guide will help you to
answer this question. Learning and assessment are integral processes which inform
each other.

Remember that we construct the concept or relationship in our minds, therefore the
learner needs to separate the physical model from the relationship that is imposed
on the model in order to ‘see’ the concept. Models can be used effectively in the
teaching of place value to young learners.

Using models in the teaching of place value

Knowledge and understanding of our numeration system are part of a learner’s
fundamental mathematical knowledge. Place value in our base-ten numeration
system must be fully understood by learners. The first content area for mathematics
teaching and learning in the Senior Phase expands on the development of learners’
understanding of place value. The material on the next four pages comes from the
RADMASTE (2006) ACE guide for the module Number, Algebra and Pattern. These
exercises will give you the opportunity to develop your own understanding of
place value.

We need to take into account that, if learners are competent in using numbers up
to 100 or 1 000, it does not mean that they have fully grasped the meaning of very
big numbers (e.g. 1 293 460 503) or very small numbers (e.g. 0,09856002948456
or even just 0,00000000007). Such numbers can be written very easily using our
numeration system, and learners can read their face values very easily once they know
the names of the ten digits we use. The ability to read face values (what you see) is
not necessarily an indication of an understanding of place value (the actual size of
the digits, according to their position in the numeral).

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ACTIVITY 2.14

Using Dienes blocks to explain grouping in tens up to 1 000

Establishing a very firm understanding of the place values up to 1 000 lays an
excellent foundation for further understanding of place value. Activities with Dienes
blocks can be useful in this regard.

• In what way does Dienes blocks clarify the ideas of face value, place value
and total value? Explain your answer using an example.

Using an abacus to explain grouping in tens

An abacus is another useful apparatus in the teaching of number concepts. An
abacus can be used in very early counting activities, such as counting in ones, twos
and threes. An abacus can also be used to show the grouping in tens and movement
from place to place in our base-ten system. They are useful in the teaching of bigger
numbers, because most abaci can be used to represent about ten different place values.

This abacus has ten levels. This means

it can be used to represent units, tens,
hundreds and so on, right up to milliards
(or American billions). When you count
on an abacus, you start at the bottom (the
units strand) with all the beads on one
side. As you count, you move the beads
to the other side. Once you have counted
ten beads on the first strand, you push
them all back, and push out one bead
on the tens strand (the next strand up).
This shows regrouping according to base
ten. Once you have ten tens, you push
them all back and push out one bead on
the third strand (the hundreds strand)
and so on.

ACTIVITY 2.15
(1) An abacus can be used to count and display numbers. If you use an abacus to
count up to 37 (starting from one), which of the properties of our numeration
system will be revealed?
(2) If you display the number 752 on an abacus, which of the properties of our
numeration system will be revealed?
(3) Illustrate the following numbers on the abacus, and then write out the number
in expanded notation:
 3
 68
 502
 594

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 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

(4) In what way does an abacus clarify the ideas of face value, place value and
total value?
(5) Engage your learners in some of the examples given above. Reflect on whether
they are able to separate the physical model from the concept.

Flard cards
‘Flard cards’ is the name given to cards on which numbers are written out in separate
sets of units, tens, hundreds, thousands and so on. The spacing of the numerals on
the cards needs to be precise, so that the cards can be used to illustrate the building
up and breaking down of numbers according to place value. The cards also need to
be cut neatly, so that they can be placed on top of one another to build up bigger
numbers.

We can use Flard cards to create the number 439 by using three separate cards, which
could be placed one behind the other to look like this:

400 30 9 4 3 9

Using these cards, we can say that 400 is the total value of the first digit in the
numeral, which has a face value of 4 in the hundreds place. The cards can be lifted
up and checked to see the ‘total value’ of a digit, whose face value is only visible in
the full display.

You could make yourself an abacus, a set of Dienes blocks and a set of Flard cards
to assist you in teaching the numeration system.

Flard cards can be used very effectively to show learners the relative values of numbers
in different places. Look at the example below:

3 555 = 3 000 + 500 + 50 + 5

From this display, where the Flard cards are laid out separately to reveal the total
value of each digit in the number, learners can compare the relative values of the
digits. They can say things like:
• The value of the 5 on the far left is 100 times the value of the 5 on the far right.
The value of the middle 5 is 10 times the value of the 5 on the far right.
• The value of the 5 on the far right is 1 times the value of the 5 on the far left.
100

• The value of the 5 on the far right is 101 times the value of the 5 in the middle.

Your learners ultimately need to be able to answer questions about the relative
positioning of numerals. They need to be able to complete activities such as the one
below. Learners must also read ‘right’ and ‘left’ carefully to answer these questions
correctly.

LADMMM6/173


ACTIVITY 2.16
(1) In the number 10 212, the 2 on the left is times the value of the 2 on
the right.
(2) In the number 10 212, the 1 on the left is times the value of the 1 on
the right.
(3) In the number 80 777, the 7 on the far left is times the value of the
7 immediately to the right of it.
(4) In the number 80 777, the 7 on the far left is times the value of the
7 on the far right.
(5) In the number 566, the 6 on the right is times the value of the 6 on
the left.
(6) In the number 202, the 2 on the right is times the value of the 2 on
the left.
(7) In the number 1 011, the 1 on the far right is times the value of the 1
on the far left.
(8) In the number 387, the face values of the digits are ,
and ; the place value of the digits (from left to right) are ,
and ; the total values represented by the digits (from left to
right) are , and .

Models and constructing mathematics

To ‘see’ or connect the concept represented by the model, you must already have
the concept (that relationship) in your mind. If you do not, you have no relationship
to impose on the model.

This can explain why models are often more meaningful to teachers than to the
learners:
• The teacher already has the concept and can see it in the model.
• A learner without the concept only sees the physical object.
There are ways to get around this, however. For example, when learners do not have
the concept you are trying to teach, a calculator is very useful to model a wide variety
of number relationships by quickly and easily demonstrating the effect of ideas.

A calculator game that can be used to develop a sense (the concept) of place value
is called ‘ZAP’. The rules for this game are as follows:
(1) One player calls out a number for the other players to enter onto their calculator
displays (e.g. 4 789).
(2) The player then says ‘ZAP the 8’, which means that the other players must
replace the 8 with the digit 0, using one operation (i.e. to change it into 4 709).
(3) The player who is the quickest to decide on how to ZAP the given digit could
call out the next number.
(In this case the correct answer would be that you have to subtract 80 from
the number to ‘ZAP’ the 8.)

74
 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

ACTIVITY 2.17

The calculator used as a common model to illustrate number relationships

(1) What property of a number does the calculator game above illustrate?
(2) Find or design another calculator game that can be used in the teaching of
place value.

Van de Walle (2004) gives the following example to illustrate the relationship of
one-hundredth to a whole:

The calculator is made to count by increments. To count in intervals of 0,01, press:

0,01 + = = = …

On a DAL calculator, press:

0,01 + 0,01 = + 0,01 + + +

Try this.

• Can you see that the calculator ‘counts’ in 0,01s?

• How many one-hundredths are there in one whole?

Take note of the very important question that Van de Walle (2004) asks about models:
“If the concept does not come from the model – and it does not – how does the
model help the learner get it?”
Perhaps the answer lies in the notion of an evolving idea.

New ideas are formulated or connected little by little over time. In the process, learners
• reflect on their new ideas
• test these ideas in many different ways
• discuss and engage in group work
• talk through the idea and listen to others
• argue for a viewpoint, describe and explain
These are mentally active ways of testing an emerging idea against external reality.
As this testing process goes on, the developing idea is modified, elaborated on and
further integrated with existing ideas. Models can also serve as testing ground
for emerging ideas.

When there is a good fit with external reality, the likelihood is high that a correct
concept has been formed.

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Explaining the idea of a model

Van de Walle (2004) identifies five representations or models for concepts. They
are the following:
• manipulative models
• pictures
• written symbols
• oral language
• real-world situations
One of the things learners need to do is move between these various representations,
for example by explaining in oral language the procedures that symbols refer to, or
writing down a formula that expresses a relationship between two objects in the
real world. Researchers have found that those learners who cannot move between
representations in this way are the same learners who find it difficult to solve problems
and understand computations.

It is very important to help learners move between and among these representations,
because it will improve the growth and construction of conceptual understanding.
The more ways the learner is given to think about and test out an emerging idea,
the better chance it has of being formed correctly and integrated into a rich web of
ideas and relational understanding.

ACTIVITY 2.18

Expanding the idea of a model

(1) Reflect on the translations between and within each representation given
above which can help develop a new concept.
(2) With the help of colleagues, identify an appropriate mathematical example
that explains a translation between different representations to help develop
new concepts.

If the task requires finding the area of a rectangle, look at the following example of
translations between different model representations:

Real-world situation: Find for example the area of a rectangular kitchen floor, a
soccer field or a hockey track.

Manipulative models: Use for example a geoboard or dotty paper.

Written symbols: Area (A) = 7 × 4 = 28 square units

General rule: A = l × b

Oral language: The area is the total number of square units that cover the surface
of the rectangle.

76
 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

Pictures: Make scale drawings of rectangles showing the units used for calculation.

Using models in the classroom

Models can be used in the following way to develop new concepts:
(1) When learners are in the process of creating a concept, they can use models to
test an emerging idea.
(2) Teachers can use models when they want learners to think with models and to
participate actively in the test–revise–test–revise process until the new concept
fits with the physical model they have offered. (NOTE: A teacher should only
provide models on which a mathematical relationship or concept can be imposed.)
(3) When the teacher wants learners to connect symbols and concepts they can
use models.
(4) Learners can use models when they already have ideas and can make sense of
written mathematics as expressions or recordings of these ideas in symbolic form.

Models can be used to assess learners’ understanding of concepts:

• When learners use models in ways that make sense to them, classroom observation
becomes possible.
• Learners can explain with manipulative materials (or drawings) the ideas they
have constructed.
• They can draw pictures to show what they are thinking.

Models in your classroom

It is a very good idea for to collect resources to be used as teaching aids and store them
in a resource room or box, depending on your circumstances. You do not have to spend
a lot of money to do so, as there are many things that you can use as mathematical
models which can be made from waste materials. Some mathematics teacher centres
and also mathematics teacher education projects attached to universities have well-
established resource rooms that you could visit to inspire you when you start your
own collection of resources. Here are some ideas of resources you can start to collect
and use, depending on the grades you teach:
(1) As many bottle tops as you can get. These can be used for counting work, to
establish base and place value, to teach fractions, ratio and rate, and so on.
(2) Containers of all shapes and sizes. These can be used in your teaching of 3D
shapes and measurement (capacity, volume, mass and so on).

LADMMM6/177


(3) Scrap paper. Never throw away paper that you can use. It can be used for folding
activities (e.g. to teach fractions and symmetry), drawing geometric shapes and
grids, and so on.
(4) Make your own Dienes blocks, Flard and fraction cards and multiplication grids,
and laminate them for re-use, if you are able to. You can also get learners to
make their own, but this will take longer. Remember that the time learners take
to make their own manipulatives is not wasted. Learners gain an understanding
of the concepts they work with while they are handling the concrete materials.
(5) Dotty paper and square graph paper are essential in a mathematics classroom.
Keep a stock of it, for example for doing sketches, working with fractions and
drawing up multiplication table grids.

This list is just a start. As you read more and teach more of the mathematics
curriculum, you will come across other resources that you can store for future use.

STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING

In concluding this unit, we pose a critical question for the teacher who wants to
teach for understanding:
How can you construct lessons to promote appropriate reflective thought on
the part of the learners?

Purposeful mental engagement or reflective thought about the ideas we want learners
to develop is the single most important key to effective teaching. If the learners do
not think actively about the important concepts of the lesson, learning simply does
not take place. How can we make it happen?

Van de Walle (2004) provides us with the following seven effective suggestions that
could empower the teacher to teach developmentally:
(1) Create a mathematical environment.
(2) Pose worthwhile mathematical tasks.
(3) Use cooperative learning groups.
(4) Use models and calculators as thinking tools.
(5) Encourage discourse and writing.
(6) Ask learners to justify their responses.
(7) Listen actively.

ACTIVITY 2.19

Strategies for effective teaching

Reflect on the seven strategies for effective mathematics teaching above.
(1) Go through the list of strategies and tick off the ones you use in the classroom.
(2) In what way do these strategies support a developmental approach to
mathematics teaching?
(3) Pick three of the seven strategies for effective teaching that you think are
the most important. Motivate your responses in terms of how children learn.
(4) You may discuss your responses with members of your group of fellow
mathematics teachers. Do they concur with you? Take note of their views.

78
 UNIT 2:  Developing understanding in mathematics

UNIT SUMMARY
In this unit, a distinction has been made between two approaches to the teaching
of mathematics, namely rote learning versus reasoning and understanding. Similar
distinctions have been made by others. For example, Garofalo and Mtetwa (1990)
distinguish between two approaches that they believe actually teach two different
kinds of mathematics:
• The first approach is based on instrumental understanding and the use of using
rules without understanding.
• The second approach is based on relational understanding, and knowing what
to do and why.

Instrumental understanding is easier to achieve, and because less knowledge is

involved, it leads to correct answers rather quickly.

However, there are more powerful advantages to relational understanding. They are:
• It is more adaptable to new situations.
• Once learned, it is easier to remember, because when learners know why formulas
and procedures work, they are better able to assess their applicability to new
situations and make alterations when necessary and possible.

Also, when learners can see how various concepts and procedures relate to one
another, they can remember parts of a connected whole rather than separate items.
Relational mathematics may be more satisfying than instrumental mathematics.

Teaching mathematics for understanding means involving the learners in activities

and tasks that call on them to reason and communicate their reasoning, rather
than to reproduce memorised rules and procedures. The classroom atmosphere
should be non-threatening and supportive and encourage the verbalisation and
justification of thoughts, actions and conclusions.

This study unit focuses on developing understanding in mathematics. In the unit it

is suggested that this can be done through the purposeful use and implementation
of a widely accepted theory, namely constructivism.

According to constructivism, learners must be active participants in the development

of their own understanding. They construct their own knowledge, giving their own
meaning to things they perceive or think about. The tools that learners use to build
understanding are their own existing ideas – the knowledge they already have. All
mathematical concepts and relationships are constructed internally and exist in the
mind as part of a network of ideas. These are not transmitted by the teacher. Existing
ideas are connected to the new emerging idea because they give meaning to it – the
learners must be mentally active to give meaning to it. Constructing knowledge
requires reflective thought, which means actively thinking about or mentally working
on an idea. Ideas are constructed or are made meaningful when the learner integrates
them into existing structures of knowledge (or cognitive schemas). As learning
occurs, the networks are rearranged, added to or modified.

The general principles of constructivism are largely based on the following principles
of Piaget:
• Assimilation (the use of existing schemas to give meaning to experiences).
• Accommodation (altering existing ways of viewing ideas that contradict or do
not fit into existing schema).

LADMMM6/179


• The constructivist classroom is a place where all learners can be involved in the
following:
– Sharing and interacting socially (cooperative learning).
– Inventing and investigating new ideas.
– Challenging
– Negotiating
– Solving problems
– Conjecturing
– Generalising
– Testing
Note that the main focus of constructivism is on the mentally active movement
from instrumental learning along a continuum of connected ideas to relational
understanding; that is, from a situation of isolated and unconnected ideas to a network
of interrelated ideas. The process requires reflective thought, which means actively
thinking about and mentally working on an idea.

SELF-ASSESSMENT
Tick the boxes to assess whether you have achieved the outcomes for this unit.

If you cannot tick the boxes, you should go back and work through the relevant
part of the unit again.

Am I able to do the following:

# Checklist 
1 Critically reflect on the constructivist approach as an approach to learning mathematics. £
2 Cite with understanding some examples of constructed learning as opposed to rote £
learning.

3 Explain with insight the concept ‘understanding’ in terms of the measure of quality £
and quantity of connections.

4 Explain with insight the benefits of relational understanding. £

5 Distinguish and explain the difference between the two types of knowledge in £
mathematics, namely conceptual knowledge and procedural knowledge.

6 Critically discuss the role of models in developing understanding in mathematics £

and give examples.

7 Justify the three related uses of models in a developmental approach to teaching. £

8 Describe the foundations of a developmental approach based on a constructivist £
view of learning.

9 Evaluate the seven strategies for effective teaching based on the perspectives of this £
unit.

80
 REFERENCES

Department of Basic Education (DBE). 2011. Curriculum and assessment policy statement
(CAPS): Senior Phase (Grades 7–9). Mathematics.
Farrell, MA & Falmer, A. 1980. Systematic instruction in mathematics for the middle and high
school years. Massachusetts: Addison Wesley.
Garofalo, J & Mtetwa, DK. 1990. Mathematics as reasoning. Arithmetic Teacher.
Vol 37, No. 5, January 1990. Published by: National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics. Retrieved November 10, 2020 from: https://www.jstor.org/
stable/i40053566.
Grossman, R. 1986. A finger on mathematics. RL Esson.
Njisane, RA. 1992. Mathematical thinking. In Moodley, M, Mathematics education for
in-service and pre-service teachers. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter & Shooter.
Penlington, T. 2000. The four basic operations. ACE lecture notes. RUMEP, Rhodes
University, Grahamstown.
RADMASTE Centre, University of the Witwatersrand. 2006. Number Algebra and
Pattern. EDUC 264.
Reber, AS. 1985. The Penguin dictionary of psycholog y. London: Penguin.
Resnick, LB & Ford, WW. 1984. The psycholog y of mathematics for instruction. London:
Erlbaum.
Skemp, RR. 1964. A three-part theory for learning mathematics. In FW Land, New
approaches to mathematics teaching. London: Macmillan.
Thompson, PW. 1994. Concrete materials and teaching for mathematical understanding.
Arithmetic Teacher. Vol. 41, No. 9, May 1994. Published by: National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics. Retrieved November 10, 2020 from: https://www.
jstor.org/stable/i40053621.
Trapton, P. 1986. Mathematical learning in early childhood. NCTM 37th Yearbook.
Van de Walle, JA. 2004. Elementary and middle school mathematics: teaching developmentally.
New York: Pearson.
Van de Walle, JA, Karp, KS & Bay-Williams, JM. 2016. Elementary and middle school
mathematics: teaching developmentally. 9th edition. New York: Pearson Education.
Van Heerden, J & Brown, C. 2003. Numeracy 2: Only study guide for NPD0059. Pretoria:
Unisa Press.

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3 UNIT 3
3 TEACHING THROUGH PROBLEM-SOLVING

WELCOME

The conversation between Jackson, Millicent and Bobo continues. Jackson remarks
that they have discussed the fact that children think through mathematics problems
in diverse ways, but he notes that teachers also teach in diverse ways. He goes on to
tell Millicent and Bobo about a small bit of research he has undertaken into how two
of his colleagues, Mr Ntombela and Ms Khumalo, teach the concept of fractions.

Before we join them in their discussions, have a look through the intended learning
outcomes for this unit.

UNIT OUTCOMES
Upon completion of unit 3 you should be able to

• explain, with understanding, the need for a shift in thinking about mathematics
instruction
• critically reflect on the value of teaching with problems
• select and analyse appropriate tasks and problems for learning mathematics
• describe, with insight, the three-part lesson format for problem-solving
referred to as ‘before’, ‘during’ and ‘after’
• critically describe the teacher’s actions in the before, during and after phases
of a problem-solving lesson
• competently select and design effective problem-based lessons from the
textbook and other resources
• explain competently how problem-solving goals are developed while students
learn

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 UNIT 3:  Teaching through problem-solving

INTRODUCING PROBLEM-SOLVING
We begin our discussion with an activity so that we can build upon your own current
experience and understanding. This should help you to engage with the discussion
that follows.
Working with fractions is often a challenge for both children and adults. We therefore
explore the teaching of fractions as a practical introduction to this unit.

ACTIVITY 3.1

Working with fractions

How would YOU teach children how to ‘add’ fractions?
On the following pages are the two case studies that Jackson tells Millicent and
Bobo about.
In these two classrooms we see how other teachers teach the concept of fractions.
Read through the two case studies and then answer the questions that follow.
(1) Which of these two approaches is most like the way that you teach?
(2) Which of these two approaches do you prefer? Why?
(3) Which of these two approaches allows for the meaningful construction of
ideas? Explain your answer.

Case study A

What the teacher says What is on the What the learners do

chalkboard

In this lesson we are going to Listen.

learn to add two fractions
Let us suppose we want to add 1
+ 1
=? Listen and watch.
these two fractions … 3 6

We cannot add them LCF = 6 Listen, watch and put up

straightaway because they have their hands to answer
different denominators. First we the teacher's question.
need to find a common factor.
What is the lowest common
factor?
Now we need to multiply the 1×2
+ 1
=? Listen and watch.
numerator by the same amount 3×2 6
as the denominator.
Now we can add the numerators 2
+ 1
= 3 Listen and watch.
together like we do normally to 6 6 6
get the answer.
Now use this example to try Work individually and
questions 1 to 10, in exercise 7 silently on the exercise.
on page 15 of your text. Put up their hands if they
need help.

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Case study B

Ms Khumalo says:
“In the last two lessons we talked about fractions. Can anybody remember what a
fraction is? Can you give me some examples?
“In this lesson I want to see if we can use what we already know to solve a
problem. We will work in pairs.
“Listen carefully to the problem: Mpho and Thabo were each given a bar of
chocolate in their lunch box. On the way to school they decided to eat some of
their chocolate. Now Mpho has only a third of her chocolate bar left and Thabo
has only a sixth of his chocolate bar left.
“How much chocolate do they have left between them? Try drawing diagrams
to show how much chocolate they have left.”

She provides several similar problems on task cards.

She then asks one of the learners to explain how they have solved the problems and
invites other learners to ask questions and to propose alternatives.

Only once she is convinced that the learners understand the concept does she get
them to think about the more formal (or quick) way of doing it.

The learners attempt two similar problems (fifths and tenths, quarters and eighths)
and one more difficult example (thirds and quarters) for homework and for discussion
in class the following day.

Discussion of case studies

• The first approach in case study A, namely to proceed directly to formal
mathematics and the use of rules, has the advantage that it is quick and easy for
the teacher, and some learners will be able to read between the lines and answer
similar questions correctly.
• A disadvantage of the first approach is that if learners misunderstand or misapply
the rule, they will usually not realise they have made a mistake and may not be
able to think their way through to a correct solution. This approach will often
lead to errors like the following:
1 2 3
3
+ 6
= 9
• The second approach in case study B has the disadvantage that it is initially
more time consuming, both in terms of planning outside the classroom and the
time taken to complete and discuss tasks inside the classroom. In addition, the
fact that the teacher has not specified any rules to follow means that she must
be able to cope with a variety of divergent, and sometimes erroneous, thinking.
An advantage of this approach is that learners get to talk about and explore the
issues in a meaningful way. With support and guidance from their peers and
the teacher, they should be able to reason their way through the underpinning
principles. They should be able to avoid the kind of error outlined above and
also be able to think their way through more irregular examples. They should
also need less drilling.
• The second approach focuses on problem-solving as a way of developing
understanding of the concepts involved.

84
 UNIT 3:  Teaching through problem-solving

What then is problem-solving?

• At the outset it is necessary to draw a distinction between problem-solving and
the doing of routine exercises. Nicholson (1992) explains:
In problem solving one finds the solution to a particular situation by a means
which was not immediately obvious.
A problem-solving task is one that that engages the learners in thinking about
and developing the important mathematics they need to learn.
• This can be contrasted with the traditional or stereotypical approach to teaching
in which teachers explain a rule, provide an example and then drill the learners
on similar examples.
• Problem-solving has been described by many authors and researchers (e.g.
Nicholson, 1992) as the essence of mathematics, and yet many learners spend most
of their time on routine exercises. It must be stressed that whether something is a
problem or not is dependent on the level of sophistication of the problem-solver.
A learner in Grade 8 may be required to solve a problem in which the method
and solution are not obvious, and yet the same problem given to an older child
may be quite routine.
• Hiebert, Carpenter, Fennema, Fuson, Wearne, Murray, Olivier and Human (1997)
bring the problem-solving approach to the teaching and learning of mathematics
with understanding to the fore when they state:
We believe that if we want students to understand mathematics, it is more
helpful to think of understanding as something that results from solving
problems, rather than something we can teach directly.
• Problem-solving has been espoused as a goal in mathematics education since the
late-1970s, with focused attention arising from a report compiled in the 1980s by
the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) entitled An agenda for
action (Campbell & Bamberger, 1990). However, problem-solving should be more
than a slogan offered for its appeal and widespread acceptance – it should be a
cornerstone of mathematics curricula and instruction, fostering the development
of mathematical knowledge and a chance to apply and connect previously
constructed mathematical understanding.
• According to Department of Education (DoE) (2001:16–19):
Problem solving should be a primary goal of all mathematics instruction and an
integral part of all mathematical activity. Learners should use problem-solving
approaches to investigate and understand mathematical content.

• A significant proportion of human progress can be attributed to the unique ability

of people to solve problems. Not only is problem-solving a critical activity in human
progress and even in survival itself, it is also an extremely interesting activity.

DEVELOPING PROBLEM-SOLVING TASKS

Problem-solving activities for space and shape

In this section we look at a variety of different problem-solving tasks in order to
identify the characteristic features that will help us to design our own examples.
We start with an example of an activity that explores space and shape to illustrate
some general issues. Thereafter we focus on particular aspects of problem-solving
for different conceptual areas.

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ACTIVITY 3.2
Think about how YOU would teach learners to understand three-dimensional
shapes.

Then consider the example which uses a problem-solving approach.

Would you use an example like this in your teaching? Why or why not?

