GENERAL EDUCATION: PHYSICAL SCIENCE Handout

Prepared by: Rowell B. Pantila, LPT

NATURE OF SCIENCE
Science
 A systematic body of knowledge.
 The system of acquiring knowledge through systematic experimentation an
methodology.
 The search for truth and knowledge.
DEFINING SCIENCE
Pure Science
• research that adds to the body of scientific knowledge
• has no practical use
Applied Science (Technology)
• the practical application of scientific knowledge
Three Main Branches of Science
Life Science
• the study of living organisms
Earth Science
• the study of Earth and space
Physical Science
• the study of matter and energy
• chemistry & physics
Life Science Areas of Study
Biology
• The study of life or living matter in all its forms
Anatomy
• The study of the structure of animals and plants
Botany
• The study of plants.
Ecology
• The study of relations and interactions between organisms and their
environment.
Zoology
• The science that covers animals and animal life.
Physical Science Areas of Study
Chemistry
• The science that deals with the composition, properties, reactions, and the
structure of matter.
Physics
• The study of matter and energy and the interactions between them.
Earth Science Areas of Study
Geology
• The study of the origin, history, and structure of the Earth, and the physical,
chemical, and biological changes that it has experienced or is experiencing.
 Meteorology
• The study of the atmosphere and its phenomena, such as weather and climate
Paleontology
• The study of the forms of life that existed in prehistoric or geologic periods.
Astronomy
• The study of the universe beyond the earth's atmosphere
Scientific Method
The Scientific Method involves a series of steps that are used to investigate a natural
occurrence.
Steps of the Scientific Method
1. Problem/Question:
 Develop a question or problem that can be solved through experimentation.
2. Observation/Research:
 Make observations and research your topic of interest.
3. Formulate a Hypothesis:
 Predict a possible answer to the problem or question.
HYPOTHESIS
 An educated guess about the relationship between the independent and dependent
variables.
If IV then DV.
Independent Variable
• the factor that is intentionally manipulated or changed in an experiment.
• Valid experiments have only one independent variable.
Dependent Variable
• the factor that may change as a result of changes made in the independent
variable.
• The dependent variable must be measurable.
4. Experiment:
Develop and follow a procedure.
The outcomes must be measurable (quantifiable).
5. Collect and Analyze Results:
Modify the procedure if needed.
Confirm the results by retesting.
Include tables, graphs, and photographs.
6. Conclusion:
Include a statement that accepts or rejects the hypothesis.
Make recommendations for further study and possible improvements to the procedure.
7. Communicate the Results:
Be prepared to present the project to an audience.
MEASUREMENT
• A scientific measurement requires:
(1) the definition of the physical quantity
(2) the units.
• The value of a physical quantity is actually the product of a number and a unit .
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
• An attribute or property of a substance that can be expressed in a mathematical
equation
 • Is made up of a value and a unit.
A unit of measurement refers to a particular physical quantity
TYPES OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
1. Fundamental Quantities
• quantities that do not depend on any other physical quantity for their
measurement
2. Derived Quantities
• products and/or ratios of fundamental quantities
FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES
Significant Figures
• Scientist use significant figures to determine how precise a measurement is
• Significant digits in a measurement include all of the known digits plus one estimated
digit
Rules for Significant figures
Rule #1
• All non zero digits are ALWAYS significant
• How many significant digits are in the following numbers?
Rule #2
• All zeros between significant digits are ALWAYS significant
• How many significant digits are in the following numbers?
Rule #3
• All FINAL zeros to the right of the decimal ARE significant
• How many significant digits are in the following numbers?
Rule #4
• All zeros that act as place holders are NOT significant
• Another way to say this is: zeros are only significant if they are between significant digits
OR are the very final thing at the end of a decimal
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
• Scientific notation is used to express very large or very small numbers
• It consists of a number between 1 & 10 followed by x 10 to an exponent
• The exponent can be determined by the number of decimal places you have to move to
get only 1 number in front of the decimal
Large Numbers
If the number you start with is greater than 1, the exponent will be positive
Small Numbers
If the number you start with is less than 1