Example

Example A: Understanding three-dimensional shapes

You need old magazines and newspapers for this activity.
(1) Find pictures of three-dimensional objects in old magazines and newspapers.
(2) Cut these out and paste them onto paper.
(3) Give each object a name that describes its shape.
(4) Explain how you know what the object is.
(5) Try to find pictures of as many different objects as you can.

Here is an example: This is a picture of a rectangular prism.

It has six faces. Each face is a rectangle.

BANDAGES
This is how you will be assessed:

• Can you identify the objects in the pictures?

• Do you find pictures that have a variety of different objects? FIRST AID
• Can you name the objects?
• Can you write down your reasons for naming the objects?
• Can you explain your reasons to the teacher?
• Is your work neatly presented?

• In this unit, many of the problems and activities relate to the third content area
for mathematics in the Senior Phase (DBE, 2011), which deals with space and
shape, or what previous curriculum documents in South Africa called ‘geometry’.
This will give you an opportunity to develop your own understanding of some
fundamental concepts in the area of space and shape.
• Learners need to become acquainted with more detailed descriptions of features
of 3D objects. They need to engage in the process of mathematisation. Teachers
can be guided by Van Hiele’s theory about the various levels of geometric
understanding. Learners should be able to recognise and classify shapes, but it is
also very important that they should know about
– the properties of shapes (level 1),
– the relationships among these properties (level 2)
– the deductive systems of properties (level 3)
• Teachers should find appropriate activities that cover these levels and work
through them with the learners. A practical approach where learners manipulate
real objects enables them to become familiar with shapes and their properties.

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 UNIT 3:  Teaching through problem-solving

• The example above illustrates a key characteristic of a problem-solving approach:

it gives learners the opportunity to explore the concept in practical and
different ways.
• Another key characteristic of a problem-solving approach is the focus on equipping
learners to tackle non-routine problems.

Routine and non-routine problems

Tasks or problems can and should be posed that engage the learners in thinking
about and developing the important mathematics they need to learn.

As noted in the introduction, the traditional or stereotypical approach to teaching

goes something like this:
• The teach-by-telling approach provides a rule.
• The teacher accompanies the rule with a conceptual explanation (perhaps with
pictures so that learners will see the concepts).
• The learners are aware of the exercises to come, and how to do them.

However, the explanation is of little value since the rule is all that is necessary to get
through the day. An atmosphere that promotes curiosity and encourages learners to
test their own hypotheses and pursue their own predictions, is lacking; learners are
not encouraged to create and invent their own constructions or ideas.

ACTIVITY 3.3

Routine or non-routine?
Here follows a list of problems suitable for learners in the Intermediate Phase.

Select the problems that you would consider as routine for the learners.

Select the problems that you would consider to be non-routine problems.

Problems
(1) Subtract: 0,379 from 0,574
(2) Calculate: 12 × (2 + 5 + 4)
(3) Find the sum of the following number sequence without adding all the numbers.
Write down a rule:
1 + 3 + 5 + …… + 97 + 99
1 3
(4) Calculate:
2
× 7

(5) If 372 is added to a certain number, then the sum is 8 418. What is the number?
(6) Solve: 3� – 7 = 5
(7) A builder is building a new house. He works out that 2 painters should be able
to complete the painting in 11 days. Each painter works an 8 hour day at R7
per hour. The paint costs R1 260. How much money will be spent on having
the house painted?

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Providing learners with opportunities to explore concepts in their own ways and
equipping them to deal with non-routine tasks begs the question: Where do we start?

In mathematics, as in other areas of the curriculum, we need to think back to one

of the key principles we all learned about in our initial teacher training: moving
from the known to the unknown. That means starting where the learners are and
then presenting them with a problem that challenges them to extend their thinking.

Starting where the learners are

The traditional approach to mathematics teaching goes something like this:
• The teacher gives input.
• The learners practise for a while.
• The learners are expected to use the skills in solving typical problems.
This approach has its problems, as Van de Walle (2004:37) points out:
The first difficulty with this approach is that it begins where the teacher is rather
than where the learner is. It assumes that all learners will be able to make sense of
the explanation in the manner the teacher thinks best.

The second difficulty with the teach-then-solve approach is that problem solving is
separated from the learning process. The learners expect the teacher to tell them the
rules and are unlikely to solve problems for which solution methods have not been
provided. In essence, learning mathematics is separated from ‘doing mathematics’.
This does not make sense.

How can lessons become more effective?

Consider the following:
• Begin where the learners are, not where we as teachers are.
• Teaching should begin with the ideas that learners already have – the ideas they
will use to create new ones.
• Engage the learners in tasks or activities that are problem-based and require
thought.

What does this mean in practice?

First of all we need to understand what a problem is. A problem is any task or activity
for which learners have no prescribed or memorised rules or methods. The learners
should also not have the perception that there is a specific correct solution or method.

In setting a problem for learners, teachers should make sure that it

• begins where the learners are
• engages learners in the aspect of mathematics they are required to learn
• requires learners to explain and justify their methods as well as their answers
The methods used may be various: they can involve hands-on material or drawings;
they can be simple pencil-and-paper tasks; they may be strictly mental work; and
calculators may or may not be used.

What is critical, though, is that if mathematics is to be taught through problem-

solving, then the tasks or activities are the vehicle by which the desired curriculum

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is developed. Teachers do not teach the concepts first and then require learners to
do exercises – the problem-solving activity is the vehicle through which the concepts
are taught.

Below are some examples of activities for investigating the properties of shapes.

ACTIVITY 3.4

Investigating the properties of shapes

Evaluate each example against each of the three features identified earlier. Does it

• begin where the learners are?

• engage learners in the aspect of mathematics that they are required to learn?
• require learners to explain and justify their methods as well as their answers?

Where necessary, suggest ways in which the examples can be improved.

Example B: Unfolding boxes (Malati, 1999)

Take a cardboard box like this:

Cut the edges of the box so that you can open it up and lie it flat:

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Draw the flat box in this space

The flattened figure is

called the net of the box.

Compare the net you have drawn to those of you classmates.

Example C: An open box (Malati, 1999)

This is a drawing of a cube without a top.

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 UNIT 3:  Teaching through problem-solving

(1) Which of the nets below can be folded to make this box?

 If the net cannot be used to make this box, explain why not.

 If the net can be folded to make the box, colour the square that will form
the bottom of the box.

(2) Try to draw a different net for this box and colour the square that will form the
bottom of this box.
(3) Now draw the net of a cubic box with a lid.
(4) How many different nets can you draw for this box?

Example D: Matching edges, faces and vertices (Malati, 1999)

The diagram below shows the net of a rectangular prism. The edges are labelled
with small letters.

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Copy the net onto a blank sheet of paper. Label the edges as they have been
labelled here, but write your labels inside the net, so that you can cut out the net
and fold it to help you to answer the following questions.
(1) Which edge of the net will fold onto edge g?
(2) Which edge of the net will fold onto edge c?
(3) Which edge of the net will fold onto edge n?
(4) How many faces will the complete, folded prism have?
(5) How many edges will the complete, folded prism have?
(6) How many vertices will the complete, folded prism have?

You should have noticed that example B paves the way for example C, which in
turn helps us to develop some of the understanding we need to tackle example D.
The examples illustrate the way in which we move from where the learners are
to where they need to be, both within individual problem-based activities and
across a series of problem-based activities and lessons. Problem-solving can be
used to explore and develop many different mathematical ideas, not just those
associated with shape and space.

Developing different kinds of mathematical ideas

As we have said above, a problem is any task or activity for which the learners have
no prescribed or memorised rules or methods. The learners should also not have
the perception that there is a specific correct solution or method.

In unit 2, we categorised mathematical ideas as conceptual ideas or procedural

ideas. In this unit, we show that learners can learn both types of mathematical ideas
through problem-based activities.

ACTIVITY 3.5
Developing conceptual understanding

What kinds of mathematical thinking are encouraged by the following example of

an activity you could give your learners?

In how many ways can you break up the number 6?

(1) Think about the number 6 broken into two different amounts.
(2) Draw a picture to show a way that six things can be put into two different parts.
(3) Think of a story to go with your picture.

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 UNIT 3:  Teaching through problem-solving

This is an example of the kind of construction that could be made by learners:

STORY

Peter and Paul have R6 to share. The sharing can take place in the following different
ways:

PETER PAUL

This example illustrates the way in which problem-solving can be used to develop
conceptual understanding using money as a context.

We have identified the following kinds of conceptual thinking learners may have
been actively involved in while working through this problem. Perhaps you can add
to our ideas?

Concepts and relationships constructed by connecting ideas

• The operation (+) is further constructed (or reinforced). Addition is a mathematical
concept.
• The relationship: The sum of two numbers is the same (equals 6) if the first
number is increased by one and the other is decreased by one. Relationships are
mathematical concepts. Thinking about relationships involves conceptualisation.
• The ‘greater than’ and ‘less than’ relationships, for example: 6 is greater than 5
by 1, 6 is greater than 4 by 2 and so on.
• As the one share increases from 0 to 6, the other share decreases from 6 to 0.
This is a number pattern. Number patterns are also examples of mathematical
relationships. (The picture illustrates this pattern.)

In the next activity, the learner is given the opportunity to develop concepts relating
to space and shape.

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ACTIVITY 3.6

Examples for the construction of concepts

Allow a class to work through the example activity in the next box.

As they do so, observe critically how the learners engage in the task at hand:

• What are the key concepts or ideas that learners need to understand?
• Have the learners been able to use their own level of reasoning and
understanding? Identify some of the more interesting methods that learners
have used to solve the problem.
• Can the learners justify, test and explain their constructions? How consistent
are they?

EXAMPLE ACTIVITY

What shape
In this activity we use only two types of cuts, namely horizontal and vertical cuts.
A vertical cut goes this way: A horizontal cut goes this way:

(1) Choose an object in the classroom and show a friend how you would cut this
object horizontally and then vertically.
(2) Draw the cross-section for each cut. What shape is each cross-section?

1. 2.

3. 4.

5.

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 UNIT 3:  Teaching through problem-solving

• On the basis of your findings from this activity, what would you say are some of
the advantages of using a problem-solving approach to developing conceptual
understanding in the mathematics classroom?

Developing procedures and processes

You must be wondering whether it would be prudent to use the problem-solving
approach to learn basic skills and procedural skills. Must these be taught through direct
instruction? Van de Walle (2004) emphasises that learners can develop procedures
via a problem-solving approach, and that problem-solving is more effective than
direct instruction for the teaching of basic skills and procedures. Think about the
following informal constructions of procedures that learners could potentially
connect as they develop new ideas:
(1) Using the re-arranging principle to do calculations more quickly without a
calculator:

63 + 84 = 60 + 3 + 80 + 4 8 × 9 × 5 = 8 × 5 × 9
= 60 + 80 + 3 + 4 = 40 × 9
= 140 + 7 = 360
= 147

25,64 + 53,93 = 20 + 5 + 0,64 + 50 + 3 + 0,93

= 20 + 50 + 5 + 3 + 0,64 + 0,93
= 70 + 8 + 1,53
= 78 + 1,53
= 79,53

(2) Add and subtract the same number (compensation):

19 - 8 37 - 18
= (19 + 1) - (8 + 1) = (37 + 2) - (18 + 2)
= 20 - 9 = 39 - 20
= 11 = 19

18 + 24 = (18 + 4) = (24 - 4)
= 22 + 20
= 42

(3) Adding ‘tens’ to find the sum of 37 and 26:

3 7 + 2 6 (Boxed digits are held back

30 + 20 = 50
7 + 3 = 10 is left from the 6
50 + 10 = 60
60 + 3 = 63

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(4) Solving an equation using ‘reverse operations’:

Solve for �:
5� + 4 = 34
Let us write a flow diagram for this equation: Start with �.
What must be done with � to get 34?
We must multiply it by 5 and then add 4.

Now reverse the operations (apply the inverse operations):

Start with the output (note that the direction of the arrows changes):

Pay attention to the application of inverse operations (see the dotted lines):

Problem-solving should not be an isolated strand or topic in the already crowded

curriculum. Rather, it should pervade the mathematics programme.

What do you think are the advantages of using a problem-based approach to develop
procedural or process understanding?

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ACTIVITY 3.7
Grade 2 learners were challenged to find the sum of 48 and 25 and at least seven
different solution methods were offered.

(1) Analyse the solution methods offered by the learners. Note the levels of
thinking and the techniques constructed.
(2) Are these invented methods efficient or adequate? Explain your answer.
(3) Challenge your learners to use informal methods (or their own constructions
and procedures) to do some of the calculations given above.

For example:
83 + 76 15,34 + 12,67
37 - 25 5 × (7 + 2)
8×9×5

Good problems have multiple entry points

Remember that one advantage of a problem-based approach is that it can help teachers
to accommodate a diversity of learners in every classroom. Teachers may not dictate
how learners should think about a problem in order to solve it. When a task is posed,
the learners could be told: ‘Use the ideas you own to solve this problem.’

The learners in a class will have different ideas about how they can best solve a
problem. They will draw on their own network of mental tools, concepts and ideas.
This means that there will be many ways to tackle the problem; there will be multiple
entry points. Although most problems have singular correct answers, there are often
many ways to get to those answers.

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Here is an example of a problem:

Find the area of your mathematics book. That is, how many square tiles can fit onto
the cover of the book?
Some different solution methods and different entry points are reflected in the
frames shown below:

Use a ruler to measure the

Place tiles along the edges edges, noting that the tiles
of the book and multiply. are 2 cm on each side –
then multiply.

PROBLEM ON AREA

Cover with tiles and count

only the length of the
Cover with tiles and
rows and the number of
count.
rows – multiply to get
total.

Having thought about these possible points, you will be better prepared to provide
an appropriate hint to learners who are stuck.

Designing and selecting effective tasks

As we have said above, an effective task is one that helps learners to construct the
ideas you want them to learn. When you are planning a lesson, part of your work is
to select (or design) tasks that will facilitate the learning of the mathematical content
covered in that lesson.

Therefore, the first and most important consideration for selecting any task for your
class is the mathematics that learners need to master and where they are in relation
to what they need at the moment. Find suitable tasks to use in your mathematics
teaching in textbooks, children’s literature, the popular media and on the internet.

Most teachers use textbooks as their everyday guide to the curriculum. (All teachers
should have copies of their own textbooks to draw on for ideas and problem-solving
activities even if the learners in their classes do not use those textbooks.) Many of
the new textbooks are written with the learner in mind, and they contain challenging
and stimulating activities that learners enjoy.

There is also always an opportunity for teachers to adapt textbook activities so that
they are more suitable for any particular needs of their learners. Teachers can also
design their own activities with the needs of their learners in mind.

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There are four basic steps that can guide you in selecting (and/or designing) activities:

STEP 1: How is the activity done?

• Do the activity! This enables you to get ‘inside’ the activity and find out what
sort of thinking is required.
• As yourself how the learners might do the activity or solve the problem.
Anticipate any difficulties that might arise.
• Think about the best way of preparing learners for the activity.
• Make sure that you know what materials are required and what needs to be
written down or recorded.

STEP 2: What are the desired outcomes of the activity?

• Which of the CAPS content areas are addressed in the activity?
• What mathematical concepts and skills will the activity develop?
STEP 3: Will the activity allow learners to gain mathematical knowledge?
• What is the problem in the activity?
• What must the learners reflect on or think about to complete the activity?
• Is it possible to complete the activity without much thought? If so, can you change
it so that the learners are required to think more about the mathematics?

STEP 4: What assessment will you include with the activity?

• The assessment must be part of the planning of the activity.
• What you assess and how you assess it are crucial features of the activity.
• How will the learners demonstrate their understanding?
In this section we have used a number of examples to help identify some of the
characteristics of problem-solving tasks. Looking at these examples, what would you
say are the advantages of using these kinds of tasks rather than the more traditional
rule-example-drill approach?

A THREE-PART LESSON FORMAT

You may agree that teachers typically spend a small portion of the allocated time
explaining or reviewing an idea, followed by learners working through a list of
exercises and rehearsing the procedures already memorised. This approach conditions
the learners to focus on procedures so that they can get through the exercises.
This is in stark contrast to a lesson where a class works on a single problem and
engages in discourse about the validity of the solution – more learning occurs and
much more assessment information is available.

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Before, during and after

Teaching through problem-solving does not mean simply providing a problem or
task, sitting back and waiting for something to happen. The teacher is responsible for
making the atmosphere and the lesson work. To this end, Van de Walle (2004) sees
a lesson as consisting of three main parts: before, during and after. He proposes the
following simple three-part structure for lessons when teaching through problem-
solving (Van de Walle 2004:42):

GETTING READY
Before • Get learners mentally ready to work
on the task.
• Be sure all expectations for
products are clear.

LEARNERS' WORK
• Let go!
During • Listen carefully.
• Provide hints.
• Observe and assess.

CLASS DISCOURSE
• Accept learner solutions without
evaluation.
After
• Conduct discussions as learners
justify and evaluate results and
methods.

If you allow time for each of the before, during and after parts of the lesson, it is
quite easy to devote a full period to one seemingly simple problem. In fact, there are
times when the during and after portions extend into the next day or even longer.

As long as the problematic feature of the task is the mathematics you want learners to
learn, a lot of good learning will result from engaging learners in only one problem
at a time.

ACTIVITY 3.8

Lessons – before, during and after

Each of the three main parts of a lesson – before, during and after – are considered
critical for successful problem-solving lessons.
(1) Analyse the three-part structure of a lesson described above.
(2) What is the teacher’s purpose or agenda in each of the three parts of a lesson
(before, during and after)?
(3) Compare critically the three-part structure of a lesson proposed here to the
structure of a routine lesson conducted in your classroom. What are the
implications of this comparison to your teaching? You may discuss this with
some of your colleagues.

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Teacher’s actions in the before phase

What you do in the before phase of a lesson varies with the task. The actual
presentation of the task or problem may occur at the beginning or at the end of your
‘before actions’. However, you must first engage learners in some form of activity
directly related to the problem in order to prepare them mentally and to clarify all
expectations for the lesson.

The following strategies may be used in the before phase of the lesson:
• Begin with a simple version of the task. Reduce the task to simpler terms.
• Brainstorm. If the task is not straightforward, ask the learners to suggest solutions
and strategies – producing a variety of solutions.
• Estimate or use mental computation. For the development of computational
procedure, have the learners do the computation mentally or estimate the answer
independently.
• Be sure the task is understood. This action is not optional. You must always be
sure that learners understand the problem before setting them to work. Remember
that their perspective is different from yours. Ask them to restate the problem in
their own words – this will force them to think about the problem.
• Establish expectations. This action is essential. Learners need to be clearly told
what is expected of them, for example:
– Explain (in writing) why you think your answer is correct.
– When learners are working in groups, only one written explanation should come
from the group.
– Share your ideas with a partner and then select the best approach to be
presented.

ACTIVITY 3.9

A problem-solving approach to an activity

Consider the following problem that has been designed to develop some ideas
about area and perimeter for Intermediate Phase learners:

Problem
Assume that the edge of a square is 1 unit. Add squares to this shape so that it
has perimeters of 14 units and 15 units:

• Show how you would use a simple version of the task to solve the problem.
• Challenge your learners with this problem. Take note of their level of reasoning,
constructions and manipulations. You may provide them with some square tiles.
• What prior knowledge would the learners require to understand the problem?
Explain.

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Things to think about

Consider the following option: Adding one square tile at a time – along one edge.
P is the perimeter.

P = 4; P = 6; P = 8; P = 10; and so on.

Find a pattern and solve the problem.

To ensure that learners understand the problem, pose the following question:
What is meant by …
(1) an edge?
(2) the perimeter?
(3) a square unit?
(4) the area?

Teacher’s actions in the during phase

Once you see that learners are ready to work on the task, it is time to let go. Your
role now shifts to that of a facilitator:
• You must demonstrate confidence in and respect for your learners’ abilities.
• Your learners should get into the habit of working in groups (co-operative group
work).
• Listen actively. Find out what your learners know, how they think and how they
are approaching the task.
• Provide hints and suggestions, especially when the group is searching for a place
to begin or when they stumble. Suggest that they use a particular manipulative
or draw a picture if that seems appropriate.
• Encourage the testing of ideas. Avoid being the source of approval for their results
or ideas. Instead, remind the learners that answers without testing and without
reasons are not acceptable.
• Find a second method. This shifts the value system in the classroom from answers
to processes and thinking. It is a good way for learners to make new and different
connections. The second method can also help learners who have made an error
to find their own mistake.
• Suggest extensions or generalisations. Many of the good problems are simple on
the surface. It is the extensions that are excellent.

The general question at the heart of mathematics as a science of pattern and order
is: ‘What can you find out about that?’ This question looks at something interesting
to generalise.

The following questions help to suggest different extensions: ‘What if you tried …?’
‘Would the idea work for …?’

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Teacher’s actions in the after phase

This after phase is critical – it is often where everyone, learners as well as the teacher,
learn the most. It is not a time to check answers, but for the class to share ideas. As
Van de Walle (2004:46) and Van de Walle, Karp and Bay-Williams (2016:88):
Over time, you will develop your class into a community of learners who
together are involved in making sense of mathematics. Teach your learners
about your expectations for this time and how to interact with their peers.

In the after phase of a lesson, teachers may find that they engage in the following
activities:
Engage the class in discussion.
Rule number one is that the discussion is more important than hearing an answer.
Learners must be encouraged to share and explore the variety of strategies, ideas and
solutions – and then to communicate these ideas in a rich mathematical discourse.

List the answers of all groups on the board without comment.

An unrelated idea should be listened to with interest, even if it is incorrect. It can
be written on the board and testing the hypothesis may become the problem for
another day – until additional evidence comes up that either supports or disproves it.

Give learners space to explain their solutions and processes.

A suggestion here is to begin discussion by calling first on children who are shy,
passive or lack the ability to express themselves, because the more obvious ideas
are generally given at the outset of a discussion. These reticent learners can then
participate more easily and thus be valued.

Allow learners to defend their answers and then open the discussion to the
class. Resist the temptation to judge the correctness of an answer.

In place of comments that are judgemental, make comments that encourage learners
to extend their answers and that show you are genuinely interested. Example: ‘Please
tell me how you worked that out.’

Make sure that all learners participate, that all listen and that all understand
what is being said.

Encourage learners to ask questions and use praise cautiously.

You should be cautious when using expressions of praise, especially with respect to
learners’ products and solutions. ‘Good job’ says ‘Yes, you did that correctly’.

However, ‘nice work’ can create an expectation for others that products must be
neat or beautiful in order to have value – it is not neatness, but good mathematics
that is the goal of mathematics teaching.

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ACTIVITY 3.10

Devising a three-part lesson format for an activity in the classroom

For this activity, you are required to select an activity from any source. Please add
a reference to the source of the activity that you have selected.
(1) How can the activity be used as a problem or task for the purpose of instruction
as described in the unit? Explain.
(2) If you were using this activity in the classroom, what specifically would you do
during each of the before, during and after phases of the lesson? Describe
each phase clearly.
(3) Consider that for the purpose of instruction the problem needs to be acted
upon through the teacher actions identified for the before, during and after
phases of the lesson.
(4) What do you expect the learners to do during each of the phases of the lesson?

Working towards problem-solving goals

All the goals of problem-solving can be attained in a classroom that employs a
problem-solving approach and allows learners to develop and use problem-solving
strategies. It is important that the teacher should be aware of the goals of problem-
solving and focus the learners’ attention on them regularly.

The following are three important goals of teaching through problem-solving:

• Allow learners to develop problem-solving strategies or strategies for understanding
the problem (the before phase of a lesson).
• Plan and carry out strategies (the before and during phase of the lesson).
• Reflect on the problem-solving process to ensure that learning has taken place,
and to consolidate the learning that has taken place (the after phase of the lesson).

Some practical problem-solving strategies are:

• Draw a picture, act it out, use a model.
• Look for a pattern.
• Draw a table or chart.
• Try a simpler form of the problem.
• Guess and check.
• Make an organised list.
Some looking-back strategies are:
• Justify the answer.
• Look for extensions to the solution.
• Look for generalisations of the solution.

Different levels of cognitive demands in tasks

An important practical step that every teacher takes daily in working towards
problem-solving goals is the selection of tasks for learners to work on. Teachers do
this with more or less thought on different occasions. The tasks that learners work
on influence their experiences of mathematics and are vital in their construction of
knowledge and their mathematical development. It is important that mathematics
teachers should choose tasks carefully and thoughtfully, in order to achieve their

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goals for their learners’ learning. This is particularly the case when working with
new concepts of mathematics and learning.

Stein, Smith, Henningsen and Silver (2000) give a framework for differentiating
between tasks, describing the different levels of thinking that such tasks require
to ensure that learners are successfully engaged. They distinguish between tasks
that have low-level demands, such as memorisation and purely procedural tasks,
and those that demand a high level of mathematical thinking, such as procedural
tasks that link to enhancing understanding and sense-making and those tasks that
involve learners in ‘doing mathematics’ as they explore relationships and understand
mathematical concepts and processes.

The table summarises the main features of the task analysis suggested by
Stein et al (2000).

Lower-level demands Higher-level demands

Memorisation tasks Procedures with connections tasks

• Involve reproducing previously learned • Focus on the use of procedures for the
facts, rules, formulae or definitions. purpose of developing deeper levels of
• Cannot be solved using a procedure. understanding.
• Are not ambiguous – involve exact • Suggest pathways to follow.
reproduction of previously seen material. • Are usually represented in multiple ways,
• Have no connection to concepts or e.g. diagrams, manipulative, symbols, etc.
meanings that underline the facts, etc. • Require some degree of cognitive effort.
being learned or reproduced. • Learners are required to engage with
conceptual ideas that underlie procedures
to be successful.

Procedures without connections Doing mathematics tasks

• Are algorithmic. • Require complex and non-algorithmic

• Require limited cognitive effort for thinking.
success. • Require learners to explore and
• There is little ambiguity of what needs to understand mathematical concepts,
be done and how to do it. processes or relationships.
• Have no connections to concepts or • Demand self-regulation.
meanings that underlie the procedure. • Require learners to access relevant
• Require no explanations or very few knowledge.
descriptions of how procedures work. • Require learners to analyse the task.
• Require considerable cognitive effort and
may lead to some levels of anxiety owing
to unpredictable nature of the solution
process.

This information on the different levels of cognitive demand in tasks and the
activity that follows comes from the Mathematical Reasoning guide developed by
RADMASTE (2006).

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ACTIVITY 3.11

Different levels of cognitive demand in tasks

(1) Select a specific content area for an activity or task for the learners in one
of your classes.
(2) Design an activity or task that promotes high-level thinking in terms of the
categories proposed by Stein et al (2000). Clearly identify the activity outcomes.
(3) Write a separate response to the questions below:
• State the category into which you think your task falls.
• Explain why you think your task falls in this category.
• Write a paragraph describing to what extent and in what ways you think
the task might promote mathematical reasoning.
(4) A task is given in the example below.
• Read through the task carefully and make sure you understand what the
learners are required to do.
• Identify the content area under which it might fall and a class you teach
that you might be able to give the task to. Write out the activity outcomes
for the task.
• Evaluate the task in terms of the categories proposed by Stein et al (2000).
State clearly why you think the task falls in a selected category. Comment
on flaws, if any, that you can identify in the task and suggest changes, if
appropriate.
• Write a paragraph saying in what ways you think the task might promote
mathematical reasoning.

In order to answer these questions, you need to think about many of the issues
you have studied so far in this module, in particular:

• the meaning of ‘mathematical reasoning’

• using tasks to develop learners’ thinking and reasoning
• how learners construct meaning

Case study

Example E task with different levels of cognitive demand.

If a grown man and a small boy sit on opposite ends of a seesaw, what happens?
Would changing or moving the weight on one end of the seesaw affect the balance?
You will find out as you do this experiment.

YOU NEED a pencil, a 30 cm ruler, nine 1-rand coins.

Step 1: On a flat desk, try to balance a ruler across a pencil near the 15 cm mark.
Step 2: S
 tack two R1 coins on the ruler so that they are centred at the 5 cm mark
to the right of the pencil. You may need to tape them in place.
Step 3: P
 lace one R1 coin on the left-hand side of the ruler so that it balances the
two on the right-hand side. Be sure that the ruler stays centred over the
pencil. How far from the pencil is the one R1 coin?
Step 4: R
 epeat step 3 for two, three, four and six R1 coins on the left-hand side of
the ruler. Measure to the nearest 1 mm. Copy and complete the table.

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Left-hand side Right-hand side

Number of R1 Distance Number of R1 Distance

coins coins
1 2 5
2 2 5
3 2 5
4 2 5
6 2 5

Step 5: A
 s you increase the number of R1 coins on the left-hand side, how does the
distance change? What relationship do you notice?

Step 6: M
 ake a new table and repeat the investigation with three 1-rand coins stacked
to the right of the centre. Does the same relationship hold true?
Step 7: R
 eview the data in your tables. How does the number of R1 coins on the
left and their distance from the pencil compare to the number of coins on
the right and their distance from the pencil? In each table, do the quantities
remain the same? Write a sentence using the words left R1 coins, right R1
coins, left distance and right distance to explain the relationship between
the quantities. Define variables and rewrite your sentence as an equation.
Step 8: E
 xplain why you think the relationship between the number of 1-rand coins
and the distance from the pencil might be called an inverse relationship.

THE VALUE OF TEACHING USING A PROBLEM-BASED

APPROACH
Teaching using a problem-based approach requires the development of tasks that
take into account the current understanding of learners, as well as the needs of the
curriculum. The value of this approach includes the following:
• When solving problems, learners focus their attention on ideas and sense-making.
This leads to the development of new ideas and enhances understanding. In
contrast a more traditional approach emphasises ‘getting it right’ and following
the directions supplied by the teacher.
• When solving problems, learners are encouraged to think that they can do
mathematics and that mathematics makes sense. As learners develop their
understanding, their confidence in mathematics is also developed.
• As learners discuss ideas, draw pictures, defend their own solutions, evaluate other
solutions and write explanations, they provide the teacher with insight into their
thought processes and their mathematical progress.
• In solving problems, learners develop reasoning and communication skills, and
make connections with existing knowledge. These are the processes of ‘doing’
mathematics that go beyond the understanding of mathematical content.

LADMMM6/1107


• A problem-based approach is more rewarding and more stimulating than a

teach-by-telling approach. Learners are actively engaged in making sense of and
solving the problem. The development of their understanding is exciting for the
learners and the teacher.
Sense-making
Developing confidence and the capacity
for doing mathematics
Provision of assessment data
Problem-solving Mathematical power
Allowing entry points
Fewer disciplinary problems
Having fun and enjoyment

• It is not difficult to teach mathematics as a series of skills and a collection of

facts; to programme learners to be able to carry out routine procedures without
really having to think about what they are actually doing. From the learners
who emerge at the end of the system, and who go into the world, only a small
percentage have any use at all for the mathematics they have learned, and most
will use their knowledge of simple arithmetic, assisted by the pocket calculator,
to get them through everyday life. So do you agree that there must be more to
the teaching of mathematics than simply being able to do calculations, solving
equations or being able to memorise theories?

UNIT SUMMARY
What is problem-solving, as envisioned in the South African situation? It is not
simply instruction for problem-solving or about problem-solving. Campbell and
Bamberger (1990) explain that problem-solving is when
• learners are actively involved in constructing mathematics
• there are cooperation and questioning as learners acquire, relate and apply new
mathematical ideas through sharing, inquiring and discussing
• learners are communicating mathematical ideas through sharing, inquiring and
discussing
• learners are investigating relationships, and the problems act as catalysts for
connecting mathematical concepts and skills
• learners are selecting strategies, justifying solutions, and extending and generalising
problems

Given the already crowded curriculum in mathematics, how and when can a teacher
include long-term problem-solving activities? The key is the approach taken to
problem-solving instruction. It should not be an isolated strand or topic in the already
crowded curriculum – it helps to accommodate the diversity of learners in every
classroom. The equity principle challenges teachers to believe that every learner
brings something of value to the tasks that they give to a class.

Problem-solving is an integral part of all mathematics learning.

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 UNIT 3:  Teaching through problem-solving

Recall that learners must engage in tasks and activities that are problem-based and
require thought. Learning takes place as a result of problem-solving and mathematical
ideas are the outcomes of the problem-solving experience.

We see that the activity of solving problems is now completely interwoven with
learning – children are learning mathematics by doing mathematics.

ACTIVITY 3.12
Now let us put into practice what we have explored in this unit.
(1) Look through your current teaching plans. Choose a concept or topic which you
have planned to teach in a more traditional way based on past experiences,
but which you now realise you can now use problem-solving for.
(2) Redesign and teach the lesson using problem-solving as your main teaching
strategy.
(3) After the lesson, write a comparison between the lesson as you have taught
it now and as you would have taught it before.

• What did you and the learners do differently?

• Did learners learn any better or worse when you used this new approach?
• What evidence did you use to answer the previous question?

SELF-ASSESSMENT
Tick the boxes to assess whether you have achieved the outcomes for this unit.

If you cannot tick the boxes, you should go back and work through the relevant
part in the unit again.

Am I able to do the following:

# Checklist 
1 Explain, with understanding, the need for a shift in thinking about mathematics £
instruction.

2 Critically reflect on the value of teaching with problems. £

3 Select and analyse appropriate tasks and problems for learning mathematics. £
4 Describe, with insight, the three-part lesson format for problem-solving £
referred to as ‘before’, ‘during’ and ‘after’.

5 Critically describe the teacher’s actions in the before, during and after phases £
of a problem-solving lesson.

6 Competently select and design effective problem-based lessons from the £

textbook and other resources.

7 Explain competently how problem-solving goals are developed while learners £

learn.

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REFERENCES

Bell, FH. 1982. Teaching and learning mathematics. Iowa: WMC Brown.
Campbell, PF & Bamberger, HJ. 1990. Implementing the Standards. The vision of
problem solving in the Standards. Arithmetic Teacher 37(9):14–17.
Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement Grades 7–9: Mathematics. 2011.
Department of Basic Education. South Africa: Pretoria. ISBN: 978-1-4315-0525-8.
Department of Education. 2001. Revised national curriculum statement of Grades R–9
(schools). Pretoria: Government Printer.
Hiebert, J, Carpenter, TP, Fennema E, Fuson, KC, Wearne, D, Murray, H, Olivier, A
& Human, P. 1997. Making sense: teaching and learning mathematics with understanding.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
NCTM. 1989. Commission on standards and evaluation for school mathematics. Reston VA:
NCTM.
Nicholson, MJ. 1992. Problem solving. In Moodley, M, Mathematics education for in-
service and pre-service teachers. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter & Shooter.
Polya, G. 1980. On solving mathematical problems in high school. In NCTM, Problem
solving in school mathematics: 1980 yearbook. NCTM.
RADMASTE Centre, University of the Witwatersrand. 2006. Mathematical reasoning.
EDUC 263: chapter 7.
Stein, MK, Smith, MS, Henningsen, MA & Silver, EA. 2000. Implementing standards-
based mathematics instruction: a casebook for professional development. New York:
Teachers’ College Press.
Stellenbosch University Project: Malati, Mathematics learning and teaching
initiative. 1990. Geometry module 3: nets, models and cross sections, Grade
4–7, teacher document. Retrieved from Mathematics+learning+and+teaching+
initiative. +(1990). +Geometry+module+3%3A+nets%2C+models+and+cross+sections
%3A+Grade+4+-+7%2C+teacher+document.&rlz=1C1GCEU_enZA855ZA855&oq.
Van de Walle, JA. 2004. Elementary and middle school mathematics: teaching developmentally.
New York: Pearson.
Van de Walle, JA, Karp, KS & Bay-Williams, JM. 2016. Elementary and middle school
mathematics: teaching developmentally. 9th edition. New York: Pearson.

110
 4 UNIT 4
4 PLANNING IN THE PROBLEM-BASED CLASSROOM

WELCOME

“You know,” says Bobo, “we’ve talked about diverse attitudes towards mathematics,
diverse ways in which learners solve mathematics problems and the fact that teachers
teach mathematics in diverse ways, but sometimes it’s not the mathematics itself
that is the issue. A few of my learners just get on and do the whatever work I give
them. Some seem habitually naughty. And most of them seem to follow one of the
two extremes. So sometimes I can get the whole class working productively and
sometimes the whole class just seems to get out of control following the lead of the
naughty ones.”

“I know what you mean,” remarks Millicent, “I try to focus on publicly rewarding
good behaviour and dealing with discipline problems as soon as possible on a one-
to-one basis. Otherwise the whole class starts to focus on your attempts to sort out
discipline problems instead of on the maths. On a one-to-one basis it’s often possible
to work out why learners are being ‘naughty’. Sometimes they just crave the attention
they don’t get at home; sometimes something has happened to them on their way to
school; sometimes there are real learning difficulties that result in frustration rather
than any deliberate attempt to disrupt the class.”

“Yes,” replies Jackson, “that is what Brigitte Thompson of Positive Behaviour

Management also says. I have read about her recently in the newspaper. She advocates
tracking learners’ behaviour over time and notes that often the kids with discipline
problems are intelligent, perceptive and have strong personalities. She argues that
if we recognise and reward their good behaviour we can often help them become
more positive leaders in the classroom.”

“That’s all very well,” remarks Bobo, “but sometimes the kids do get a bit out of
control.”

LADMMM6/1111


“But that’s only because we let them,” says Jackson. “Thompson suggests that if
all else fails, her five-step corrective plan should kick in. The first step is to issue a
reminder when the first rule is breached. The second breach requires the teacher
to ask the child why he or she is not making good choices. The third step involves
getting them to fill out a journal, explaining their behaviour and exploring what
they could have done instead. The fourth step is to contact the child’s parents and
establish possible factors at home. The fifth breach requires the intervention of
the head of department or the principal. I’ve tried it and it works quite well. I have
needed to involve my HoD only once so far this year.”

“Yes,” adds Millicent, “I’ve found that it is only a few learners who habitually seem
to have problems that result in disruptive behaviour and I’ve also found that I have
much fewer discipline problems when I can get them interested in what they are
doing in class.”

Think about the following:

(1) Do you agree with Bobo that your mathematics lessons are sometimes disrupted
because of problems that are not actually related to the subject? Can you think
of any recent examples? How did you react to the disruptions?
(2) Can you identify learners in your own classroom who often present you with
discipline problems? Do you have any idea why these children present these
discipline problems? Does your lesson planning include strategies to pre-empt
and minimise these problems?
(3) Millicent argues that in lessons in which she manages to capture the learners’
interest, she generally has fewer discipline problems. Is this also your experience?
How can we make our mathematics lessons more interesting and stimulating
for the learners?
Comments
This module does not focus in detail on managing discipline. However, we believe that
by being able to anticipate potential discipline problems, by recognising and rewarding
constructive behaviour, and by dealing quickly and consistently with discipline
problems that do emerge, we can manage our diverse classroom environments
effectively. We also believe that if we can plan lessons that interest the learners and
challenge them at an appropriate level, we will have fewer discipline problems generally
and will be in a better position to deal with any discipline problems that arise.

UNIT OUTCOMES
Upon completion of unit 4 you should be able to

• describe the step-by-step process of planning for a problem-based lesson

• write out a well thought out and concise lesson plan founded on a problem-
based strategy
• discuss some variations of the three-part lesson critically
• discuss how workstation activities or games can be profitably and meaningfully
used to enhance a problem-based lesson
• discuss the effective use of group work
• explain the differences between competitive learning, individualistic learning
and collaborative learning
• discuss the effective use of collaborative or co-operative learning
• plan for reaching all learners through effective problem-solving strategies
that can be used in increasingly diverse classrooms

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 UNIT 4:  Planning in the problem-based classroom

INTRODUCTION
One of the major hurdles facing teachers is translating theoretical constructs into
action in the classroom (Moodley, 1992). Your own understanding of the model
and, more importantly, your confidence in it and your conviction that it works, are
crucial to its implementation. This unit focuses on planning in the problem-based
classroom in an attempt to give you the confidence and competence to pursue this
approach with your learners.
You know that people involved in a teaching-learning situation find it difficult to
teach effectively without using a good lesson plan. The three-part lesson format
described in unit 3 provides a basic structure for problem-based lessons. That basic
framework has been developed to meet the need for learners to be engaged in
problems, followed by discussion and reflection.
We need to keep in mind that teachers, according to Lester (1994) play a key role in
the development of their students’ conceptualisation of a mathematical self.
When planning the lesson, make provision for the teacher’s role, which should be
that of a guide or facilitator and not an authority. This means that the teacher chooses
which problems and tasks to use, and guides the discussion of these problems, but
the teacher does not pronounce solutions.
It is also an important strategy not to tell the learners everything they need to know,
as this will restrict the development of learner-initiated activity that is a natural
consequence of learners’ curiosity and will encourage them to take a passive role in
their education (Lester 1994).
Teaching is a practical activity. However, this challenging activity demands reflection
and insight. As you work through this unit, develop an inquiring mind and continually
ask why certain activities are performed in a particular way. Think and do should
be the key words. Krüger and Müller (1988, in Hobden, 2007) insist that this act of
teaching demands that one should perform teaching activities skillfully.

PLANNING A PROBLEM-BASED LESSON

It is very important that you give adequate thought to the planning of your lesson.
Remember that every class is different, and the selection of tasks and how they are
presented must be made daily to meet the needs of the learners and achieve the
defined outcomes. Van de Walle (2004) recommends the following steps for planning
a problem-based lesson:

STEP 1: Begin with the mathematics.

• Articulate clearly the ideas you want learners to construct – something new or
unfamiliar.
• Describe the mathematics, not the behaviour.
• For skills as intended outcomes, identify the underlying concepts and relationships.

STEP 2: Consider your students.

• Consider what the learners already know or understand about the topic. Are there
any background ideas that they still need to develop?
• Be sure that your objectives are not out of reach.
• For learning to take place, there must be some challenge – some new idea within
the grasp of learners.

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STEP 3: Decide on a task.

• Keep it simple. Good tasks need not be elaborate.
• Build a task bank from resource books, journals, workshops, in-service programmes
and conferences.

STEP 4: Predict what will happen.

• Predict, don’t hope. Use the information about what learners know to predict all
the things your learners are likely to do with this task.
• If they flounder, provide hints or modify the tasks for different learners.
• Decide whether your learners will work alone, in pairs, or in groups.
• Revisit the task if you find it inappropriate at this stage. Modify the task if necessary.

These first four decisions comprise the heart of your lesson. The next four decisions
define how you will carry out the plan in your classroom.

STEP 5: Articulate learner responsibilities.

• For nearly every task, you want learners to be able to tell you
– what they have done to get the answer
– why they have done it that way
– why they think the solution is correct
• Plan how learners would supply this information. They could write individually
or prepare a group presentation in their journals, on worksheets or chart-paper,
etc. Sometimes it may not be necessary to write things down and they could just
report on or discuss their ideas.

STEP 6: Plan the ‘before’ phase of the lesson.

• Prepare the learners by working quickly through an easier related task or a related
warm-up exercise.
• Articulate what is required of the learners in terms of their responsibilities.
• Present the task and then let go! Learners could brainstorm ideas or make
estimations.
• Consider how the task can be presented – written on paper, taken from the text
and so on.

STEP 7: Think about the ‘during’ phase of the lesson.

• What hints can you plan in advance for learners who may become stuck?
• Think of extended questions or challenges you can pose to learners who
finish quickly.
• Tell learners in advance how much time they have to complete the task, but be
flexible.

STEP 8: Think about the ‘after’ phase of the lesson.

• How will you begin the discussion? List the options and then return to individual
learners or groups to explain their solutions and justify their answers.
• For oral reports, think about how you would record on the board what is being said.
• Allow an adequate amount of time for discussion.

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 UNIT 4:  Planning in the problem-based classroom

STEP 9: Write out your lesson plan.

The outline here is a possible format of the critical decisions:

• The mathematics or goals
• The task and expectations
• The ‘before’ activities
• The ‘during’ hints and extensions for early finishers
• The ‘after’-lesson discussion format
• Assessment notes (what you want to assess and how)

Variations of the three-part lesson

Not every lesson is developed around a task requiring a full period to complete. The
basic concept of tasks and discussions can be adapted to form mini-lessons. The
three-part format can be compressed to as little as 10 minutes. This will allow you
to plan two or three cycles in a single lesson.

Consider the use of mini-lessons if learners do not require the full period and the
basic concept of tasks and discussions can be adapted to problem-based lessons.
Another strategy for short tasks is ‘think-pair-share’. Learners first work on their
own, then pair with classmates and discuss each other’s ideas, and then share their
ideas and solutions with the whole class.

Workstations and games as problem-based activities

Getting learners to work at different tasks or games at various locations around the
room can also be a useful teaching and learning strategy for a number of reasons:
• The use of workstations is a good way to manage materials without the need
to distribute and collect them. This strategy can also be useful in large classes
because it gives all learners the opportunity to interact with various materials.
• In this instance it is important that the teacher ensures that meaningful activities
are taking place at each of the stations.
• Another advantage of using workstations is that they allow you to differentiate
tasks when your learners are at different stages in the development of concepts.
• Workstations can be used for problem-solving activities or to give learners several
opportunities to practise a skill in different contexts.

It is important to note that you may prepare four to eight different activities for a
given topic; it is therefore advisable to teach or explain the activity to the full class
ahead of time so that the learners can get on with each task without wasting time.

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ACTIVITY 4.1

Planning a problem-based lesson

(1) Reflect analytically on the nine steps given above for the planning of a problem-
based lesson.
(2) Thereafter, describe in your own words the decisions that must be made for
each of the nine steps.
(3) Choose a topic and plan a lesson for a grade of your choice, following the
nine steps above.
(4) Where have you considered it necessary to adapt the three-part lesson format?
Explain why it has been necessary to adapt the format.
(5) Do workstation activities or games fit the definition of a problem-based task
as discussed in unit 3? Explain your response clearly.
(6) Explain how you would conduct the ‘after’ phase of a lesson (i.e. discussions)
when learners are working at workstations.

TEACHING AND LEARNING IN SMALL GROUPS

A key strategy for problem-based lessons is organising for teaching and learning in
small groups. The material in this section has been taken from a module entitled
Mathematical reasoning offered by the RADMASTE Centre, University of the
Witwatersrand.

Why ‘group work’?

The new curriculum emphasises the importance of group work as one of the ways
in which teaching and learning activities can occur. We have already discussed the
importance of the active participation of learners in the teaching and learning process,
and the place of communication in this process. When learners are allowed to work
together in small groups they can talk and discuss things among themselves. If
learners in small groups are supplied with appropriate activities and tasks, they can
talk to one another to construct meaningful understandings of concepts.

Small group interactions enable learners to develop certain skills, such as the following:
• strong interpersonal skills, because they have to learn to communicate with
their peers and to negotiate to reach a goal
• strong co-operative and collaborative skills, which can help balance the
strong competitiveness in today’s world
• strong problem-solving and critical thinking skills, which can be developed
by sharing knowledge and abilities focused on the problem and evaluating one
another’s contributions.

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 UNIT 4:  Planning in the problem-based classroom

ACTIVITY 4.2
(1) Tick the response that best indicates how strongly you agree or disagree
with the statements:

Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly

agree disagree

a Everyone in a group can be involved in

the learning.

b It is easy to do nothing in a group and to

allow the others to do all the work.

c CAPS is all about learners working in

groups.

d Mathematics lessons need to be specially

designed to allow for group work.

e You can use group work for other

subjects, but not for mathematics.

f If you seat learners in groups, they will

copy the work of the others in the group.

g Learners work best when they work on

their own.

h Learners work better in groups because

they enjoy working with their friends.

i Learners work less effectively if they are

in groups.

j Group work is not possible for learning

mathematics.

k If you seat learners in groups they

will become involved in co-operative
learning.

l Learners will pass on incorrect

information to one another and confuse
one another.

m Group work means a lot of extra

preparation and administration for the
teacher.

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(2) Tick the response that best indicates how you think group work might work
or works in your classroom.

a I have tried having the learners work in groups, but the class is too big.

b I have never tried group work in my classroom as the learners are too noisy.

c The learners always work in pairs, so I do not need to have small groups.

d The learners I teach do not like working in groups.

e The learners in my classes often work in groups.

f The desks in my classroom are arranged in lines so there is no opportunity

for group work.

g The desks in my classroom are arranged so the learners can work in pairs.

h I teach in another teacher’s classroom and I am not allowed to move the

desks.

What is group work?

The main idea behind group work is that learners can help each other in the learning
process. But we wish them to share more than just the answers. They should help
one another to understand concepts better and to build new knowledge. Learners
who are not familiar with working in groups may initially feel uncomfortable, but
if they persevere they can develop sound co-operative behaviour.

While working in groups, learners can get clarity about their ideas and practise their
skills. This usually occurs by means of discussion to reinforce concepts and practical
activities that allow the practice of skills already learned. Usually special worksheets
are designed by the teacher to guide the learners’ discussions and activities.

Another form of group work is problem-based and requires learners to work in small
groups to discover (or ‘uncover’) new concepts and ideas. Through experimenting,
thinking and talking, the learners interact with one another and with the problem,
and construct new knowledge. The teacher’s role is to mediate the learning within
the groups.

In any classroom a teacher may structure lessons so that learners can

• compete in a win–lose struggle to see who is the best
• work independently on their own learning goals as individuals learning at their
own pace and in their own space to achieve a pre-set criterion of excellence
• work co-operatively in small groups, ensuring that all members master the
assigned material

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 UNIT 4:  Planning in the problem-based classroom

Below are three different ways of learning, with the principle on which each type
of learning is based:

COMPETITIVE LEARNING The principle here is:

I swim, you sink; I sink, you swim.
If I achieve my goals you cannot achieve yours.

• This learning fosters negative interdependence.

• Learners obtain assigned goals if and only if others fail.
• The teacher is perceived as the major source of support – a referee and/or a judge.
• If learners do not feel that they have an equal chance to win, they often give up and do not try.
• A typical teacher response is:
‘Who has the most so far?’ or ‘What do you need to do to win next time?’

INDIVIDUALISTIC LEARNING The principle here is:

We are all in this alone.
I do not depend on you to achieve my goal.

• Learners work on their own; there is no interaction.

• Learners seek help only from the teacher; the teacher is seen as the major source of
information.
• The learner celebrates only his or her own success.
• A typical teacher response is:
‘Do not bother Mike while he is working. Raise your hand if you need help.’
• Learners are encouraged to compete with themselves to strive for excellence.
• Learners are not held back by any of the other learners who have no interest in learning anything.
CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING The principle here is:
We sink or swim together.
I can only achieve my goal if you achieve your
goal.

• There is positive interdependence.

• Learners are working together to achieve shared goals.
• There is prolonged interaction with much helping, sharing, general support and
encouragement.
• Learners only reach goals if others also reach them.
• The teacher monitors and intervenes in learning groups.
• The teacher facilitates the learning of collaborative skills.
• A typical teacher response is:
‘Mike, can you explain your group’s answer to question 3?’ or ‘Ask for help only when you have
consulted all group members.’

The goal of co-operative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that
learners work together to maximise their own and one another’s learning.

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ACTIVITY 4.3
(1) Write a paragraph describing whether you encourage competitive, individualistic
or co-operative learning in your classrooms.
(2) Based on what you have read above and your own experiences, list the
advantages and disadvantages of having the learners in your classroom
working in small groups. Present your answer in table format.

What makes co-operative learning work?

There is more to co-operative learning than seating arrangements. Co-operation can
only work well if the teacher emphasises the five essential elements of any lesson in
which group work plays a part. These elements are positive interdependence; individual
and group accountability; reflection on group progress; face-to-face interaction; and
interpersonal and small-group skills.

Positive interdependence
The members of the group must believe that they cannot succeed unless everyone
succeeds.

The following are examples of strategies that encourage positive interdependence:

• The overall group score had to be above a certain amount.
• Each member of the group had to score at least a set level.
• The group must produce one product.
Activities and tasks need to be carefully structured so that each member of the group
has some resource or material that others need. No group member can therefore
achieve the desired goal on his or her own. To help achieve this, members of the
group are often assigned a specific role, for example reader, checker or scribe.

Individual and group accountability

The purpose of co-operative groups is to make each member of the group a stronger
individual in his or her own right. The group members must understand that they cannot
sit back and wait for others to do the work. The group is required to work together
as a whole and members may need to help one another to achieve the desired goal.

It is important to provide a structure that enables group members to hold one another
accountable. This might take the form of peer assessment in the group.

Example

REFLECTION ON GROUP PROGRESS

Agree Disagree

My group • had clear goals A B C D

• made good progress A B C D

• stayed on task A B C D

• helped one another A B C D

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 UNIT 4:  Planning in the problem-based classroom

If groups are kept small, it is possible to observe and record the frequency of
participation of the group members. An example of a teacher observation form is
shown below:

OBSERVATION SHEET

NAME Contributes Encourages Checks Gives the Listens to

information participation; for under- group others
and ideas invites others standing direction
to speak

The table below shows a checklist that the teacher can use to assess group work
skills. (Other criteria for assessing group work skills may also be used.)

Criteria Yes No

Does the learner perform a designated task in the group?

Does the learner participate fully in group activities?

Does the learner listen to other group members?

Is the learner focused on the group activities?

Does the learner assist other group members when necessary?

The teacher should find time to listen to each group, to intervene when necessary,
and to encourage the improvement of academic skills and small group skills.

Face-to-face interaction
It must be made clear that groups must meet to do the work. Allow groups to work
during class time, as you cannot assume that all group members are able to meet
after school.

Interpersonal and small-group skills

Interpersonal and small-group skills do not magically appear. If you wish to implement
co-operative learning successfully, you must find ways to teach the learners how to
behave to ensure that their groups are productive.

All learners must be taught how to collaborate effectively in small groups. Learning
to work together is a process and learners need to develop certain small-group skills

LADMMM6/1121


or behaviours. Learners do not always find these skills easy to identify or to put into
practice. Skills and behaviours necessary for effective co-operative learning include
the following:

• encouraging participation • expressing support

• expressing warmth • listening
• contributing ideas • giving direction
• summarising • focusing on the task
• checking for understanding • using quiet voices
• relieving tension by joking • explaining answers
• keeping the peace • criticising ideas without criticising
people

The learners need to trust one another; communicate accurately; accept and support
one another; and resolve conflicts constructively.

Teachers play a vital role in ensuring that groups function effectively. Teachers must
continually reinforce the behaviours that they wish to see by encouraging learners
to persevere in practising the skills they have highlighted.

Reflecting on the work of the groups

While groups should be monitored consistently to assess academic progress and the
use of the small group skills, the teacher needs to reflect on each session to assess
the quality of the interactions. It might be necessary to decide which actions or
interactions within the groups worked well and which did not; which interactions
were helpful or not; and so on. This enables the teacher to set goals for improving
the effectiveness of groups.

International research has found that group work enables

• higher achievement and increased retention
• more frequent reasoning on a higher level, deeper understanding and critical
thinking
• more ‘on task’ and less disruptive behaviour
• greater achievement motivation and intrinsic motivation to learn
• greater ability to view situations from the perspective of others
• more positive accepting and supportive behaviours with peers regardless of
gender, ability, ethnicity, social class or handicap differences
• greater social support
• more positive attitudes towards teachers, principals and other staff
• more positive attitudes towards subject areas, learning and school
• greater psychological health, adjustment and wellbeing
• more positive self-esteem based on self-acceptance
• greater social competencies

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ACTIVITY 4.4
Ask your class to work in pairs on a task and then reflect on how successful you
think the learners have executed the task. Remember that it takes a little while for
learners to get used to working together if they have never done it before.
(1) Divide the class into pairs.
(2) Give the learners a puzzle or a mathematics problem to complete with their
partners.
(3) Observe and take notes as they work. Interact with the pairs if they need
assistance.
(4) If possible, ask each learner how they liked or felt about working with a partner.
(5) At the end of the lesson, write a short reflection on how well the learners
have worked together.

Arranging learners into groups

There are many ways of organising learners into groups. There may be times when
the teacher prefers to put learners with similar abilities together in a group. At other
times the teacher might want to put learners with different levels of ability together.
Much of the research on co-operative learning seems to indicate that heterogeneous
(mixed-ability) groups work best. Educationalists point out that a mix of ability, gender,
language, culture and social background allows more diversity of thought, with more
giving and receiving of explanations. However, when using mixed-ability grouping,
it is not a good idea to put very weak learners with high-achievers, as the learners
who struggle may be too shy to offer their suggestions. Some research indicates that
all learners tend to be active participants in groups with narrow ranges of ability.

To begin, it is best to start by working in pairs. After a whole-class discussion,

simply suggest that learners help one another complete their worksheets or exercises.
When new concepts are introduced, the pairs can be encouraged to explain these
concepts to each other and to check for understanding. This ensures that all students
are actively involved.

After a time of working in pairs, learners could be assigned to groups of three or

four. When assigning learners to groups, the teacher should try to ensure that each
group has at least one learner who is confident and competent at mathematics. To
encourage a co-operative and supportive group atmosphere it is best to keep learners
in the same group for at least one marking cycle. Working together for an extended
period of time will allow for a team spirit and a working relationship to develop.
However, learners do not always feel comfortable with their groups, so if necessary
they can be regrouped.

Researchers have found that groups of three or four students are the most successful
because
• groups of four can be split into two pairs if necessary
• if one group member is absent, there is still enough support
• if only two learners work together, the initial conversation may falter
• when learners work in groups of three or four, each should have enough opportunity
to ask questions and to give ideas
• learners are more likely to offer suggestions and to express their concerns to two
or three others than to the whole class

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Depending on the activity, it might be necessary to define and assign different roles
to the members of a group. Roles can describe what is expected of a learner, ensuring
that he or she participates in the activity. Suggested roles include the following:
• explainer of ideas – shares ideas and elaborates on them when necessary
• recorder – writes down conjectures, proposed steps, conclusions
• encourager of participation – makes sure that all members are contributing
• support giver – gives support by acknowledging and praising ideas
• checker of understanding – checks that everyone in the group can explain how
to arrive at an answer
• voice monitor – ensures that everyone speaks in quiet voices, but loudly and
clearly enough to be heard by the other group members
• initiator – initiates discussion, suggests a plan of action
• peacemaker – mediates differences, effects compromise

It may be easier to introduce the idea of group roles by using a sports team as an
illustration. If your learners are enthusiastic about soccer, for example, you can look
at the roles of the manager, the coach, the centre, and so on. Ask the learners to
define these roles and say why they are important. You can also discuss what would
happen if players did not do their jobs properly. Learners can then identify the roles
that they would like to see active in their own groups. Keep the labels simple and
decide on only a few roles such as coach, reader, summariser and encourager.
Roles can be rotated so that each group member has a chance to practise the different
behaviours. Learners should also see that each group member can take on different
roles at different times.

ACTIVITY 4.5
(1) Play this game with learners to teach them about working in a group and how
to co-operating with others in the group.
This game is called BROKEN SQUARES and is taken from Getting practical
about outcomes-based education (Gultig & Steilau, 2002):

• Arrange the learners in groups of five. You need to prepare five squares
per group.
• Prepare the squares:
– Cut up squares of paper into pieces with different shapes, as shown
here:
– Place three pieces (each one from a different square) into an envelope
– one envelope per member of the group. Make sure that no envelope
contains only pieces of a single square.

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Apparatus

• Give each group of five learners a set of five envelopes. In each envelope there
should be three pieces of a broken square.

Task instructions

• Each group must form five squares from the apparatus given to them.
• They must do this in silence. Group members may not signal one another to
give them a piece of a square. However, members may give pieces of squares
to other players in their group if they see that this will assist the member
in completing a square.
• Groups have 20 minutes to form five squares of equal size. No group’s task
is complete until all five members have squares of the same size.
• After about 20 minutes, ask the learners to talk about what has happened. Has
it been difficult to work together? What has made it difficult?

Write a reflection on playing this game with your class.

How did the class respond? Did the game achieve its aim (to give learners an
experience of working co-operatively)?
(2) Organise your class into groups of three or four.
The groups are going to investigate some 3D objects. Each member of the
group will construct one 3D shape. The group members will then count the
number of edges, faces and vertices (corners) of each shape. You, the teacher,
must provide the nets to learners by enlarging the nets on the next page. You
might need to assist the learners in constructing the shapes.

The learners must then complete the table below.

Shape Name No. of No. of No. of

vertices edges faces

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Give the class a couple of lessons to complete this task. Observe and take
notes as the learners work together. Some of the things to look for:

• Do some groups work better than others? Try to explain why you think
this is the case.
• Are all members of the group participating in the activity?
• Are the learners being encouraged or distracted by the others in the group?
• Are there problem groups? Why are they experiencing problems?
• Are the learners enjoying the activity?
• Do you have any ideas that could be used to promote the ethos of working
in groups?

(3) Design your own activity for your class in which learners will work co-
operatively on a topic (idea/concept) relating to one of the content areas of
the mathematics curriculum.
Write down the following:

• expected outcomes
• apparatus needed
• explicit instructions for the learners

Nets for activity 5, question 2

For all nets: Cut out, fold along all lines and glue tabs.

Tetrahedron net (triangular pyramid) Cube net

Square pyramid net Rectangular prism net Triangular prism

(cuboid) net

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ASSESSING GROUP WORK

Assessment plays a vital role in the new curriculum, and assessment in group work
might affect how the learners interact in the group.

If teachers believe that co-operative group work promotes individual learning,

they should design assessments that would facilitate this. Some ways to do this are
discussed below.

Group average for each member

Learners work in their pairs or groups and then hand in a group product to be assessed.
The group average is then given to each member of the group. This can be done
occasionally to encourage learners to support their partners. Some learners might find
this frustrating, particularly if the rest of the group is weak or not interested. This
could discourage them from giving their best. Teachers need to be on the lookout
for this and guard against it.

Individual mark and group average

Assignments are assessed individually, but then count for only a portion of the final
mark, say 70%, while the group average makes up the other 30%. This weighting of
the marks does not have a great effect on the individual’s mark, but it does provide
an incentive to take responsibility for others in the group.

Marks for good co-operative behaviour

Other assessments during the year should also count. Continuous assessment can
take place at appropriate times when the teacher is able to walk around and observe
while the groups are busy with work. A simple rating scale of 0, 1 or 2 could be used
to assess the involvement of group members. At the end of the lesson each group
should hand in a group effort assessment and marks can be awarded when a serious
attempt has been made to reach the goals of an activity.

Below are some examples of assessments that might be used when your class
participates in group work. While these assessment sheets or rubrics have specifically
been designed for group work, they can obviously be modified and used when learners
work individually or in pairs.

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Self-assessment in group participation

It is important that group members learn to assess themselves. They can ask themselves
questions such as the following:
• How did I feel about working in a group?
• Did I contribute to the group?
The following rubric can be used for this kind of assessment:

My participation in the Almost Often Sometimes Rarely

group always

I did my fair share of the

work.

I was considerate to
the other members of
the group.

I gave ideas and

suggestions that
helped the group.

I completed my
share of work
properly and on
time.

Peer assessment in group participation

As learners become more familiar with working in groups you can ask them to
assess one another, either individually or how they have worked together as a group.

Fill out the group assessment rubric based on the numbered legend. You are assessing
how the members of your group have worked together.

4 – excellent; 3 – good; 2 – satisfactory; 1 – inadequate

Name Interaction Listened Helped and Shared the Completed

of group with to other encouraged work or assigned
member members members other task work
of group of group members of
group

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Teacher assessment of group interaction

The assessment of learners’ group work by the teacher is important.

Excellent Good Satisfactory Inadequate

Group All learners Most of the At least half Only one or

participation participate learners actively the learners two learners
enthusiastically. participate. contribute participate
ideas. actively.

Shared Responsibility Responsibility is Responsibility There is reliance

responsibility for task is shared shared by most is shared by less on one person in
evenly. group members. than half the the group.
group members.

Quality of Excellent Learners Little ability Little inter

interaction listening skills show some to interact; action; very brief
exhibited; interaction; some attentive conversations;
learners’ lively listening, but some learners
behaviour discussion dominance are disinterested
reflects centres on by one or two or distracted.
awareness of the task. group members.
others’ views
and opinions
in their
discussions.

Roles Each learner Each learner Learners No effort is

allocation assigned a is assigned a assigned roles, made to assign
clearly defined role, but roles but roles are roles to group
role; group are not clearly not consistently members.
members defined or adhered to.
perform roles consistently
effectively. adhered to.
Co-operative All learners take Learners work on Learners work on Learners work
nature of group responsibility for assigned work and assigned work, but individually on
their assigned most cooperate to less than half are assigned work and
work and ensure complete the task. concerned that do not co-operate
that all work by task is completed. to complete the
the group is of a task.
high standard.

Another way of assessing group work activities is to use a checklist. Checklists

consist of statements describing a learner’s expected performance in a particular
task. When a particular statement (criterion) of the checklist can be observed as
having been satisfied by a learner during the activity, the statement can be ticked
off. All the statements that have been ticked off on the list describe the learner’s
performance in the group work activity. Checklists are also very useful for peer
assessments (DoE, 2001).

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Other criteria for assessing group work skills may also be included.

Criteria Yes No

Does the learner perform his or her designated task in the group?

Does the learner participate fully in group activities?

Does the learner listen to other group members?

Is the learner focused on the group activities?

Does the learner assist other group members when there is a need?

ACTIVITY 4.6
Read the rubrics given above carefully.
(1) Evaluate them in terms of your learners and modify them if necessary.
(2) Use the teacher rubric to assess a group work task or activity in your classroom.
Write a short reflection on how you used the rubric.
(3) Use one of the learner rubrics to assess a different group work task or activity.
Write a short reflection on how the learners responded to the rubric.
Note in particular how serious the learners were in assessing themselves
and/or one another.
(4) Design and use a checklist (like the one shown above) to assess a mathematics
activity for one of your classes. Write a short reflection on how successful the
checklist has been to assess the performance of the learners.

DEALING WITH DIVERSITY

One of the most difficult challenges facing teachers today is the need to reach all
learners in increasingly difficult classrooms. Our classrooms all contain a range of
learners with different abilities and backgrounds.

In a traditional teacher-directed lesson, it is assumed that all learners will understand

and use the same approach and the same ideas – and follow the teacher’s rules
or directions in an instrumental manner. This approach does not cater for the
range of learner differences in ability. The problem-based approach of teaching is
considered to be the best way to teach mathematics while accommodating the range
of learner abilities at the same time. In a problem-based classroom, learners make
sense of mathematics in their own way, bringing to the problems only the skills
and ideas that they own.

The following list mentions a few specific things that you can do to attend to the
diversity of learners in your classroom:
• Be sure that problems have multiple entry points.
• Plan differentiated tasks.
• Use heterogeneous groupings.
• Listen carefully to learners.

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Plan for multiple entry points

Many tasks can be solved with a range of methods, especially computational tasks
where learner-invested methods are encouraged and valued. This can be achieved
by telling the learners to use their own ideas to solve a problem. In this way the
learners will inevitably come up with numbers of different ways to complete the
task they are given.

Manipulative models can be used effectively to vary the entry points. Learners can
also be challenged to devise rules or methods that are less dependent on manipulatives
or drawings.

Listen carefully to learners

It is always important to listen to your learners. Try to find out how they are thinking,
what ideas they have and how they are approaching difficult problems.
Develop a hypothesis that is as accurate as possible about the ideas they have on
the current topic.
Every child is capable – by listening carefully you will be in a better position to
guide the learners.
The following activity comes from the Malati (1999) open source materials,
Geometry Module 3:

ACTIVITY 4.7
(1) Discuss how the following activity can be altered and expanded to cater for
different learners by giving multiple entry points to the activity.

Write out the differentiated activity sheet in full.

More nets

This box without a lid can be unfolded to form a net, as shown:

(a) Draw two different nets for the same box.

(b) Draw a net which could be used to make a box with a lid.
(c) How would you change the net to make a cubic box?

LADMMM6/1131


(2) Why is a problem-based approach a good way to reach all learners in a

diverse-ability classroom?
(3) Discuss with your fellow mathematics teachers what is meant by ‘tasks with
multiple entry points’ and ‘differentiated tasks’.
(4) What sort of groupings should be used in a diverse classroom? Why?

DRILL AND PRACTICE

Drill and practice usually refer to the repetitive procedural work that learners are
expected to do, in the hope that this will help them learn, or at least to consolidate
the new ideas introduced to them. However, in the interest of developing a new or
different perspective on drill and practice, Van de Walle (2004) offers the following
definitions that differentiate between these terms as different types of activities
rather than link them together:
• Practice refers to different problem-based tasks or experiences, spread over
numerous class periods, each addressing the same basic ideas.
• Drill, on the other hand, refers to repetitive, non-problem-based exercises
designed to improve skills or procedures already acquired.

What drill provides

Drill can provide learners with the following:
• an increased facility with a strategy that they have already learned.
• a focus on specific methods, i.e. no use of flexible alternative methods.
• a false appearance of understanding.
• a rule-oriented view of what mathematics is about.
If you had to convince a traditional teacher that drill alone does not adequately benefit
the learner in terms of effective learning, you could substantiate your argument with
the following points:
• Drill is not a reflective activity.
• Drill narrows one’s thinking and does not promote flexibility.
• There is no indication of conceptual understanding. Procedures are easily and
quickly forgotten and confused.
• There is little joy, interest and enthusiasm.
• Drill does not equip a learner with any new skills or strategies.

There are some profitable uses of drill:

• When a skill that is already in place is drilled, its efficiency increases. Drill is
therefore part of an efficiency strategy.
• Automaticity is a desired outcome of drill. This means that the learner no longer
has to think about using skills or strategies, but can apply it automatically.

It is possible that the skills that learners need to acquire are weak and unperfected.
They then need to be repeated in order to improve. However, it is important to note
that if the skill is not there to begin with, no amount of drill will create it.

Automaticity means that the skill can be performed quickly and mindlessly. One
example is to perform long division without thinking about the meaning of the
different steps. The mental mathematics of the Intermediate Phase calls for some
drill to enable learners to work with numbers easily. However, there should always

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be room for learners to perform their mental mathematics using different strategies
that suit them.

Flexibility is important in computations because the demands of the context suggest

different approaches. Even with basic facts, we know that different learners use
different strategies. Learners need to learn how to sift through different methods
of thinking, which require problem-based tasks and adequate opportunities with
varied contexts.

What practice provides

In essence, practice is what your study material is about, namely providing learners
with ample and varied opportunities to reflect on or generate new ideas through
problem-based tasks.

ACTIVITY 4.8

Drill and practice

(1) Analyse these two contrasting terms (drill and practice) as defined above.
(2) There is a difference between drill and practice. Explain this difference.
(3) Reflect on your classroom experience. Which do you use more – drill or
practice? Explain your answer.
(4) Will your observation make a difference to your future classroom practice?
Explain your response.
(5) The definition of drill states that skills must be acquired before they can be
drilled. What is the implication of this for the planning of problem-based
lessons? Explain.

LESSON PLANNING
This unit contains many ideas on planning for and dealing with classrooms with
diverse learner groups. In conclusion, we give you an example of a lesson planning
template that you could use (as it is or adapted to suit your needs) to plan your
lessons. Good teaching is based on good planning. There is no substitute for being
well prepared for teaching. The annotated lesson plan that follows shows how much
detail you should include in your lesson plan to ensure that the lesson proceeds
smoothly. It also indicates what you want the children to learn.

The lesson plan refers to activity 9 below. Please refer to this activity as you work
through the plan.

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ACTIVITY 4.9

Surface area and volume investigation

Each group of students will get tape, beans, two sheets of A4 board, two sheets
of A4 paper and paper plates to catch the beans.

Instructions:

• Take two sheets of A4 cardboard and hold them portrait style.

– Fold one into three equal columns and connect the 297 mm edges with tape.
– Fold the other into four equal columns and connect the 297 mm edges with tape.
• Take two sheets of paper.
– Take the first sheet of paper, hold it portrait style and tape the 297 mm
edges together. Do not crease this sheet; it should be a cylinder.
– Take the second sheet of paper, hold it landscape style and tape
together the 210 mm edges. This sheet should also be a cylinder.

Questions to discuss and report back on:

(1) What is the lateral surface area of the two prisms and the cylinder?
(2) Fill the triangular prism to the top with beans. Hold the sides rigid – do not let
them bow out or they will be cylinders and not prisms. Pour the beans from
the triangular prism into the square prism. Do the beans fill the prism? Mark
the height of the beans. Now pour the beans into the cylinder – allow this
to bow out (it is supposed to be round). Mark the height of the beans. Does
shape affect volume when the surface area is equivalent? Now take the last
sheet of paper and pour the beans from the tall cylinder into the shorter one.
Mark the height of the beans.
What do you observe? What shape do you think will have the smallest surface
area for a given volume?

Grade: 9
Date: Write the actual date – then consecutive lessons will follow in date order.
Content area:
Topic:
Specific aim/s: Write this in words from the CAPS document.
Specific skills: these are general skills. Write the specific skills in words from the CAPS document.
Write down ONLY what is appropriate for THIS lesson.
Specification of content in terms of concepts and skills: Write down the concepts and skills
that will be covered for in the chosen topic. Skills are related to the topic in question. Write the
specification of content, that is, content and skills related to the chosen topic

1.1 Prior Here you write 1.2 Resources Write down the
knowledge down what the physical materials
learners already needed for this
know in order to lesson. These include
complete the tasks printed materials
set in this lesson. like lesson notes and
books.

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 UNIT 4:  Planning in the problem-based classroom

Example: Learners Example: This SA

must be able to task requires that
name and identify each group have
3D shapes; or tape, beans, two
Learners must be sheets of A4 board
able to calculate and two sheets of
the volume of a A4 paper.
cylinder.
What the teacher will do What the learners
will do
2.1 Introduction This is the opening part of the lesson. You What will the learners
need to say what you will do to introduce the be doing during this
lesson. introductory part of
Example: Ask learners to guess how the the lesson?
volumes of each of the four 3D shapes The learners
will compare. Will they be the same? The discuss the
teacher should not correct the learners, but questions in groups
allow them to justify their answer without and justify their
calculation. The expected response is that hypotheses.
they will say the volume is all the same since
the SA is the same.
2.2 Body of • This is the part of the lesson where Indicate learner
the lesson the main learning takes place and new activities during this
mathematical ideas are investigated, phase.
explained, etc.
How will they be
•  emember that you need to consider the
R
organised in the
different levels of learners’ understanding
and cater for them. We want to see that you classroom?
have included various types of problems, • Will they be in
including routine and non-routine types. groups?
• Pairs?
If the teacher needs to explain ideas or • What roles will they
concepts during the lesson: have in the groups?
•
• Write out in detail how you will explain the How do you expect
concept. Include the leading questions that them to respond?
you will ask and indicate which responses • Will they prepare
written reports or
you expect or predict. oral reports?
• How will you check that the learners • In groups or
understand the concepts taught? Do individually?
not just say: “I will ask them if they
understand.” Explain how you will look for
meaningful understanding.
• If you are using a textbook activity, you MUST
attach a copy of the activity.
If it is an investigation activity:
• Explain (as you would to the learners) the
task. Break down the instructions, etc.
• Attach a copy of the task if necessary.
• Explain how you mediate while learners
are busy with the task. For example: How
do you plan to help learners if they become
stuck?

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2.3 Conclusion This is where you wrap up the lesson. What will learners
do here?
How will you:
Example:
• Consolidate the learning?
• Check for understanding? • summarise their
• Look towards the next lesson? learning
Example: Ask learners to order the prisms
• report back
and cylinders in order of increasing volume.
• take down
homework
Perhaps ask them which shapes will they use to
package peanuts if they wanted it to look like
• write down what
they need to
the volume was the most, etc. prepare for next
lesson
2.4 Provision Here you have to write out ways in which you make provisions for
for diverse your diverse learner group. This may not be required for every lesson,
class depending on the content. However, you should make some provision
for each of these categories on the left every week. You need to
remember that you should always carefully consider catering for
diversity in your classroom.

Extension Extension: This must NOT always be just that you give learners
extra work if they are ahead or have completed the task early. Try to
provide stimulating and exciting extensions for your learners.
Barriers Barriers: Here you can include activities which have been adapted
for different learners, e.g, remedial or enrichment activities.
Integration Integration: You need to plan for integration. You cannot just
write ‘links to physical science’. You must specify how you will link
knowledge gained to these areas.
• For example, you can link the idea of surface area to content in
physical science as follows: Knowledge of surface area is vital for
understanding how the skin works. Large surface areas allow for
excess moisture to be released quickly. Similarly, when deciding how
to cool down something fast, you need to consider surface area and
whether smaller cubes or a larger cube with same total volume is a
better option. And if you wanted to keep it cold for longer, which
one would be a better choice?
• You could also show real-world relevance and examples in different
contexts.
• Show integration across other mathematical content, such as with
relevant 3D work.

2.5 Homework Specify the homework that needs to be done. It is not necessary to
attach textbook activities that are set for homework. You can just
include a brief description to clarify the homework task. However,
for your own records you need to write down exactly which activity
and which numbers the learners must do for homework.

2.6 Assessment • Assessment is an integral part of the lesson. You may have explained
the assessment task in the body of the lesson already. You will learn
more about assessment in unit 5 of this study guide.
• If you still need to explain the assessment strategies, write them out
here.
• Make sure that you have copies of any tasks, rubrics, peer
assessment forms, memoranda and so on in your file.

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 UNIT 4:  Planning in the problem-based classroom

3. Reflection This is a brief reflection:

• Reflections after having taught the lesson (once you have already
done this)
• Did it go as planned?
• What changes can you make?
• Write down any comments on the lesson, changes you would make
to this lesson in the future and ideas you have for amending the
plan based on your experience of teaching the lesson.

We have provided you with a blank template of the lesson plan to use.

Grade: ………………………. Date:………………………………..

Specific aim/s:

Specific skills:

Specification of content in terms of concepts and skills

1.1 Prior knowledge 1.2 Resources

What the teacher will do What the learners will do

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Body of the lesson

2.3 Conclusion

2.4 Provision for diverse

class
Extension
Barriers
Integration

2.5 Homework

2.6 Assessment

3. Reflection

LADMMM6/1137


UNIT SUMMARY
Here it is appropriate to concur with Gagnè and Briggs (1979) who state that the
processes involved in an act of learning are largely activated internally, but these
processes may be influenced by external events, and this is what makes instruction
(or teaching) possible.

Typically, then, “(i)nstruction (or teaching) is a set of events external to the learner
which is designed to support the internal process of learning” (Gagnè & Briggs, 1979).

You may find that the events of planning in the problem-based classroom are
designed to make it possible for learners to proceed from where they are to a place
where they are capable of doing mathematics in the form of ideas, relationships
and connections, which are embedded in tasks and activities.

The steps given in this unit provide a very practical model for planning in a problem-
based classroom. The first four steps are intended to prepare the teacher. This is
crucial. Decisions made here will define the content, what learners should already
know, the prerequisite knowledge and the tasks that your learners will work on. The
next four steps are intended to implement the lesson and to make sure that the
lesson runs smoothly in the ‘before, during and after’ phases of the lesson.

Finally, you can write a concise lesson plan, knowing that you have thought it out
thoroughly.

Planning should reach all the learners in their increasingly diverse classrooms.
Teachers should use differentiated tasks, allow for multiple entry points, listen
carefully to learners and use heterogeneous groupings. Definitions of drill and
practice are used to differentiate further between the traditional and problem-based
approaches.

The lesson structure that you use should promote appropriate reflective thought
about the ideas you want learners to develop. Without actively thinking about the
important concepts of the lesson, learning will not happen.

How can we make it happen? We suggest that you do the following:

• Create a mathematical environment.
• Pose worthwhile mathematical tasks.
• Use models and calculators as thinking tools.
• Encourage discourse, discussion and writing.
• Require justification of learner responses.
• Listen actively.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT
Tick the boxes to assess whether you have achieved the outcomes for this unit.

If you cannot tick the boxes, you should go back and work through the relevant
part in unit again.

Am I able to do the following:

# Checklist 
1 Describe the step-by-step process of planning a problem-based lesson. £
2 Write out a well thought out and concise lesson plan founded on a £
problem- based strategy.

3 Critically discuss some variations of the three-part lesson. £

4 Discuss how workstation activities or games can be profitably and meaning- £
fully used to enhance a problem-based lesson.

5 Discuss the effective use of group work. £

6 Explain the differences between competitive learning, individualistic learning £
and collaborative learning.

7 Discuss the effective use of collaborative or co-operative learning. £

8 Plan for reaching all learners through effective problem-solving strategies to £
be used in increasingly diverse classrooms.

9 Differentiate between the terms ‘drill’ and ‘practice’ as strategies in the £

context of problem-solving.

10 Analyse the inadequacy of the provision of repetitive ‘drill’ compared to the £

varied opportunities provided by practice in the problem-solving situation.

11 Critically reflect on drill and practice as strategies underlying homework tasks or £

activities.

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REFERENCES

Bell, FH. 1982. Teaching and learning mathematics. Iowa: WMC Brown.
Campbell, PF & Bamberger, HJ. 1990. Implementing the standards. The vision of
problem solving in the Standards. Arithmetic Teacher 37(9):14–17.
Department of Education. 2001. Revised national curriculum statement of Grades R–9
(schools). Pretoria: Government Printer.
Gagnè, RM & Briggs, LJ. 1979. Principles of instructional design. New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston.
Grange, H. 2008. The taming of the tiny shrews. Pretoria News 7 March:110.
Gultig, J & Steilau, J. 2002. Getting practical: about outcomes-based teaching. Braamfontein:
Oxford University Press.
Hiebert, J, Carpenter, TP, Fennema, E, Fuson, KC, Wearne, D, Murray, H, Olivier, A
& Human, P. 1997. Making sense: teaching and learning mathematics with understanding.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Hobden, S. 2007. Teaching & learning mathematics in the FET. University of KwaZulu-Natal.
Lester, FK. 1994. Musings about mathematical problem-solving research: 1970–1994.
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 25:660–675.
Moodley, M. 1992. Teaching/Learning mathematics: what counts. In Moodley, M,
et al. Mathematics Education for in-service and pre-service teachers. Shuter & Shooter:
Pietermaritzburg.
NCTM. 1989. Commission on standards and evaluation for school mathematics. Reston VA:
NCTM.
Nicholson, MJ. 1992. Problem solving. In Moodley, M, Mathematics education for in-
service and pre-service teachers. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter & Shooter.
Polya, G. 1980. On solving mathematical problems in high school. In NCTM, Problem solving
in school mathematics: 1980 yearbook. Reston VA: NCTM.
RADMASTE Centre, University of the Witwatersrand. 2006. Mathematical reasoning.
EDUC 263: chapter 6.
Stellenbosch University Project: Malati, Mathematics learning and teaching
initiative. 1990. Geometry module 3: nets, models and cross sections, Grade
4–7, teacher document. Retrieved from Mathematics+learning+and+teaching+
initiative. +(1990). +Geometry+module+3%3A+nets%2C+models+and+cross+sections
%3A+Grade+4+-+7%2C+teacher+document.&rlz=1C1GCEU_enZA855ZA855&oq.
Van de Walle, JA. 2004. Elementary and middle school mathematics: teaching developmentally.
New York: Pearson.

140
 5 UNIT 5
5 BUILDING ASSESSMENT INTO TEACHING AND
LEARNING

WELCOME

“After our last discussion,” says Bobo, “I took the time to really get to know my class.
I identified one of my learners who in the past I had seen as a problem child because
he often did not do the work I set the class, or did not do it correctly, or seemed
not to participate. I realised that he had a hearing problem, which turned out to be
tinnitus or ‘ringing in the ears’. He was not always following my instructions because
he often did not understand them! Now I make much more use of the chalkboard
and provide worksheets for him with all the instructions. Things are going much
better with him now.”

“That’s good,” remarks Millicent. “If we are able to identify the cause of the problem
then maybe we can come up with a solution. Sometimes it is easy. For example, one
of my learners, Mosiuoa, broke his arm and it was in plaster. So for six weeks he
could not write! I paired him with one of my other learners and allowed them to
work out problems together. I accepted the written answers for class work, and even
tests, as reflective of the work of both learners for that period. They still often work
together even though Mosiuoa’s arm is better.”

“But sometimes it’s not that easy,” responds Jackson. “I think one of my learners,
Faith Sedibe, is dyslexic or something. She is great at answering questions in class
and seems to understand her own writing, but when I have to assess her work,
everything seems back to front. I just don’t know how to mark her homework. And
I don’t know how she’s going to cope with her end-of-year test.”

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Think about the following:

(1) Have you identified any learners in your class who have specific short- or long-
term barriers to learning? Does your lesson planning include variations on
activities for these learners?
(2) What do you think of Millicent’s solution to assessing the work of Mosiuoa
while his arm was broken? Do you think the results of this paired assessment
would be reliable indicators of individual achievement? Which critical outcome
is addressed by this approach?
(3) What advice would you give to Jackson about assessing Faith’s work?

Comments
The following table summarises some of the alternative ways of setting up activities
and assessment to address different barriers to learning:

Visual Deafness Deaf- Physical Learning

barriers or blindness barriers disabilities
hearing
impaired
Tape-aid ☻ ☻ ☻
Braille ☻ ☻
Enlarged print ☻ ☻
Dictaphone ☻ ☻ ☻
Video ☻ ☻
Sign language
interpreter
☻ ☻
Computer/typewriter ☻ ☻ ☻ ☻ ☻
Alternative questions/
tasks
☻ ☻ ☻ ☻ ☻
Additional time ☻ ☻ ☻ ☻ ☻
Amanuensis ☻ ☻ ☻ ☻ ☻
Oral to teacher ☻ ☻ ☻ ☻ ☻
Source: DoE (2002:16)

In Jackson’s case, he needs to refer Faith to the school and/or cluster and/or district-
based support teams for diagnosis of and support for her apparent difficulty. The
process must of course involve ongoing consultation with Faith and her parents at
all levels. In the mean-time Jackson can sometimes follow Millicent’s strategy in his
classroom and pair Faith with another learner can record their combined thoughts.
However, Jackson also notes that Faith usually answers well orally. It would be
worthwhile to sit down with her individually and ask her to talk through her reasoning.
This would help Jackson to differentiate reasoning errors from transcription errors.

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 UNIT 5:  Building assessment into teaching and learning

UNIT OUTCOMES
Upon completion of unit 5 you should be able to

• explain the term ‘assessment’

• identify FOUR purposes of assessment
• describe the role and purpose of assessment in mathematics
• implement a variety of methods when you assess your learners’ performance
in mathematics
• identify and explain the aspects of mathematics learning you must consider
when assessing learners
• reflect on the assessment potential of mathematical tasks used in the
teaching of basic data-handling concepts
• select appropriate methods, techniques and tools for assessing a learner’s
performance in mathematics
• draw up or design your own assessment tasks and rubrics to use when
assessing a learner’s work
• compare various methods of recording a learner’s performance

INTRODUCTION
In this unit we analyse the purposes of assessment and give an overview of the main
types of assessment and their use or function in classroom practice.

Assessment occupies a central place in education and especially in the mathematics

curriculum. When assessment is done well, it empowers everyone because it
• informs learners about what they have learned, what they still need to learn and
how best to learn it
• informs teachers about how to instruct or teach more effectively
• informs parents about how best to support their child’s learning

When done poorly, however, assessment can lead to a misrepresentation of learning

results and thereby contribute to superficial teaching and learning. Thus, assessment
should be an integral part of teaching and learning. It should function as a quality
assurance mechanism to ensure good teaching and learning practices.

The idea that assessment can and should contribute constructively to the curriculum
has led to some debate and controversy about the nature, role, importance and place
of assessment in education. One view is that there is a need for new assessment
practices to complement more traditional, widely used techniques. These new
assessment practices should
• take into account the current curriculum, its contents and its goals
• inform teaching initiatives in terms of achieving outcomes
• comply with national and institutional policies
Pegg (2002:227) states that assessment should always be sensitive to the learner’s
cognitive development. For example, if you have just finished teaching your learners
how to add four-digit whole numbers to five-digit whole numbers, it would not be
fair to give them an assessment task that only includes addition and subtraction of
numbers with several decimal places. This will not give them the opportunity to
show that they have grasped the addition process they have just been working with.
You may wish to add one or two questions to the end of the assessment task (on

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adding four-digit whole numbers to five-digit whole numbers) which allow learners
to show that they can apply their understanding of adding numbers with different
place values to a range of numbers. To realise the positive potential of assessment
in our classrooms, we need a clear idea of
• why we are doing assessment in the first place.
• what it is we are assessing.
• how best to go about it.
After reading this unit you will be aware that assessment is more than a set of tests
or assignments. Assessment has a purpose and we need to establish the purpose of
assessment in order to design an appropriate assessment programme that will enable
us to achieve our goals. This unit elaborates on
• how the purpose of assessment has changed in the new curriculum.
• four main purposes of assessment in the South African education system.
We illustrate baseline assessment tests used to establish the readiness of learners to
measure items using standard units of measurement.

All the material in the earlier units of this study guide has suggested that teaching must
follow a learner-centred approach. This teaching style assists learners in developing
their reasoning skills and their ability to solve mathematical problems both in and out
of real contexts. The diverse classes that many teachers will have to teach will also
benefit greatly from learner-centred teaching, because it enables teachers to address
individual needs where appropriate. Assessment that is not in line with good teaching
methods could undermine the value and benefits of learner-centred teaching. It is
thus essential that your assessment approach should support your teaching methods.

Much of the mathematical content used to illustrate and work with the assessment ideas
put forward in this unit relate to data handling. This will give you the opportunity
to think about setting tasks that support sound mathematical teaching. We will
look at the difference between assessment methods, techniques and skills. Most
importantly, we will show that you must relate the purpose of the assessment with
what is being assessed. You need to think about what, how and why you assess, how
you interpret the results of the assessment, and how you respond to learners and
engage stakeholders in the process.

The following quotation from Assessing students: how shall we know them?
(Rowntree, 1997:11) serves as a framework for this unit:

Why assess?
Deciding why assessment is to be carried out; what effects or outcomes it is
expected to produce.

What to assess?
Deciding, realizing, or otherwise coming to an awareness of what one is
looking for, or remarking upon, in the people one is assessing.

How to assess?
Selecting, from among all the means we have at our disposal for learning
about people, those that we regard as being most truthful and fair for various
sorts of valued knowledge.

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 UNIT 5:  Building assessment into teaching and learning

How to interpret?
Making sense of the outcomes of whatever observations or measurements
of impressions we gather through whatever means we employ; explaining,
appreciating, and attaching meaning to the raw ‘events’ of assessment.

How to respond?
Finding appropriate ways of expressing our response to whatever has been
assessed and of communicating it to the person concerned (and other people).

WHY ASSESS?
Assessment is an integral part of our daily lives. Every time that we have to make
a decision, we first have to assess, value, judge, estimate or appraise the situation
before we can go any further. To assess means to measure.

ACTIVITY 5.1
For this activity you need not think of assessment in the context of a mathematics
class. Think of it broadly as you experience it or have seen others experience it
in everyday life.
(1) What ideas about assessment come to mind? Think about your personal
experience of assessment. Write down some of the ideas.
(2) Reflect on the uses of assessment in everyday life. Write down some of the uses
that you think of and the impact they have on the individuals being assessed.
(3) Discuss what each of the following ideas signify to you in the context of
assessment:
evaluate appraise estimate competition
tests examinations fail pass
study poor marks stress worried
motor-vehicle test doctor’s report sports coaching success

Programme of assessment
Assessment in the Senior Phase can be divided into two components, namely
school-based assessment and the end-of-year examination. These two components of
assessment are meant to ensure that the assessment of learners’ knowledge and skills
is continuous and ongoing. An annual formal programme of assessment should be
developed to describe forms of assessment to be administered in each of the school
terms for each subject. Forms of assessment include tests, examinations, assignments,
projects and investigation. The quality of each form of assessment should be judged,
measured or assured in terms of how the assessment tool responds to the technical
qualities of fairness, validity and reliability (quality assurance).

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The purposes of assessment

Your own experience of assessment influences the way in which you assess your
learners. The key features of assessment are the following:
• Assessment should assist learners in reaching their full potential; it should be
developmental rather than judgemental.
• Teachers should assess learners to determine what they know, understand, can
apply and can do, and to provide learning experiences that lead to higher levels
of performance by learners.
• Assessment should engage learners actively in using the relevant knowledge in real-
life contexts to make sense of the world and to construct meaningful connections
between the learned concepts and acquired skills to promote mathematical
knowledge.
• Assessment should be integrated into the teaching and learning process.
Effective assessment and recording come from integrating assessment planning
into curriculum planning, phase and annual teaching plan (ATP), and classroom
activity plans (lesson plans).

The four purposes of assessment given below call for assessment methods and
techniques that are varied to suit the purpose of the assessment.

Baseline assessment is used to measure learners’ existing ideas, knowledge,

experiences and skills. It is used at the beginning of a new set of learning activities
to determine what the learner already knows (i.e. recognition of prior learning
[RPL]). It is also used to determine what levels of demands to build into the learning
plan. Baseline assessment is not always formally recorded, but occasionally takes
the form of standardised tests such as ‘readiness tests’ for school beginners. It is
used to enable teachers to identify learners with special needs at an early stage of
the learning programme. This assessment can be based on teacher judgement or
objective assessment. For example, the teacher develops tests to determine the
range of ability among learners. Another aspect of baseline assessment is that it can
involve the interface between teacher and parents when collecting information or
when providing feedback.

Formative assessment is assessment of learning which results in process evaluation.

It allows teachers to inform the learner and to plan future learning. Formative
assessment should involve a developmental approach. It can be formal or informal.
It is designed to monitor and support learning progress and should occur throughout
the learning process. Formative assessment involves both the teacher and the learner
in a process of continual reflection on and reviewing of progress and helps the
teacher to determine the learner’s strengths and needs. It provides quality feedback
to empower learners to take appropriate action and allows teachers to adjust the
learning or instruction process according to the response to formative assessment.
As such it has the potential to have the greatest impact on learning. Formative
assessment can be carried out by the teacher, learner, peer group and parents. The
quality of formative assessment is determined by evaluative feedback in order to
achieve improvement. An accumulation of formative assessment tasks can be used
for summative purposes.

Your experience of assessment may have been very much test-based. Tests can be
formative if the teacher can use the tests to analyse where learners are and provide
specific, focused feedback to them based on the tests. The teacher should set frequent
short tests rather than infrequent long tests, and guidance can be provided. If more
serious or extensive learning problems are diagnosed (through formative assessment),

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 UNIT 5:  Building assessment into teaching and learning

these should be addressed. Formative assessment should test new learning soon after
the lesson, theme or topic has been completed.

Diagnostic assessment focuses specifically on uncovering the nature and cause of

a learning problem and providing appropriate support and guidance. It can guide
teachers so that they can give appropriate support and determine whether specialist
advice and support should be requested.

Summative assessment is assessment of learning in a holistic context. It is carried

out at the end of a learning programme, unit, theme, term, year or grade. Summative
assessment provides an overview of the learner’s overall progress. It allows the teacher
to make a judgement about the learner’s performance in relation to a particular
standard. It provides valuable data records that can be used for various management
purposes (e.g. transfer to another school, scholastic progress for further studies, and
information for selection and certification purposes). Summative assessment also
determines how well a learner has progressed towards the achievement of specific
outcomes and in this way facilitates feedback to the learner. Summative assessment
should encompass a series of assessment activities that result in an overall report
on the performance of the learner. It is usually done by the teacher or specialist. It
is reasonably formal. Tests and examinations are often the means for performing
summative assessment.

Assessment in Senior Phase mathematics quite naturally takes the form of what is
known as continuous assessment (CASS).

Continuous assessment

ACTIVITY 5.2
(1) Why do you think that assessment in CAPS classrooms ‘quite naturally’ takes
the form of continuous assessment?
(2) Is continuous assessment the same as formative assessment?
(3) Can continuous assessment be used summatively? Can the results of various
tests and assignments and investigations in the course of the year be added
to create a global assessment of whether or not the learner has achieved the
required set of outcomes at the required level?

Continuous assessment is a natural phenomenon in CAPS-oriented classrooms as

it occurs formally, informally and daily. As learners are involved in an educational
journey, they will learn new mathematical concepts and skills that they need to
perform different task in everyday life. It is the responsibility of the teacher to ensure
that all learners learn new and specific concepts in mathematics and also that they
acquire the essential skills for mathematics. These components of mathematical
learning and knowledge should be assessed as learners are progressing within a
school education system.

Learners progress differently as they are assessed on their achievement of mathematical

knowledge. This achievement is facilitated by ongoing formative feedback, which can
be given if assessment is carried out on a continuous basis, using a variety of methods.
Learners should be given several opportunities to show that they are progressing in
the achievement of mathematical knowledge (specific concepts and specific skills).
A policy of continuous assessment facilitates the formative use of assessment.

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To rely on a final high stakes test or examination at the end of a learning process
may not allow all learners to demonstrate the range of skills they have developed or
the stages of their progression. Continuous assessment gives you the opportunity
to vary the kinds of assessment you use because you have assessed the learners a
number of times and in different ways. The results of all these ways can be used in
the final (summative) assessment of learners’ achievement.

In summary, continuous assessment embraces all four of the purposes of assessment

described above, namely baseline, diagnostic, formative and summative assessment.

WHEN TO ASSESS?
The simple answer to the question ‘When should assessment take place?’ is that
assessment should be ongoing and continuous. But the purpose of the assessment
at different points in teaching and learning will be different.

Assessment before teaching and learning

Before beginning a unit of study, the teacher has to determine what the learners
already know about what is to be taught and inform them of how they will benefit
from what they are about to learn. Secondly, the teacher need to determine the prior
knowledge that the learner has acquired about the current topic.

Assessment during teaching and learning

During the lesson, the teacher should do ‘in-process assessment’ (also known as
‘feedback’ or ‘formative assessment’). This is important as it provides information on
the learner’s progress on an ongoing basis. It also indicates to teachers and learners
what outcomes have or have not been attained, and it is used to plan follow-up
teaching and learning. Performance indicators or assessment standards provide
criteria for making a judgement about learning and are used as benchmarks in
assessing achievement. The following three levels of achievement may be evaluated
during this process:
• Learners show no evidence of having an understanding or a skill.
• Learners are developing an understanding or a skill.
• Learners have developed an understanding or a skill.
Assessment after teaching and learning
During this phase, assessment is undertaken at specified times after teaching and
learning have taken place. The learners’ achievements are then communicated to them,
their parents and the school personnel. This type of assessment can be classified as
summative assessment since it provides information about the achievements of
outcomes that can be compared with the assessment standards. Sources of obtaining
summative data include in-process assessment, portfolios, assignments, individual
or group projects and tests. New directions in teaching mathematics rely less on
norm-referenced evaluation and more on outcomes that focus on all learners attaining
important mathematical knowledge.

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 UNIT 5:  Building assessment into teaching and learning

An example of assessment before teaching and learning

An interesting example of the way assessment can be used before teaching and
learning is found in the conservation tests of the Swiss educational psychologist, Jean
Piaget. In this section we refer to the tests he devised to assess a learner’s progress
in acquiring fundamental measurement concepts. states that unless a learner has a
clear concept of conservation (constancy or invariance) of length, area or volume,
it is no use teaching him how to measure these things. The tests he has developed
(called conservation tests) are diagnostic tests to be carried out before the teacher
teaches learners how to use measuring instruments.

Measurement is important because of its power to help learners see that mathematics
is useful in everyday life. Learners need to be able to differentiate between perimeter
and area. They should also be able to compute the area and perimeter of polygons
and other shapes. The topic of measurement can be used extensively for problem-
solving through multiple entry points to accommodate the diversity of learners in a
classroom. Multiple entry measurement activities will encourage learners to investigate
and to use their own level of reasoning and understanding. They also allow for
differentiation, both in the completion of the activity and in the assessment of the
activity. This is very useful to teachers working in diverse classrooms.

Even an adult’s concept of amount can be faulty. For example, sometimes as adults
we are surprised to find that our coffee mug does not hold more coffee than an
ordinary teacup. We think simply because it is taller, it must hold more. Piaget has
found that concepts are attained in a particular order and give approximate ages for
their attainment. However, some learners are very late in forming concepts, so you
should not assume that an 11-year-old has attained the concept of conservation of
area, for example. You need to test the achievement of the concept, which can be
done very quickly, as you will see below.

Before we teach learners to measure an amount, they should have attained the concept
of conservation (invariance) of that amount, even when the appearance has been
distorted. The attainment of the concept is a matter of development and a learner
is not ready to measure an amount if he or she believes it to be bigger at one time
and smaller at another.

The tests proceed as follows, and the teacher must be very careful not to ask leading
questions which could prompt the correct answer:
(1) The learner looks at equal amounts, A and B. He is asked which is more,
A or B. The learner states that A and B are the same.
(2) The appearance of the thing with amount B is distorted. The learner is asked
if amounts A and B are the same or different (and not the suggestive question
‘Which is more?’).
(3) If the learner says that the amounts A and B are still the same, distort further.
If the learner continues to say A and B are the same, the learner has attained
the conservation concept.
If the learner can explain that amount B is the same as amount A because you
can restore the thing with amount B to its original appearance, he or she has
the concept of reversibility.
If the learner says amounts A and B are not the same, ask which is more.
(4) The learner believes what he or she says; it is the learner’s truth at this stage of
his or her development. Reasoning will not persuade the learner differently if

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he or she has not attained the concept of conservation of this quantity. If this
is the case, the learner needs to do more practical work comparing quantities,
until the concept is understood.

Following are illustrations of the conservation tests for length, area and volume
(French, 1979).

Example A

Conservation of length

Test 1
Materials: Two unsharpened pencils of
the same colour

Give these to the learner and ask if the pencils

are the same length. If the learner says yes, place
one pencil to the left of the other and ask again
if the pencils are the same length. If he or she says
yes, change the position of one of the pencils and
repeat the question.

Try this with the pencils in several positions. Ask the learner why he or she is sure.

If the learner says no, ask him or her to point to the longer one. Repeat the test with
other objects of equal length.

Test 2:
Materials: Two pieces of string of
equal length

Follow the procedure in test 1.

One piece of string can be curved or cut.

Conservation of area

Test 1
Materials: Two postcards of the same size, on the table

Ask the learner if the two postcards cover exactly the same area of the table surface.
If the learner says yes, tear one postcard in two and place both pieces, moved apart
from each other, on the table. Ask the learner whether the two pieces cover the same
area of the table as the whole card covered.

If the learner says yes, tear each of the two pieces of card in half and place all four
pieces, apart from each other, on the table and repeat the question.

If the answer is yes, tear the four pieces in half, so that there are eight pieces, and
repeat the question. Ask the learner why he or she is sure of the answer.

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 UNIT 5:  Building assessment into teaching and learning

Test 2
Follow the procedure in test 1.

Keep one postcard for comparison, while other postcards are cut up and the pieces
placed together to form new shapes.

Test 3
Materials: Two congruent sheets of paper (green if possible); at least a dozen congruent
cubes; two toy horses

Place one horse on each sheet of paper, which represents a field of grass. Ask: Has
each horse the same amount of grazing?

Each farmer begins to build. (Place one cube on each sheet of paper.) Ask: Does
each horse have the same amount of grazing now?

Ask this question as another building, and another, and another … is put up. (Place
the cubes close together on one sheet of paper and scatter them over the second.)

If the learner states each time that the horses have the same amount of grazing, ask
why he or she is sure. He or she may be able to explain that each farmer started
with the same amount of grass, that they have built the same number of buildings,
and therefore have the same grass left. If this is the case, the learner has attained
the concept of conservation of area.

If the learner says no at any stage, provide further experience to develop the concept.

Conservation of volume (and capacity)

Test 1
Materials: Two congruent balls of plasticine (equal volumes)

Let the learner see that these have the same volume.

Roll one ball into another shape, such as a long ‘snake’.

Ask the learner if the two shapes have the same amount of plasticine.

If the learner says yes, break up the ‘snake’ into several small balls and repeat the
question.

If the learner says yes, ask why he or she is sure.

If the learner says no, further experience is necessary to develop the concept.

(This experiment can also be used to test for conservation of mass. Compare the
original masses on a balance.)

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Test 2
Materials: Two similar glasses containing equal volumes of cool drink, several other
containers, wide and shallow, tall and thin

The learner agrees that the two glasses contain the same amount of cool drink. Pour
the contents of one glass into another container and ask if it contains the same amount
of cool drink as the other glass. Follow the usual questioning procedure.

Test 3
Materials: At least 24 congruent cubes

Make a shape using a certain number of cubes. Ask the learner to make a copy of the
shape. Ask whether your shape and the learner’s shape takes up (or fills) the same
amount of space. If the learner says yes, rearrange your cubes to form a different
shape and repeat the question.

Continue questioning, making other shapes and using more cubes.

ACTIVITY 5.3

Applying conservations tests

How would you use the conservation tests above in your teaching of measurement
in the Intermediate Phase?

Describe a lesson where you use one (or more) of the conservation tests.
(1) Write down your observations on learners who have achieved an understanding
of conservation of the concept you chose.
(2) Write down your observations on learners who have NOT achieved an
understanding of conservation of the concept you chose.
(3) What will you do to help the learners who have NOT achieved an understanding
of conservation of the concept you chose?

As we have said above, it is in the nature of outcome that they will be achieved at
different rates by different learners according to factors such as the situation they
find themselves in and their individual ability. It is easy to say this in theory, but
more difficult in practice.

When it comes to teaching measurement, there are five stages that are usually followed
and there needs to be assessment at each stage to establish readiness to move on to
the next stage. It is important to know the purpose of each stage, so that you assess
the correct thing.

Stage 1: Readiness
You will not be able to teach measurement at all if your learners do not have a grasp
of the basic conservation concept. Piaget’s conservation tests will help you assess
readiness.

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Stage 2: ‘How much?’

At this stage, learners practise measuring the size of a ‘thing’ using an arbitrary
‘standard’ (a piece of the same kind of ‘thing’ with an arbitrary unit size). Learners
should compare directly. They should have a standard object, and they should count
how many standard objects make up the object whose size is being measured. They
should be trained to give the measurement correct to the nearest unit.

Through incidental learning, the principle of measurement is established and the

activity of measurement practised. At this stage, the result of the measurement is
unimportant; it is the activity which counts.

Stage 3: The necessity for a widely accepted standard and unit is established
At this stage, a mental image of the unit size is established by estimation and then
by measurement.

Learners love measuring, especially themselves – their height, their mass, the length
of feet and the circumference of their waists. You can play around with the idea of
a standard unit, for example by using their (small) hands and your (larger) hand to
measure something – and then seeing how different the measurement results are.

Stage 4: Measurement, followed by computation

Here you get down to the business of measurement and calculation, for example by
finding the mass of one brick and then calculating the mass of ten bricks. Unless
you have gone through the previous stages, learners will simply do calculations
mechanically, without understanding.

Stage 5: Computation with physical quantities

Finally, all units and conversions between units can be used.

WHAT TO ASSESS?
Teaching is mainly aimed at helping leaners to gain knowledge. In CAPS-oriented
classrooms teachers are involved in an activity of teaching to assist learners in
acquiring mathematical knowledge. According to the CAPS documents, teachers
impart mathematical knowledge by
(1) assisting learners in learning specific concepts in mathematics; and
(2) assisting learners in acquiring specific skills in mathematics (DBE, 2011).

In order to measure how successfully new mathematical concepts have been learned
and skills have been acquired, a teacher must develop and administer an assessment
activity. Assessment in mathematics is meant to give an indication of how much
knowledge of mathematics has been gained, and this measurement could be achieved
through an evaluation of learned concepts and acquired skills.

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ACTIVITY 5.4
Explain the following terms in the context of assessment in a Senior Phase
mathematics classroom. Your explanation can draw on your experience as well
as the information you have gathered from the material in this study guide. For
some of the ideas you may wish to look ahead to the end of this unit.
(1) Continuous planned.
(2) Process of gathering information about the performance of learners requires
clearly defined criteria.
(3) Variety of appropriate strategies.
(4) Enable teachers to give constructive feedback to learners.
(5) Enable teachers to report to parents and other interested people.

Assessing for reasoning, understanding and problem-solving

The broad view of assessment that underpins the CAPS is seldom part of the
assessment process in mathematics. Instead, assessment is often dominated by
(1) a focus on content (in the form of facts)
(2) a focus on skills (associated with computational techniques)
(3) the ability of learners to reproduce these on demand

This narrow focus has had a sterile effect on innovation and development in
mathematics curricula and even on what thinking mathematically means. Learning
programmes that provide for limited developmental work, that place an emphasis on
symbol manipulation and computational rules, and that rely heavily on paper-and-
pencil worksheets do not fit in with the natural learning patterns of learners and do
not contribute to some important aspects of learners’ mathematical development.

Take the following worksheet on basic operations as an example:

Operations worksheet
Use your slate, a whiteboard or rough paper to do any working you need to do.

(1) Calculate the following. Then give your answers:

• 34 + 56 =
• 27 + 18 =
• 40 + 26 =
• 15 + 69 =
• 18 + 72 =
• 38 + 43 =
• 29 + 39 =
• 59 + 46 =
• 37 + 27 =
• 69 + 13 =

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(2) Give answers to the following questions:

• 34 – 56 =
• 27 – 18 =
• 40 – 26 =
• 15 – 69 =
• 18 – 72 =
• 38 – 43 =
• 29 – 39 =
• 59 – 46 =
• 37 – 27 =
• 69 – 13 =

This worksheet simply has 20 repetitive addition and subtraction questions. There
is no discussion of different methods that could be used and no indication that
working is worth recording. The ultimate purpose of doing this worksheet is to
‘give answers’. This does not convey the message to the learners that their reasoning
process is important to the teacher, only that their answers are important. This goes
against the ethos of teaching for meaningful understanding. Using a worksheet such
as this one would undermine good teaching, because its message contradicts what
we have said about good teaching.
• It does not allow for the development of reasoning skills. (There is not even one
question that calls for reasoning skills.)
• It does not allow learners to show what they have understood (or more importantly,
what they have NOT understood). If learners get the wrong answer, that is that.
The teacher cannot investigate where they have gone wrong, because only the
answers are considered.
• Problem-solving is not present here. The questions are not grouped (as they
potentially could be) so that patterns could be identified as an aid to doing the
calculations. Identifying patterns is an important problem-solving technique that
can be introduced at this level, since it is an effective and appropriate strategy
that learners can use when they move from simple bonds to the addition and
subtraction of bigger numbers.

The activities that you set should allow learners to develop the knowledge and skills set
out in the CAPS document for their grade. The main lesson about good mathematics
teaching is that it should develop reasoning, understanding and problem-solving.

ACTIVITY 5.5
Comment on the task below by answering the questions that follow.
Pizza problem
(1) Complete the next two rows in the following pattern, which is known as
Pascal’s triangle:

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1

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(2) Pizza Palace has asked you to design a form to help them to keep track of
certain pizza choices. The basic pizza, which everyone has, is cheese and
tomato. Patrons can select extra toppings which they like. The toppings they
can choose are: peppers, olives, sausage, salami and/or mushrooms. They
can choose as many extra toppings as they like.
• List ALL the possible choices they have, given the above selection.
• Find a way to convince somebody else that you have accounted for ALL
possible choices (without doubt).
• How many different choices for pizza at the Pizza Palace does a customer
have?
(i) In what way does the ‘pizza problem’ allow learners to develop their
reasoning skills?
– Write out an example of a question (or a part of a question) from
the task that allows for the development of reasoning skills.
– What evidence of reasoning skills (or lack thereof) will the teacher
be able to find in the learners’ work after they have completed this
task?
(ii) In what way does it allow learners to develop their understanding?
– Write out an example of a question (or a part of a question) that
allows for the development of understanding.
– What evidence of understanding (or lack of understanding) will the
teacher be able to find in the learners’ work after they have completed
this task?
(iii) In what way does it allow learners to develop their problem- solving skills?
– Write out an example of a question (or a part of a question) that
allows for the development of problem- solving skills.
– What evidence of problem-solving skills (or lack thereof) will the
teacher be able to find in the learners’ work after they have completed
this task?

Although the quantitative aspects of mathematics learning (such as content

and computational skills) have dominated the school scene for a long time, it is the
qualitative considerations that have greater significance. Thus, it is far more important
that learners come to understand mathematical ideas than that they possess a wide
array of mathematical skills. Mathematical learning is not only dependent on learners’
attitudes towards and decisions about learning mathematics, but also depends on the
intellectual, social and affective dimensions of learning, and these must all influence
curriculum and instruction.

Reflecting on what to assess through the teaching of data handling

In this section we will examine the use of assessment for different purposes in the
context of the fifth content area, namely data handling. The material in the Reading
for Unit Five, Exercises on teaching data handling, emphasises some of the fundamentals
of data handling.

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ACTIVITY 5.6

Teaching and assessing data handling

Read and work through the mathematical information and five exercises on data
handling in the Reading for Unit Five, Exercises on teaching data handling. As you
work through the examples, think about the different mathematical competences
that are being developed and assessed in the activities.

Once you have worked through the main skills of data handling – collecting data;
representing data; and interpreting data – and looked at the sample exercises that
you could use with learners, consider what this means for assessment.

ACTIVITY 5.7

Reflection on Exercises in teaching data handling.

(1) Reflect on each of exercises 1 to 5 by answering the following questions:
Refer to a CAPS document to find the appropriate curriculum references
where necessary. Explain all your answers.

• Which of the specific content areas under Data Handling do you think each
exercise could address, and for which grades do you think each exercise
would be appropriate? (Some exercises could be used for several grades,
while others could not.)
• Which of the questions in each exercise simply require memorisation?
• Which of the questions in each exercise call for routine procedures that
require no explanation?
• Which of the questions in each exercise call for procedures to develop
deeper levels of understanding?
(2) Which exercises call for group activity or could be used for group work, even
if this is not indicated?
Look back at all the exercises. Which of them deal with concepts and
procedures? Which of them deal with processes? Which of them deal with
the learner’s disposition?

As a teacher, you need to be able to decide what aspects are being addressed in the
different activities, exercises and assessment tasks that you set. When you plan your
teaching programme, you need to ensure that you provide a good mix of activities for
your learners. You need to examine the textbook that you use in your mathematics
classes (especially if you make regular use of a textbook) to satisfy yourself that it
provides a balanced set of activities that addresses everything you need to teach and
assess your learners on.

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HOW TO ASSESS
In this section we deal with the question of how to assess. Assessment is the process
of collecting and interpreting evidence to make a judgement about a learner’s
achievement and competencies. Evidence can be collected at different times and
places, by using various methods, tools and techniques.

Teachers select the methods, tools and techniques used on the basis of
• the purpose of assessment
• the specific learning area
• what the teacher wants to assess (knowledge, skills, values and attitudes)
Assessment should make a meaningful contribution to learning and teaching. When
we assess learners, we should convey to them that what matters most is not so much
passing (success) or failing, but what can we learn from the past to improve future
learning. Constructive assessment therefore requires a commitment to quality
information and quality communication. Assessment must incorporate a sufficient
range of methods, tools and techniques to meet the teacher’s obligations. In particular
such assessment must attend to language, tools, level of sophistication, task type,
context and communication mode. No single task or practice can adequately cover
all these dimensions.

Let us now turn our attention to educational assessment. In educational assessment

our objective is not simply to measure what learners have achieved, but to help them
learn and achieve more. Educational assessment is part of the process of learning, not
a separate process. If you restrict your view of assessment to tests, quizzes, projects
and so on, you are missing the point that assessment can help learners to grow and
that it can inform instruction.

Let us now systematically analyse the question: ‘What is assessment?’

The definition of assessment as stated in the Assessment standards for school mathematics
by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics in the United States (NCTM)
(1995:3) is the following:
Assessment is defined as the process of gathering evidence about a student’s
knowledge of, ability to use, and disposition towards, mathematics and of
making inferences from that evidence for a variety of purposes.

The focus on gathering evidence and making inferences indicates that assessment is
a process of uncovering what mathematics learners know and can do.

The phases of assessment

The assessment process can be explained in terms of four interrelated phases that
highlight the principal points at which critical decisions need to be made in the
assessment process.

The following are the four phases:

(1) Plan the assessment.
(2) Gather the evidence.
(3) Interpret the evidence.
(4) Use the results.

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In practice, the four phases outlined above are interrelated and the distinctions
between them are blurred. Assessment does not always proceed in a neat, linear
fashion. Each phase can be characterised by the decisions and actions taken during
that particular phase.

1. Plan the assessment.

The following are important during this phase:
• Assessment must be planned on the basis of the outcomes expected of the learner.
• The teacher must decide on the purpose served by the assessment.
• The teacher must decide on the methods that are going to be used for gathering
and interpreting evidence.
• The teacher must decide on the criteria to be used for evaluating performance.

2. Gather the evidence.

The teacher must decide how
• activities and tasks are to be created or selected
• procedures are to be selected to engage learners in the activities
3. Interpret the evidence.
The teacher must decide how
• to determine the quality of the evidence
• to infer an understanding of the performance from the evidence
• to apply the criteria appropriately
• to summarise the evaluation in terms of results
4. Use the results.
The teacher must decide
• how to report the results;
• how to make inferences from the results;
• what action to take based on the inferences made
In this section we are looking at how the assessment was planned and evidence
gathered. When we begin to talk about assessment tools, we are also starting to
answer the question of how to interpret the evidence, which will lead us to the
discussion of criteria.

Assessment methods, tools and techniques

There is a wide range of assessment methods, tools and techniques available to
teachers. In order to assist you in deciding which methods, tools and techniques are
most appropriate and useful in a particular learning situation, you need to understand
the various criteria in terms of best practice.

Most curriculum packages and teachers organise their lessons around mathematical
content. When the mathematics curriculum is organised into content-specific topics,
assessment is similarly structured to document appropriate performances within the
range of appropriate performances for the different content categories. This can be
restrictive, and there is a need for mathematics curricula and assessment to represent
a model of varied mathematical activity.

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It must be remembered that most assessment questions in mathematics are content

specific and must therefore be open enough to allow most learners to show what
they know and have grasped (e.g. problem-solving, reasoning, understanding).

The choice of what assessment methods, tools and techniques to use is a subjective
one; that is, it is
• unique to each teacher, grade and school
• dependent on the teacher’s professional judgement
• dependent on the specific subject
The assessment methods chosen must take into account
• the specific concepts learned and specific skills acquired
• the purpose of assessment
Therefore, the teacher should consider using a variety of methods to allow the learners
to demonstrate their abilities. The chosen methods, tools and techniques must provide
a range of opportunities for learners to demonstrate their achievement of knowledge,
skills, values and attitudes. In selecting and setting appropriate assessment activities,
the teacher should ask the following questions:
• What concept, skill or knowledge am I trying to assess?
• What type of knowledge is being assessed – reasoning, memory or process?
• At what level should the learners be performing?
The following table gives a list of possibilities. Although it looks long, it does not
include all the possible methods, tools and techniques you may use as a teacher of
mathematics.

METHODS
A method is a procedure you follow to assess the learner. (Who does the
assessing? How?)
• self-assessment
• peer assessment
• group assessment
• interviews
• conferencing
• observation
• oral questions and answers
• textual questions and written answers
• recognition of prior learning (RPL)

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TOOLS
A tool is any instrument that you use in your assessment method, for example
an observation sheet.
(What records does the teacher keep?)
• portfolios
• observation sheets
• worksheets
• journals
• questionnaires
• cassettes
• assessment grids/rubrics
• exhibitions
• photographs/videos
• class lists
• profiles
• tests
• examinations
• written assignments

TECHNIQUES
A technique (skill) is a special way in which you use a method and a tool.
(What evidence does the learner produce?)
• project work
• collage
• research project
• assignment
• survey
• debate/argument
• role-play
• interview
• drama
• presentation
• panel discussion
• practical demonstration
• scenario
• constructions
• music/songs
• poetry/rhymes
• story telling/oral presentation
• model making/plans
• designs e.g. toys
• sculptures/paintings
• drawing/graphs
• mind mapping
• game design
• physical activities
• maps
• posters
• charts
• tables
• descriptions
• written presentations, e.g. reports, essays
• posing questions

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Methods of assessment
The most important thing to consider when choosing an assessment method is how
to link the method with what you are intending to assess and why you want to assess
it. In this section, we give examples of a number of assessment methods and ask you
to reflect on whether they are ‘fit for purpose’.

Self-assessment

Source: Adapted from Clarke (1997)

ACTIVITY 5.8
(1) Which of the following purposes are appropriate for self-assessment? Circle the
ones that you think are important. You should be able to explain your choices.

• Learners are guided to assess their own performance or work.

• Self-assessment encourages learners to assume more responsibility for
their own learning and work.
• Self-assessment helps learners to think critically about their own work.
• Self-assessment gives learners a good idea of their progress.
• Teachers should find out how the learners value their own work.
• Self-assessment promotes the development of independent learners who
will be well placed to access learning opportunities throughout their lives.
• Learners come to appreciate and know their own work.
• Self-assessment develops learners’ confidence.
• Learners become aware of their strengths and weaknesses.

(2) How would you use the results of self-assessment from a mathematics lesson?

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Peer or group assessment

Here is an example of a peer assessment form:

Peer or group assessment form

Name(s) of peer/group members: ..................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

Date: .........................................................................................................

Name of assessor: ..........................................................................................................

Grade: .........................................................................................................

Task: .........................................................................................................

Competence (criteria) Yes No Uncertain

Did the learner work in the team? Did the learner listen to the
peer/group discussion?

Did the learner work with confidence?

Did the learner in the group show competence in his or her

logical thought processes to formulate, test and justify?

Does the learner know and use mathematical language?

Can the learner read the data accurately?

ACTIVITY 5.9
(1) Who does this form of assessment benefit?
(2) In what way does the assessment benefit them?
(3) What different types of group assessment have you used in your mathematics
classes? Which of these were the most successful and why do you think this
was the case?

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Observation
Here is an example of an observation sheet:

Observation sheet for Grade 4 lesson on data handling

Name of learner: Date:

Class: Teacher:

Criteria Not yet Fine Comment

1. Takes time to read and understand the work before

beginning to complete the task.

2. Able to read the data from the table and draw up the
tally table.

3. Able to find the frequencies using the tally table.

4. Able to draw the bar graph using tabled information.

5. Bar graph completed with the axes correctly marked

and labelled.

6. Bar graph given the correct title.

7. Able to summarise the information presented and

interpret the findings correctly.

8. Able to justify or explain work when questioned.

ACTIVITY 5.10
(1) Which of the criteria in the observation sheet above relate to content issues?
(2) Which of the criteria in the observation sheet above relate to problem-solving
skills?
(3) What are some of the valuable contributions that observation can make to
assessment?
(4) How could you adapt the observation sheet above to make it possible to use
the sheet for a whole class? Draw up the sheet with the names of the learners
in your class.
(5) Compare the usefulness of an individual observation sheet with a whole-class
observation sheet. Indicate the strengths and weaknesses of both types of
sheet.

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Performance-based tasks
Performance-based tasks should give all learners the opportunity to demonstrate at
least some knowledge or skill, though this might be at different levels. Performance-
based assessment looks at the learners’ abilities to use their knowledge and skills to
produce things like
• presentations
• research projects
• investigations
• demonstrations or exhibitions
• drawings or graphs
• games or designs
• models
This type of assessment requires learners to demonstrate a skill or proficiency in
creating or doing something, often in a setting that involves real-life applications.
The teacher should not only assess the end product but also the process used by the
learners to complete the task. This method of assessment is very useful in diverse
classrooms, since it takes into consideration the process as well as the product.
The teacher needs to keep careful records of observations made during the completion
of the task, so that the assessment is not simply reduced to the assessment of the
final product.

Performance-based task

You are going to find out about the different forms of transport learners use
to come to school.

Make a list of questions that you can ask to find out which different forms of
transport are used by the learners in your class. (You should include at least
four different means of transport on your list.)
(1) Ask all the learners in your class which form of transport they use and
draw up a tally table of their responses.
(2) Find the frequencies from your tally table.
(3) Represent your data using a bar graph or a pictogram.
(4) What does your graph tell you about the forms of transport used by the
learners in your class?
(5) Could you use this information to decide about the forms of transport used
by the learners in your school? Explain your answer.

ACTIVITY 5.11
Draw a checklist to evaluate the design of the performance-based task above.
In each case explain your answer and suggest improvements where necessary.
(1) Is the task based on a real-life context?
(2) Is the task practical enough to be done (do-able)?
(3) Are multiple solutions possible?
(4) Is the nature of the task clear?
(5) Is the task challenging and stimulating to the learners?
(6) Are criteria for scoring included?

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Tools for assessment

A tool is any instrument that you use in your assessment, such as
• a portfolio
• an observation sheet
• a journal
• a questionnaire
• a test
In this section we only discuss portfolios, though you may wish to research some
of the other tools mentioned in the list above.

Portfolios
A portfolio can be described as a collection of samples of a learner’s work that
shows how the learner has developed over time through the learning process. In
mathematics, portfolios offer learners the opportunity to demonstrate the evolution
of their mathematical knowledge and performance over a particular period of time.
During this process of collecting items, learners make decisions about what items
to put in their portfolios, and it is this decision-making process that builds learner
involvement.

Portfolio collections may include input by

• learners
• teachers
• parents
• peers
• the school
• departmental officials
Portfolios should reflect the learners’ actual day-to-day learning activities. They should
be a measure of where the learners have been and what they have accomplished.
Portfolios should be ongoing to show-case the learners’ efforts, progress and
achievements over time. The selected works may be in a variety of media and
multidimensional.

In their document on assessment standards, the National Council of Teachers of

Mathematics (NTCM) suggests that mathematics portfolios be organised in exhibits
that have focused purposes and clear criteria for judgement.

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Here is an example (Clarke, 1997):

Exhibit Purpose and criteria

Conceptual understanding Using conceptual understanding to solve problems and represent

the concept in multiple ways (through numbers, graphs, symbols,
diagrams or words).

Problem-solving Using mathematical concepts and skills to solve non-routine

problems that do not lay out specific and detailed steps to follow.

Putting mathematics to Types of investigation:

work • data study
• designing a physical structure
• pure mathematical investigation

Skills and communication Lists of skills and communications are presented on the entry slips.

Assembling a portfolio
Learners must be guided on how to review all the work done so far and then select
a few examples of the best work for inclusion in the portfolio. Before including a
particular document (example), the learner should ask the following questions:
• What is this piece about?
• What makes this piece representative of my best work?
• What mathematics did I learn or apply in this piece?
Stages in the creation and design of a portfolio

The teacher and learner must reach prior agreement

on
COLLECTION • what samples and exhibits are to be included
• how many of the above may be included
• compiling procedures

Samples to be selected must conform with the criteria

SELECTION
set at the outset.

The teacher should encourage and support the learner

REFLECTION to reflect on what the portfolio shows about his or her
learning.

The portfolio must be formally assessed according to

ASSESSMENT
pre-determined criteria.

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The benefits and value of using portfolios for assessment

The portfolio offers
• a broader, more in-depth look at what learners know and can do
• the opportunity to assess more authentic work
• a supplement or alternative to report cards and formal tests
• a better way to communicate learner progress to parents
How do you assess a portfolio?
The following questions can be used to guide you in assessing a portfolio:
• Does the portfolio show the learner’s growth and development over time?
• Does the portfolio show evidence of the process of planning and creating, as
well as the final product?
• Does the portfolio show evidence of thoughtful reflection by the learner on his
or her learning and achievement?
• Does the portfolio show that the collected work is of an acceptable quality?
• Is the portfolio varied to show achievement through differing pieces of work?
• Does the portfolio communicate the learner’s achievements clearly, effectively
and convincingly?

Sample of a portfolio assessment sheet

Name: ............................................... Class: ......................................................................

Due date: ...............................................

Teacher: ............................................... Portfolio outcome: .....................................................

Assessment criteria Very Good Satis- Poor

good factory
Evidence of mastery of the concepts.
Evidence of process: Shows the thinking, planning
and process that led to the final product.
Presentation of the portfolio: Neatness, visual
appeal, creative design and layout.
Management: A sufficient number of samples, each
dated and annotated, presented in sequence.
Writing skill: Appropriateness of language,
vocabulary, style.
Variety and quality of contents: Various work
samples, clear evidence of competence.
Self-reflection: Honest personal commentary,
highlighting areas of excellence and issues for
improvement.
Explanation: Justifies and explains each sample
included.

Source: Adapted from Kramer (1999)

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The assessment sheet is a simple rubric with criteria in the first column and then
four columns in which to indicate the standard of the work achieved by the learner
in relation to each of the criteria.

ACTIVITY 5.12
(1) Take some time to reflect on the purpose of a portfolio in assessment.
(2) The portfolio assessment rubric on the previous page would be even more
useful to the learners if the criteria were explained in more detail in each of
the columns of the table. Copy the rubric onto a sheet of paper and write in
the detail so that a learner would know exactly what he or she is expected to
achieve at each of the levels.

Rubrics
The rubric given for the portfolio assessment on the previous page is an appropriate
assessment tool, since it contains clear criteria that will be used to assess learners’
portfolios. The fully expanded rubric (which you had to complete for the activity)
would be even more useful, since it would make it completely clear to a learner why
he or she has achieved the given ratings.

Assessment tasks cannot be evaluated effectively simply by adding up all the correct
answers or awarding a quantitative mark (say 60%). Such a mark does not give any
information to the learner on what in particular was good or bad about his or her
work. We need to find ways to manage this information and make it useful. One very
useful tool with which to do so is a rubric. Rubrics are rating scales that are used in the
assessment of performance. They are formally defined as scoring guides, they consist
of pre-established performance criteria and they are used in evaluating or assessing
a learner’s performance. The expanded criteria at the different levels are called level
descriptors.

ACTIVITY 5.13
(1) For this question, refer to the six-point analytic rubric on the next page.
• Which column or row in the rubric sets out the criteria which are being
assessed?
• Which column or row in the rubric sets out the levels of the criteria which
are being assessed?
(2) Set a task (such as the performance-based task given in activity 5.11 in this
unit) and allow your learners to work through the task. Write up the statement
of the task in full.
• Design a rubric, using all or some of the criteria and level descriptors that
you will use to assess learners’ work.
• Assess your learners’ work using the rubric.
• Comment on the success or failure of the assessment, and on the learners’
responses to their work being evaluated in this way.
(3) Draw up a project assessment task on any space and shape topic for a grade
of your choice.
• Indicate the grade on the task. Write out the task in full.
• Draw up a rubric that you will use to assess your learners’ projects.

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(4) Discuss the value of using a rubric as opposed to a memorandum for a task
such as a project, compared to a task such as an activity (which would typically
be accompanied by a worksheet).

An example of a learner-friendly mathematics rubric.

Six-point analytic rubric for assessing mathematical problem-solving

Understanding Support for thinking Communication

Outstanding Finds all important parts of Finds more than one way to Writes a clear, convincing,
6 the problem. solve the problem. thoughtful answer.
(Exceptional – Has full understanding of Uses many ways to show Writes to an audience.
goes beyond mathematics needed. thinking, e.g. diagrams,
Diagrams are very clear.
what has been charts and graphs.
Uses unusual, creative
asked.)
thinking. Learner experiments,
designs and analyses.
Does more than the problem
requires.
Meritorious Finds most of the important Finds one or more ways to Writes clearly.
5 parts of the problem. solve problem.
Makes sense.
(Very good, Has a good understanding Uses several ways to show
Writes to an audience.
clear, strong.) of the mathematics needed. thinking, e.g. diagrams,
charts and graphs. Diagrams clear.
May experiment, design,
analyse.
May compare the problem
to another, predict.
Satisfactory Finds most of the important Uses one way to solve Addresses all parts of the
parts of the problem; some problem. problem.
4
less important parts are
Some ways to show thinking Writes to an audience.
(Pretty good, missing.
may be missing.
gets the job Understands most of the Writing may be unclear.
done.) mathematics needed. May experiment, design or
analyse.

Adequate Finds a few of the important May or may not solve the Has trouble writing ideas.
parts of the problem. problem.
3 May or may not write to an
Understands some of the Mathematical thinking is audience.
(OK, good try,
mathematics needed. unclear or limited.
unclear.) Diagrams or charts not
Thinking gets mixed up. Chooses wrong ways to clear.
solve problem.
Might miss the big idea.
Partial Has little understanding of Does not explain thinking. Writes in a confusing way.
the problem.
2 Uses ways to solve problem May or may not write to an
Finds less important parts which do not fit the problem. audience.
(Incomplete,
of the problem.
confusing.)
Understands bits and pieces
of the mathematics needed.

Inadequate Does not understand the Answer is difficult to Writes in a way that is very
1 problem. understand. hard to understand.
(Made an Makes little or no attempt to
effort, no explain results.
understanding.)

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 UNIT 5:  Building assessment into teaching and learning

Checklists and rubrics

The example of a learner-friendly mathematics rubric above is very general, and
you may use it to help you draw up rubrics for activities and tasks that you set for
your learners. Below we include a checklist and a rubric relating to two mathematics
activities. These should help you to see the differences between rubrics and checklists,
and to decide when to use these in your teaching.

First, we draw up a checklist for the following activity from unit 2:

ACTIVITY 5.14

(See activity 2.16, unit 2)

(1) In the number 10 212 the 2 on the left is times the 2 on the right.
(2) In the number 10 212 the 1 on the left is times the 1 on the right.
(3) In the number 80 777 the 7 on the far left is times the 7 immediately
to the right of it.
(4) In the number 80 777 the 7 on the far left is times the 7 on the far right.
(5) In the number 566 the 6 on the right is times the 6 on the left.
(6) In the number 202 the 2 on the right is times the 2 on the left.
(7) In the number 1 011 the 1 on the far right is times the 1 on the far left.

(8) In the number 387, the face values of the digits are , and ;
the place value of the digits (from left to right) are , and ;
and the total values represented by the digits (from left to right) are ,
and .

The mathematics in the task

In order to complete the activity successfully, a learner would need to have a well-
established place value concept and be able to work with place value in up to five-
digit numbers. Using this understanding of place value, they will be able to identify
relationships between numbers which are multiples of each other. The multiples
they need to identify involve both whole numbers (in tens, hundreds and so on) and
fractions (in tenths, hundredths and so on). Numbers 1 to 4 involve whole number
multiple relationships and numbers 5 to 8 involve fractional multiple relationships.

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Checklist for use in class evaluation of place value activity

Learner name

Criteria Yes No Partial

Able to identify whole number multiple relationships (in tens,

hundreds and so on) between digits.

Able to identify fraction number multiple relationships (in tenths,

hundredths and so on) between digits.

Learner understands the language used to describe the position

of the digits in relation to each other (left, far left, right, far right).

Learner has understood the place value concept and is able to

work with place value in up to five-digit numbers.

Next we draw up a rubric for an activity from unit 4:

ACTIVITY 5.15

(See activity 4.5, number 2, from unit 4)

Organise your class into groups of three or four learners each. The groups are
going to investigate some 3D objects. Each member of the group have to construct
one 3D shape. The group members must then count the number of edges, faces
and vertices (corners) of each shape. You, the teacher, provide the nets to the
learners by enlarging the nets on the next page. You might need to assist the
learners in constructing the shapes.

The learners then complete the table below.

Shape Name No. of vertices No. of edges No. of faces

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 UNIT 5:  Building assessment into teaching and learning

The mathematics in the task

In order to complete this task successfully, the learners need to be able to make
models of the set shapes. The nets provided will enable them to build a cube, a
cuboid (rectangular prism), a triangular prism, a triangular pyramid (tetrahedron) and
a square pyramid. According to the instructions for the task, you give the learners
the nets for these shapes, but not the names.

The nets should be labelled A, B, C, D and E. The learners have to identify the
names of each of the shapes, and write them in the correct row, according to the
given letters. The learners then need to be able to count the number of faces, edges
and vertices of the polyhedra that they build.

Group work nature of this task

According to the instructions given for this task, the learners had to work in groups
to complete the activity. Provision for this task has to be made in the rubric, as you
will see below.

Learner name:

Criteria Outstanding Achieved Partially Not achieved

achieved

Model The shapes that The shapes that Shapes are not Shapes not very
making the learner has the learner has very accurately cut accurately cut and
made are all made are well cut, and many folds not folds not neatly
accurately cut, folded and pasted, straight. Flaps not made along all
folded and pasted. but edges are all well matched edge lines. Not
All edges perfectly not quite straight, when pasted, so all nets have been
folded and matched and some are not that not all shapes cut and made into
when pasted. perfectly matched. are perfect models. the required 3D
models. Work is
incomplete
Naming of The learner is able The learner is able The learner is able The learner is
shapes to name all the to name at least to name one or not able to name
shapes correctly. three of the five two of the shapes any of the shapes
shapes correctly. correctly. correctly.
Able to count The number of The number of The number of The number of
faces faces of all five faces of at least faces of at least faces of only one
shapes have been four of the shapes two of the shapes (or none) of the
correctly counted have been correctly have been correctly shapes have been
and recorded. counted and counted and correctly counted
recorded. recorded. and recorded.
Able to count The number of The number of The number of The number of
vertices vertices of all five vertices of at least vertices of at least vertices of only one
shapes have been four shapes have two shapes have (or none) of the
correctly counted been correctly been correctly shapes have been
and recorded. counted and counted and correctly counted
recorded. recorded. and recorded.

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Learner name:

Criteria Outstanding Achieved Partially Not achieved

achieved

Able to count The number of The number of The number of The number of
edges edges of all five edges of at least edges of at least edges of only one
shapes have been four shapes have two shapes have (or none) of the
correctly counted been correctly been correctly shapes have been
and recorded. counted and counted and correctly counted
recorded. recorded. and recorded.
Able to work Took responsibility Took responsibility Was reluctant Did not make
as part of a for shapes allocated for shapes allocated to make shapes shapes allocated to
group. to him/her. to him/her. allocated to him/her. him/her properly.
Participated actively Participated in the Wanted others to do Distracted and did
in the group group discussion, the work. not participate in
discussion. though slightly group discussion.
Participated only
distracted.
in part in the group
discussion.

As you notice in the above two examples, it takes much more effort to draw up a
rubric with descriptors in every cell of the table than to draw up a checklist.

Checklists are useful when you want to assess whether a number of concepts have
been understood (or not) or whether tasks have been completed or not. They are
also useful if you want an individual record of each learner’s achievement on a task
that you can use for further planning on the topic which has been taught in the
lesson in which this task was completed. They provide you with a record that you
can use for your planning and individual tracking of a learner’s understanding of
concepts covered.

Rubrics are useful when you want to give very clear instructions at the outset of a
task. If the learners are given a rubric according to which they will be assessed, they
know what kind of performance is expected of them before they start with the task.
This means that you need to draw up a rubric before you set the task for the class.
It also means that you can give clear and detailed feedback to the learners when you
indicate to them where their achievement has been recorded according to the cells
in the rubric. This example provides us with a link to our next set of questions: how
do we interpret and report assessment?

HOW TO INTERPRET THE RESULTS OF ASSESSMENT?

Rubrics are one of the forms of interpretation for an assessment task. Rubrics are
time consuming to draw up, but facilitate the reporting process on an assessment task
since they present a good overview of the learners’ achievement on the completed
task. All assessment ultimately needs to be interpreted and reported on. The reports
do not only go to the learner who has completed the assessment, but also to other
interested parties, and thus the interpretations on which these reports are based are
important and need to be carefully considered so that the reporting is done fair and
representative of the work that was done.

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 UNIT 5:  Building assessment into teaching and learning

Three points of reference

The three points of reference that can be used in educational assessment are self-
referencing, criterion-referencing and norm-referencing.

Self-referencing
Self-referencing could be used by the teacher to help learners plot their own
development without this being downgraded (or over-rated) in comparison to the
achievements of other learners. In the case of self-referencing, the learner
• is the reference point for his or her own achievements
• compares his or her achievement to what he or she has done before
• sets targets for the tasks he or she have to do, depending on his or her previous
achievements

Example: The parent or teacher may criticise the learner for getting poor marks for
a test. However, the learner may draw their attention to the fact that he or she has
improved on his or her previous test. In this case, the learner is self- referencing.

Criterion-referencing
Criteria are used as reference points to guide the assessment process. These criteria
are used to
• ascertain the learner’s progress in terms of concept knowledge and skill acquisition,
which are independent of other learners’ achievements
• give every learner a fair and equal opportunity to achieve or master the outcomes
• bring learners into the assessment process because the learners can take part in
the process of drawing up the criteria, or are at least aware of the criteria before
attempting to do the task, so they know what to spend time on when completing
the task
• make the assessment criteria explicit, so that the learners understand how their
work is being assessed. The explicit nature of the criteria also enables the teacher
to justify the assessment more easily and clearly to the learners and other interested
parties
• move away from an assessment system which is primarily designed to create
a comparison between all learners’ achievements to one designed to credit
achievement at different levels

Example: When learners are given a task to do, they must also be given the criteria
on the basis of which the task will be assessed. From the beginning, they will be
aware of what criteria they have to meet and how they will be assessed.

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Norm-referencing
Norm-referencing is useful as a tool for things such as university entrance rating.

Norm-referenced results can be used to decide on whether or not a learner has

achieved sufficiently well (against the given norm) to be allowed into the different
faculties of the university. In terms of norm-referencing
• learners’ progress is described in relation to standards set for a group (such as a
class average)
• learners’ progress is also defined in terms of other individuals in the class and
then inferences are made about how much a learner has learned in comparison
to others
• learner achievement is assessed in a competitive way
• results are often given as a mark or a symbol which gives a picture of the learners’
overall achievement; for example, by means of NSC examinations all Grade 12
learners are rated in comparison to a national standard and in relation to individual
achievement against this standard
• standardised tests are often used to measure learner achievement

Pegg (2002:235) writes that traditional assessment can mostly be referred to as

‘norm-referenced’. While the main focus of these two approaches is different, they
are not incompatible or in direct conflict. In fact, when determining appropriate
criteria to evaluate levels of knowledge acquisition, criteria are being defined within
a norm-referenced context.

ACTIVITY 5.16
Read the following statements made by teachers and then identify which statements
illustrate norm-referencing, which illustrate criterion-referencing and which illustrate
self-referencing. Give reasons for your response in each case.

Teacher A
Sipho has done well this term. He can calculate the area of flat surfaces, which
he had difficulty with last term. He has made good progress.

Teacher B
I am worried about Mary. She doesn’t seem to be able to work as fast as the
other learners in my mathematics class. I think she is unable to do computations
involving two or three digits.

Teacher C
My class seems to be doing okay. They’re about as far into division as last year’s
class was during this time of the year.

Teacher D
Ernest is a born mathematician. His spatial perception is outstanding. Ernest is
able to convert 2D drawings into simple 3D working models. He has a good grasp
of perspective.

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 UNIT 5:  Building assessment into teaching and learning

HOW TO REPORT
The ultimate success of a continuous assessment model rests on sound and meticulous
methods of recording learner achievement over an ongoing period of time. Cumulative
evidence of learner achievement must be recorded and these records should accompany
all learners throughout their learning careers. Cumulative records should include
information on the holistic development of the learner, such as his or her social
development and the development of his or her values and attitudes.

Each school should develop an assessment programme based on national and

provincial guidelines. To ensure a professional approach to assessment, the school
assessment programme should clearly outline
• the way continuous assessment is to be planned and implemented
• how record books are to be kept, their accessibility and security
• internal verification of assessment
• how moderation takes place in the school
• the frequency and method of reporting
• the monitoring of all assessment processes

ACTIVITY 5.17
Study the two different report cards given below.
(1) Discuss the differences and similarities between them.
(2) Which report card would you prefer to use? Explain your answer.
(3) Which report card do you think the learners would prefer to receive? Explain
your answer.
(4) Design a report card for the second term for the work you have covered in your
mathematics class. (It does not need to look like the two examples below.)
(i) Write it up and show it to a colleague.
(ii) Make changes to the report card after you have discussed it with your
colleague.
(iii) Show the report card to your learners. Write down their responses to
its layout and the information it contains.
(iv) Show the report card to some parents of your learners. Write down their
responses to its layout and the information it contains.
(v) Draw up a final version of the report card that you think would satisfy all
the stakeholders in the assessment process. Comment on how different
it is from the first version you designed.

Report Card A for Mathematics Out- Achieved Partially Not

standing achieved achieved

Project: Conducting a Survey

Working with Multiples and Factors

Aids Statistics: Graph Work

Class Test

TEACHER

Strengths/Support Needed

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Report Card B for Mathematics Term Mark Comment

Data Handling

Number and Algebra

Space and Shape

Overall Average

TEACHER

The control and ownership of assessment were traditionally in the hands of teachers,
but since the implementation of CAPS, assessment is transparent through usage of
rubrics and learner peer evaluation, learner self-evaluation and other assessment
methods.

It is the teacher’s responsibility to assess and report on the progress of the learner,
but this does not imply that it is only his or her responsibility. There are also other
stakeholders in the assessment process. These include the learner, other schools, district
level managers and support services within the department, parents of the learner
and the public at large. Teachers are accountable to all these stakeholders and must
ensure that they have effective means for reporting on assessment and communicating
results to these stakeholders.

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 UNIT 5:  Building assessment into teaching and learning

SELF-ASSESSMENT
Tick the boxes to assess whether you have achieved the outcomes for this unit.

If you cannot tick the boxes, you should go back and work through the relevant
part in the unit again.

Am I able to do the following:

# Checklist 
1 Explain the term ‘assessment’. £
2 Identify the FOUR purposes of assessment and achieve them in my classroom. £
3 Explain the principles of assessment £
4 Describe the role and purpose of assessment in mathematics. £
5 Identify and explain the aspects of mathematics learning I must consider when £
assessing learners.

6 Reflect on the assessment potential of mathematical tasks used in the teaching £

of basic data-handling concepts.

7 Select appropriate methods, techniques and tools for assessing a learner’s £

performance in mathematics.

8 Draw up or design my own assessment tasks and rubrics to use when assessing £
a learner’s work.

9 Compare various methods of recording a learner’s performance. £

LADMMM6/1179
 REFERENCES

Cangelosi, JS. 1996. Teaching mathematics in secondary and middle school. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
Chisholm, L. 2001. Revised C2005: task team report. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Clarke, D. 1997. Constructive assessment in mathematics. California: Key Curriculum Press.
De Fina, AS. 1992. Portfolio assessment: get started. New York: Scholastic Professional
Books.
Department of Basic Education. 2011. Curriculum and assessment policy statement. Senior
Phase: mathematics. Pretoria: Department of Education.
Department of Education. 1997. Curriculum 2005 assessment guidelines: mathematics literacy,
mathematics and mathematical science. Pretoria: Department of Education.
Department of Education. 2002a. Revised national curriculum statement Grades R–9 (schools)
policy: overview. Pretoria: Department of Education.
Department of Education. (2002b). Revised national curriculum statement Grades R–9
(Schools) policy: mathematics. Pretoria: Department of Education.
Department of Education. 2002c. Curriculum 2005: assessment guidelines for inclusion, June
2002. Pretoria: Department of Education:16.
Department of Education. 2003. National curriculum statement Grades 10–12 (general):
mathematics. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Gauteng Department of Education. 2002. Implementing outcomes-based assessment.
Johannesburg: GDE.
Gauteng Institute of Curriculum Policy. 2002. Module 1, module 2, module 3. Johannesburg:
Kagiso.
French, MM. 1979. The size book. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Holmes, EA. 1995. New directions in elementary school mathematics. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kramer, B. 1999. OBE toolbox. Florida Hills, South Africa: Vivlia.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics in the United States. 1995. Assessment
standards for school mathematics. Los Angeles, CA: Federal Printers.
Pegg, J. 2002. Assessment in mathematics. London: Pergamon.
Potenza, E. 2001. The Teacher. 20 September. Durban: Independent Newspapers.
Pretorius, F. (ed.) 1998. Outcomes-based education in South Africa. Johannesburg: Hodder
& Stoughton.
RADMASTE Centre, University of the Witwatersrand. 2005. Data handling and
probability. EDUC 187: chapters 3, 8 & 9.
Rowntree, D. 1997. Assessing students: how shall we know them? London: Routledge Falmer.
Siebörger, R. 2002. Transforming assessment. Landsdowne: Juta.
Spady, W. 1999. OBE and transformation. New York. Pergamon.
Van der Horst, H & McDonald, R. 1997. Outcomes-based education: a teacher’s manual.
Pretoria: Kagiso.
Van de Walle, JA. 2004. Elementary and middle school mathematics: teaching developmentally.
New Jersey: Pearson.

180
 6 UNIT 6
6 EXERCISES ON TEACHING DATA HANDLING

OVERVIEW
This set of exercises has been adapted from materials that lecturers at the RADMASTE
centre at the University of Witwatersrand have prepared to support the teaching of
data handling in mathematics education for the GET phase.

Learners gain skills to make sense of data by gathering data, organising and interpreting
data and drawing conclusions from the data collected. These processes are appropriate
for learners because they can be used to solve problems that are interesting to them.
They can also represent significant applications of mathematics to practical questions.
Many graphs are used to represent statistical data. Learners will have to work with
these graphs to gain an understanding of how to interpret and communicate the
information represented in graphical form.

Collecting data
The data that you collect in a survey or questionnaire may be very varied – it may
be about the colour of people’s eyes, their mode of transport to work, an opinion
(which chocolate do you prefer?) or a like or dislike. It may also be numerical, such
as how many cars come through the school gate in the morning?

There are two forms of numerical data:

• Information that is collected by counting is called discrete data. The data is
collected by counting exact amounts, for example the number of children in a
family; the number of children with birthdays in January; and the number of
goals scored at a soccer match.
• Continuous data is collected by measurement and the values form part of a
continuous scale, for example the height of learners in a Grade 8 class measured
in centimetres and fractions of a centimetre; and temperature measured in degrees
and fractions of a degree.

The mass of a baby at birth is continuous data, as there is no reason why a baby should
not have a mass of 3,25167312 kg – even if there is no scale that could measure so
many decimal places. However, the number of children born to a mother is discrete
data, as decimals make no sense here.

Tables, lists and tallies

When you first look at data, often all you see is a jumble of information. You need
to sort the data so that it makes more sense and record it.

Some data is easy to sort into lists that are either numerical or alphabetical. Other
data can be sorted into tables. Some tables can be used to keep count of the number
of times a particular piece of data occurs. Keeping count like this is called ‘keeping
a tally’. There is an example of a tally table in the activity below. If you want to learn
more about tally tables, you will be able to find the information in an Intermediate

LADMMM6/1181


Phase mathematics textbook. Another name for a tally table is a frequency table. The
frequency of something happening is the number of times it happens.

The contents of the exercise that follows relate to the assessment standards on
collecting (by using a survey and experimenting) and organising data. There are
also some interpretive questions based on the data.

EXERCISE 6.1
(1) A survey was conducted to find the ten most spoken languages in the world and
the number of people speaking them. The results were written out as follows:
Chinese: 700 million German: 119 million
English: 400 million Spanish: 240 million
Russian: 265 million Japanese: 116 million
Bengali: 144 million Arabic: 146 million
Hindustani: 230 million

Organise the information into an ordered list in two different ways.

(2) In an experiment I toss a dice 50 times and keep a record of the number that
appears each time. The numbers are shown below:
2;4;3;3;1;5;6;3;2;2
2;2;6;1;5;5;3;3;4;2
2;3;4;3;6;5;1;1;2;1
3;5;6;3;1;2;2;5;5;1
6;2;2;4;1;6;2;3;3;5
Complete the tally table and then answer the questions.

Number Tally Frequency

1
NOTE:
2 • The tally total is the same as the
3 frequency total.
• The data can go across or down the
4
page.
5 • The 'items' come first in the table.
• Do not confuse the frequency with
6
the number on the dice.
Total

• How many threes were tossed?

• What number was tossed the most times?
• Why do you think more sixes were not tossed?
• How many more times was a two tossed than a five?
• Do you think this dice is a fair dice? What does ‘fair’ mean in this question?

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 UNIT 6:  Exercises on teaching data handling

(3) Conduct a simple survey of the learners in your class to ask about the months
of their birthdays.

• Record the information in a frequency table:

Month Tally Frequency

January

February

March

April

...

• In which month do most birthdays occur?

• In which month do the least birthdays occur?

REPRESENTING DATA
Once you have collected the data, you have to display it in a way that
effectively communicates the information that you have found. This can be done
by means of picture diagrams and several different forms of graphs. Presenting data
visually means that it is easier to read and understand.

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Pictograms
Suppose you collected the birthday months of all the learners in your class. You
could organise this information into a table like this:

If you are primarily interested in how many learners have birthdays each month,
their names do not matter. You can represent each child with a symbol –

☻ = 1 learner
You can rearrange the list of names in this way:
Birthdays in Grade 8

2 learners have
January ☻☻
birthdays in
January – draw February
two faces.
March
One learner has a
April birthday in May
May ☻  – draw one face

June Complete the table

with faces for the
July other months.

August
September
October
November Key:

December ☻ = 1 learner

Redraw this table and complete the pictogram.

This method of displaying the data is called a ‘pictogram’. You can clearly see how
many children have birthdays in each month. Pictograms are useful as they provide
an instant visual impression of the data.

If you had collected a lot of data – say birthday months of everyone in the school
– there might be 30 or more in one month. It would be tiresome to draw so many
little faces so you could choose a scale – say one face represents ten people. This
explains why all pictograms need a key to say what the symbol or picture represents.

When you draw pictograms, there are a number of things you must remember:
• All pictograms must have a title and a key.
• Choose a simple picture or symbol that is easy to draw.
• Always give a key and say clearly what each symbol stands for.
If
☻ = 10 people, you will need to draw
☻ = 5 people

• Work out how many symbols you need for each data column or row carefully.
• Draw on squared paper as this helps to keep the symbols neatly in line.
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 UNIT 6:  Exercises on teaching data handling

Bar graphs
Another way of displaying the birthdays would be to put them in a vertical chart
like this:

Or a horizontal chart like this:

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Matsie Sipho Abdul Thandi Jonas Mary Cita Anna Alix Farah Rachel Adit

Jama Zeta Michael Jabu Jo Makhosi Sandep Peg Devy

Beth Zoe Ahmed Puleng Jane Pumlani

Chandra Zula

Fatima

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This method of displaying the data is called a ‘bar chart’ or ‘bar graph’. This is a
very popular way of displaying information, as it is easy to read accurately and gives
a very good visual impression of the data. A bar graph uses bars, side by side, to
display information. A bar graph shows clearly how data items compare – you can
see at a glance which bar is longer. However, it is difficult to compare one item of
data to the whole data set. A bar graph can show frequencies, numbers of things,
as in the birthdays above, or amounts of things such as heights of mountains, or
hours spent watching TV.

NOTE:
(1) The bars can be horizontal or vertical.
(2) The length of the bar stands for the frequency of the data.
(3) A bar graph has two axes. The scales of the axes must be accurate.
(4) All bars are the same width.
(5) All bar graphs should have a title.
(6) Bar graphs can be used for discrete and continuous data.
(7) Bar graphs can also be used to illustrate grouped data.
(8) Sometimes a bar graph has two sets of bars that represent different data side by
side. This allows you to compare two sets of data on one graph. The bar graph
below shows the rainfall in an area over two different years.

(9) Sometimes a bar graph has different sets of data on the same topic shown as
different sections on a bar. This is called a sectional bar graph. The following
sectional bar graph shows the number of bakkies and cars sold by a garage in
six months.

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 UNIT 6:  Exercises on teaching data handling

EXERCISE 6.2

(1) The table below shows the estimated percentage HIV prevalence per province
in South Africa in 1998.

Province %

Eastern Cape 16

Free State 22 This means that 16%

of the population of
Gauteng 22 the Eastern Cape is
estimated to be HIV
KwaZulu-Natal 33 positive.

Mpumalanga 30

Northern Cape 10

Limpopo 12

North West 21

Western Cape 5

South Africa 22

• Show this information in a pictogram. Use ☻ as a symbol that represents

5%.
• Draw a vertical bar chart to show the information. Put the provinces on the
horizontal axis and percentages on the vertical axis.
• From what you know about the HIV/AIDS pandemic, do you think the graph
would look the same today? Discuss this with your fellow learners.

(2) The table below shows the percentage of households in South Africa that
have two or fewer rooms. The data is listed by province and is an estimate
taken in 1996.

• Draw a bar chart to represent this information.

• Discuss with your fellow learners why you think the percentage is lower
in the Western Cape. Write down the main ideas from your discussion.

Province %
Eastern Cape 39
Free State 37
This means that 33%
Gauteng 36 of households in
Mpumalanga have
KwaZulu-Natal 35 2 or fewer rooms.
Mpumalanga 33
Northern Cape 39
Limpopo 29
North West 28
Western Cape 23
South Africa 33

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Pie charts
A pie chart is another way of representing data. A pie chart is a circular diagram
divided into ‘slices’ like a pie. It is particularly useful if you want to illustrate a
whole population divided into parts and show what portion of the whole each part
represents. The whole circle represents the whole population. Each slice represents
a part of the whole. The size of the slice shows the size of that part.

This pie chart shows the way a group of people travel to work. It is easy to see that
most people go by bus.

Ways of travelling to work

Pie charts are very tedious to draw by hand. If you have a computer and know how to
use Excel, click on the Chart Wizard and select the pie chart once you have entered
your data on a spreadsheet; the pie chart will be drawn for you almost instantaneously.

There are two main steps in drawing a pie graph by hand.

Steps in drawing a pie chart by hand

(1) C
 alculating the angle in the centre. This is relatively straightforward if
you remember that there are 360° in a circle.

(2) D rawing the slices of the pie.

For this you need a protractor. 360º
To find the angle in the centre:
Find the total amount to be shown – i.e. add up the
frequencies.
 his total represents the whole circle – i.e. 360°.
T
So each part is a fraction or percentage of 360°.

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 UNIT 6:  Exercises on teaching data handling

Let’s look at an example to illustrate this. Suppose you did a simple count of the
colour of the eyes of the learners in your class. The table below shows this:

Colour Number

Brown 32

Grey 6

Blue 22

Total 60

Look at brown eyes:

32 out of 60 learners have brown eyes;

the fraction of learners with brown eyes is 32 ;

60
32
the angle of the slice for brown eyes must be 60
× 360° = 192°;

Work out the angles for blue and grey eyes:

Angle for blue = 22 × 360° = …

60
Angle for grey = 2 × 360° = …
60
Check that the total of the angles is 360°.

EXERCISE 6.3
(1) Copy and complete this pie chart to represent the data about eye colour
given above.
(2) Draw a radius in the circle. This is where you start measuring the angles.
(3) Measure the angles at the centre.
(4) Give the pie chart a title and a key.
(5) Use Excel to draw the pie chart if you can.
(6) Compare your hand drawn graph with the computer-generated graph, if
possible.

Line graphs and broken line graphs

You can replace a bar graph by a line graph if the data on the horizontal axis is
continuous data, such as time, temperature or age. In this case the data is plotted as
a series of points that are joined by straight lines. Businesses often use line graphs
to show information about profits or periods of production. Geographers use line
graphs to show monthly rainfall or crop yields over time.

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Line graphs are useful as they show trends and can easily be extended. This means
that with some line graphs it might be possible to continue the line to show what
might happen in the future.

The line graph below shows rainfall measured over a period of six months:

Rainfall January–June

250
This should actually be drawn
200 with a dotted line. However,
in most atlases and other
150
mm

books showing rainfall, such

100 graphs are usually drawn
with a solid line.
50
0
January

February

May

June
April
March

Look at the graph carefully.

(a) Which month has the highest rainfall?
(b) Which month has the lowest rainfall?

NOTE: T
 he line graph above shows the rainfall at a certain place. Because the
points are joined, it suggests that the rainfall changes as shown by the lines.
This is not so. You are just joining isolated rainfall readings. A line graph
like this is sometimes called a broken line graph.

Line graphs can also be drawn for conversions, that is a change from one unit of
measure to another.

Conversion graphs can be used to change from metric to imperial units and vice
versa, or from one currency to another.

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 UNIT 6:  Exercises on teaching data handling

Note in the line graph above that the scale on the two axes is different. The vertical
axis goes up in twenties, the horizontal axis goes up in fives.

In the following exercises, data are represented in the four ways shown in this unit
(pictogram, bar graph, pie chart and line graph).

EXERCISE 6.4a
Thembi keeps a record of the hours she spends on different activities during the
day. This information is shown below.
(1) Complete the table to show the degrees needed for each activity when drawing
a pie chart.
(2) Draw the pie chart.
(3) Represent the information using a line graph.

Activity Number of hours Number of degrees

School 5 … × 360° = …

Meals 1

Homework 3

TV 2

Travel 1

Sleep 8

Other 4

Total 24

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EXERCISE 6.4b
Joe has done a survey of the colours of cars parked at the local sports club. The
observation sheet is given below.
(1) Complete the frequency table.
(2) Display the data as a pictogram, a bar graph and a pie chart.
(3) Which representation do you think is best? Explain your response.

Joe's observation sheet

Colours Tallies Frequency

Red

Blue

Green

Black

Orange

INTERPRETING DATA
You have read about some ways to collect, organise and present information or data.
Remember that the whole point of collecting data is to help you understand more
about the world you live in. Information can be collected through questionnaires or
surveys that ask people questions about their lives. You can develop questionnaires
if you want to find out what different people think about products or aspects of
life. You can do surveys if you want to know people’s opinions about things. A
government will conduct a census if it wants to know how many people live in a
place, who they are, what they do, how big their families are, where they live and so
on. Now let us look at what the representations of the data you have collected can
tell us about our world.

You have seen that drawing graphs or pie charts helps to give a picture of data
collected. Rather than having long lists of numbers or facts, a graph can help you to
understand the data. But how do we interpret the graphs we draw to illustrate data?
How do we analyse and draw conclusions about the data? How do we answer the
questions we asked in surveys or questionnaires?

When interpreting data, it is a good idea to discuss your interpretation with the other
members of your study group. You may ‘see’ things that the others do not see. By
sharing your ideas, you can get a better idea of what the data is saying. It is a well-
known fact that statistics can be misleading. They are often used to prove a point
and can easily be twisted in favour of the point you want to prove.

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 UNIT 6:  Exercises on teaching data handling

Data displayed in graphs and on bar and pie charts can sometimes be distorted
to give false impressions. It is important to look very carefully at the graphs and
diagrams so that the visual aspects of the charts, graphs and diagrams do not deceive
you. The way you interpret the data usually depends on the reason for collecting
it. Your initial question or hypothesis is important in determining the emphasis of
your interpretation.

When analysing data, you can make general conclusions (more people like chocolate
ice cream) and/or mathematical conclusions (the mean of the marks is 54%). Again
your initial question or hypothesis determines your approach.

Interpreting pictograms
Remember that a pictogram shows data as little symbols or pictures. A pictogram
gives you a quick impression of the information. You must always look at the key
to see how many items of data the symbol or picture represents. Part of a picture or
symbol represents a fraction of the number of items.

The pictogram below shows the number of rainy days during the month of June at
six coastal towns in Southern Africa. You can immediately see which town had the
most or the least rainy days. If you look at the key, you can tell that Richards Bay had
two rainy days, Port Elizabeth had ten rainy days and Luderitz had none.

Misleading pictograms
Sometimes pictograms are designed specifically to give misleading information.
Sometimes they are drawn badly and the information that they portray is misleading.
You must be aware of this when drawing your own pictograms and when making
interpretations from pictograms in magazines and newspapers.

The ambiguity arises when symbols are incorrectly drawn or when spacing is unequal.
Sometimes this is intentional – specifically to give information that is unclear – and
sometimes it results from shoddy work. Look at the examples on the next page:

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The two diagrams show information about the sales in a milk depot during three
consecutive years. The first diagram is a pictogram with milk cartons used to show
the sales of milk. The second is a bar graph showing the sales of milk. Which diagram
do you think shows misleading data?

Interpreting bar graphs

Like pictograms, bar graphs are also very easy to read. The lengths of the bars stand
for the size of the data. The following are important points to look for when reading
information from a bar graph:
• The title. What is the bar graph about?
• The axes. Check the labels of the axes. One axis gives the labels of the bars, the
other tells you how many items there are in each bar.
• The scale. The scale on the number axis tells you how many. You might have to
work out how many items there are between numbers shown on the axes.

The data about the rainy days in coastal towns on the previous page could have been
shown in a bar graph like this:

Here you need to judge whether Cape Town had 23 or 24 rainy days.

However, it is easy to compare the number of rainy days at the different towns. It is
easy to see that Cape Town had the most and Luderitz the least rainy days.

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 UNIT 6:  Exercises on teaching data handling

Misleading bar graphs

Bar graphs can also be misleading. An important thing to look at is the scale on the
axes. Ask yourself:
• Does the scale start at zero?
• Is the scale distorted? Is it too compressed or too spread out? This is a trick that
some companies use to enhance the look of their sales.

Also check the width of the bars. These can be distorted (as in the milk cartons in
the pictogram).

The bar charts on the next page show a comparison between two different brands
of cereal.

A company that wants to show that Wonder Cereal is better than Loopy Cereal could
use any of these bar graphs. They all show misleading information. Look at them
carefully to see the different ways in which they are misleading.

Interpreting pie charts

The interpretation of pie charts are based on the fact that the largest ‘slice of pie’
relates to the largest item of data and the smallest ‘slice’ to the smallest item. It is
therefore easy to make comparisons between the relative sizes of data items.

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Sometimes the size of the respective slices is easy to estimate by eye. 90° at the centre
of a circle is a quarter of a circle. Sometimes it is not so easy to see the relative sizes
of the slices of the pie. This could be frustrating if you want to make comparisons.
Building
Drama

60º 55º

80º
Catering
50º

Mathematics

The pie chart shows the number of learners in different departments of a college.
There are 220 learners in the building department. How many learners are there in
the mathematics department?

You know that 55° represents 200 learners.

You can work out that 1° represents 220 = … learners.
55
You can also work out that 50° represents 50 × … learners.
So the mathematics department has … learners.

If badly drawn, pie charts can display misleading information. Remember that one
of the main advantages of pie charts is that you can see part of the data as a fraction
of the whole.

Interpreting line graphs

Line graphs are an important feature of mathematics. You might have looked at some
straight-line graphs with the learners in your class. Line graphs are most often used
for representing continuous data.

The following important things can help you to interpret line graphs:
• The title. What is the line graph about?
• The axes. Check the labels of the axes.
• The scales on the axes start at zero? What else do the scales tell you?
Reading a line graph that illustrates data is like reading any other kind of straight-line
graph. Look carefully at the labels of the axes and then read off the values.

Value that Value that

you want you know

Value that Value that

you know you want

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 UNIT 6:  Exercises on teaching data handling

Misleading line graphs

Some line graphs are purposely drawn to convey misleading information. Look
carefully at the two graphs below. They both show the same information, but they
look completely different because the scales are different. They appear to tell a
different story.

Look at this graph:

Although the vertical scale starts at 0, it does not go
18 up in even steps. This has the effect of distorting the
8 graph, and making it look as though the biggest jump
is between 1 and 2 rather than 3 and 4. Also, there
4
are no labels on the axes. We have no idea what this
2 graph represents.
1

0
1     2     3 4

16 Here is the same graph with a correct vertical scale.

15
14
13 Does it tell the same story?
12
11 In what way is it the same?
10
9
8 In what way is it different?
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1     2     3 4

Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/mathematics/datahandlingfi/representingdatarev5.shtml

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EXERCISE 6.5
The following is a graph and an article from The Star newspaper (1999) about
impulse buying. Read the article carefully. Think about things like the assumptions
that are made by the writer or researcher and whether the article and the graph
tell the same story.

Who are the impulse buyers?

South Africa is a nation of shoppers with increasing numbers defined as impulse
buyers who respond to glossy adverts and come-ons such as ‘never to be beaten
bargains’ and ‘buy one and get one free’

This, in part, has emerged from one of the most comprehensive surveys of
consumer shopping behaviour which has just been compiled by Media & Marketing
Research (MMR).

MMR’s research provides answers to a host of questions about South Africa and
how its people buy.

Capetonians were the most likely to respond to bargains, good buys as well as
advertising come-ons on TV and in newspapers (42,6%). Johannesburg shoppers
came in second at 38,5%, Pretoria notched up 31,8% and Durbanites were rated
at 29,6%.

The ranks of impulse shoppers were most likely to come from these ‘bargain
hunting’ groups.
(1) What is wrong with the pie graph?
(2) Who do you think ‘impulse buyers’ are?
(3) Who do you think the ‘bargain hunters’ are?
(4) Redraw the given data in a more suitable and correct graph.
(5) According to the researchers, what does the given data represent?
(6) What does the newspaper headline suggest the data represents?
(7) What assumptions are made about the meaning of the results of research on
‘bargain-hunting’ shoppers?
(8) What does the data NOT tell us about impulse buying?

198
 7 UNIT 7
7 EXERCISES ON TRANSFORMATION GEOMETRY

This study unit endeavours to give you a glimpse of transformation geometry as one
of the sections in geometry.

TRANSFORMATION GEOMETRY
In a transformation, an initial set of points is transformed systematically into another
set of points. The initial set of points (called the ‘object’) is transformed by a particular
rule into another set of points (called the ‘image’). We say that the object is ‘mapped’
onto the image.

Pre-knowledge
The following pre-knowledge is required:

• Congruency
Two figures are congruent if they have exactly the same
shape and size.
Corresponding sides in congruent figures are equal in
length; corresponding angles in congruent figures are
equal in size.

• Similarity
Two figures are similar if they have the same shape,
but the size is different.
Corresponding angles in similar figures are equal in size.
Note that the orientation on the page does not matter.

Perpendicularity
Two lines are perpendicular if they are at right angles
to each other.

The perpendicular distance between a point A and

a line XY is the distance between the point A and the
line XY measured on the perpendicular line which
can be drawn to join the point A to the line XY.

The perpendicular bisector of a line segment XY

is the line PQ where PQ cuts XY in half and PQ is
perpendicular to XY.

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The Cartesian plane and plotting of points on the

Cartesian plane.

The coordinate plane is also called the

‘Cartesian plane’, named after the famous
French mathematician, René Descartes.

Good. Now you will be able to see that the Cartesian plane consists of POINTS. Each
point has a unique position on the plane. This position is indicated by coordinates.
The coordinates of a point consist of two numbers: the horizontal and vertical
coordinates. Let us place a point in the Cartesian plane and find its coordinates.

200
 UNIT 7:  Exercises on transformation geometry

In addition, you need to be able to recognise basic geometric shapes such as

• triangles
• squares
• rectangles
• parallelograms
• kites
• pentagons
• hexagons
• octagons
• trapeziums
You also need the ability to work with a compass and protractor.

ISOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS
In an isometric transformation, the objects and the image are congruent. This means
that the object keeps the same form and size.

Translation
In a translation, the object moves in a specific direction to obtain the image.
The orientation of the object and the image stays the same.

You need
• an object
• the direction and length of translation (an instruction)
You get
• the image
Example:
Move the car 5 metres to the right.

The transformed shape

is called the ‘image’.

We say:
‘The object is mapped
This is the … The direction This is the …
onto the image.’

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EXERCISE 7.1
(1) What translation has the figure below undergone?

Translate the figure 4 units right and 3 units down.

Reflection
In a reflection, every point on the object is the same perpendicular distance from
a fixed line as the corresponding point on the image. This fixed line is called the
‘mirror line’ or the ‘line of symmetry’.

A reflection is a mirror image of an object

This is the object The line of symmetry This is the image

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 UNIT 7:  Exercises on transformation geometry

EXERCISE 7.2
(1) Draw the reflections of the following in the given line:

(2) Draw the reflections of the following in the given lines:

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(3) Draw in the line(s) of reflection as accurately as possible:

(4) Which of the following is/are examples of a reflection?

(5) Which figure goes where? Draw B, C and D in the correct positions so that
the vertical and horizontal lines in the figure are the lines of reflection. Label
your sketches with B, C or D.

A B

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 UNIT 7:  Exercises on transformation geometry

(6) Draw the reflection of this object in the vertical line. Be careful.
A point P is given on the object. Can you show the image of point P in the
reflection?
Label it P1
Now join P and P1
Can you see that the line of symmetry bisects the line segment PP1?

P


P

(7) Now repeat the same procedure as in number 6 with this figure. Be careful,
because the line of symmetry in the second one is neither horizontal nor
vertical. Use the letter P in each figure to find your first point of reflection.
You can also use tracing paper.
Trace the figure as well as the line of reflection. Then flip your paper 180º in
the air and copy the image.

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(8) Redraw figures B, C and D so that they are reflections of A on the X- and Y-axes.

B C
A

(9) Redraw the line segments on the right-hand side so that the figure is symmetrical
(with the vertical line the line of symmetry).

Rotation
In a rotation, the angle between each point on the image and the point of rotation
is the same as the angle between the corresponding point on the object and the
point of rotation.

You will have to rotate figures

clockwise or anti-clockwise

You must know the sizes of 90º, 180º, 270º and 360º angles.

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 UNIT 7:  Exercises on transformation geometry

EXERCISE 7.3
(1) Complete clockwise or anti-clockwise:
A 90º rotation:

................. wise ................... wise

A 180º rotation:

................. wise ................. wise

 

A 270º rotation:

................. wise ................. wise

A 360º rotation:

................. wise ................. wise

(2) Rotate the figure clockwise:

Through how many degrees do you have to rotate the figure to get the
following?

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(3) For this exercise you need tracing paper.

Rotate the figure 90º clockwise about P:

P

(a) Put the tracing paper over the figure and trace it:

P

(b) Place your pencil point on P.

(c) Rotate the paper 90º clockwise.

This is the new form

P

(d) Mark the new position of the new shape. (Press hard with your pencil.)
(e) Now trace the new shape.

It must look like this.

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 UNIT 7:  Exercises on transformation geometry

(4) Rotate the figure 270º anti-clockwise about P. (Use tracing paper.)
(a) (b)

P


P

(5) Rotate the figure 90º anti-clockwise about P. Draw the image.

P


(6) R
 otate the figure 90º anti-clockwise about P. Draw the image.
(Use tracing paper.)

P

(7) Rotate the figure 180º clockwise about P. Draw the image. (Use tracing paper.)

P

(8) Rotate the figure 270º clockwise about P. Draw the image. (Use tracing paper.)

P

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SYMMETRY

Line symmetry
When we refer to symmetry, we usually mean line symmetry. Line symmetry is also
referred to as ‘bilateral symmetry’ (because it refers to the natural symmetry of a
figure).

Line symmetry is also called ‘reflection symmetry’ (because it has to do with

reflections).

EXERCISE 7.4
The following figures all have at least one line of symmetry. Use a ruler to draw
them in.

Symmetry in nature
Draw the line(s) of symmetry in the following figures:

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 UNIT 7:  Exercises on transformation geometry

EXERCISE 7.5
A figure with at least one line of symmetry is called a symmetrical figure.

Which of the following is/are symmetrical figures? Draw in the line of symmetry if
the figure is symmetrical.

Line symmetry of a pair of points

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Line symmetry of a pair of congruent figures

Line symmetry of a single figure

A figure is symmetrical with respect to a line l if for each point P1 in the figure there
is a point P2 in the same figure, such that P1 and P2 are symmetrical with respect
to the line l.

Such figures are called symmetrical figures. They have symmetry within themselves.
A figure may have only one line of symmetry to be symmetrical, although it may
have more than one line of symmetry.

Draw the line(s) of symmetry for the figures below.

Which letters of the alphabet has lines of symmetry? Draw them.

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 UNIT 7:  Exercises on transformation geometry

Rotational symmetry
If you can rotate a figure in such a way that the rotated image coincides with the
original figure (less than 360º), then the figure has rotational symmetry. In other
words, the figure appears not to have moved by the rotation.

Look at the sketch above.

You can rotate the figure four times before it gets back to the original position. We
say the ORDER of rotational symmetry is FOUR.

We can rotate figures in different ways:

• in the air
• around a point (in the figure)
• in a plane
• around a point (outside the figure)
EXERCISE 7.6
(1) Which of the following shapes has rotational symmetry?

Draw the lines of reflectional symmetry (if any) in each of the figures above.

Investigate the relation between the number of sides of a regular polygon, the
number of reflectional symmetries and the order of symmetry.

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Point symmetry
A figure which has rotational symmetry of order two, has point symmetry. In other
words, if you can rotate the figure through 180º so that it looks as if it has not
changed, then the figure has point symmetry.

EXERCISE 7.7
Which of the figures in the table above has point symmetry? (Answer Yes or No.)

Y N Y N Y N

Y N Y N Y N

Draw your own figures with: (Show the lines of symmetry.)

Two lines of symmetry Three lines of symmetry

Rotational symmetry of order 7 Rotational symmetry of order 1

Point symmetry Write down all the letters of the alphabet which
have line symmetry. Make neat sketches of
each and show the lines of symmetry.

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 UNIT 7:  Exercises on transformation geometry

ENLARGEMENTS (DILATIONS)
A transformation that changes the size but not
the shape of the original object is called an
enlargement.

We often come across enlargements in life.

For example, when a slide projector throws the
image of a slide onto a screen, the image is the
same shape as the object, but not the same size.

Here is an example of an enlargement of a

triangle. ∆ABC is the original triangle and C1
∆A1B1C1 is the enlargement.

E is called the centre of enlargement.

C
Each side of ∆A1B1C1 is twice as long as
each corresponding side of ∆ABC. This
ratio of the size of the image to the size
of the object gives the scale factor of A1 B1
E A B
enlargement.

The scale factor of enlargement (called the ‘scale factor’) is the ratio of the length of
any side in the image to the length of its corresponding side in the original object.
A1B1 2 B1C1 2 A1C1 2
AB = 1 BC
= 1 AC
= 1

So the scale factor is 2.

We call the lines (shown here as dotted lines) which join the centre of enlargement
(E to AA1, to BB1, to CC1, etc.) ‘guidelines’.
EA1 EB EC1
EA = EB1 = EC also gives the scale factor.

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EXERCISE 7.8
Draw the enlargement of the figures below.

The point A1 must be the image of A.

The centre of enlargement

To find the centre of enlargement, join the corresponding points on the two figures.
Do it twice and extend the line segments. The point of intersection is the centre of
enlargement.

Determine the centre of enlargement, P, of the following:

Join the corresponding

points on the two figures. A1
A

This is the centre

of enlargement. P

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 UNIT 7:  Exercises on transformation geometry

The factor of enlargement

To find the factor of enlargement, you must measure the lengths of the line segments
in the figures above.
Measure the lengths of AP and AP1.
A1P
Now calculate the ratio   AP You must devide

EXERCISE 7.9
Determine the centre of enlargement, P:

Find the factor of enlargement by measurement.

TESSELLATIONS
Patterns tessellate if they fit together without leaving any gaps.

EXERCISE 7.10
Which of the following shapes will tessellate?

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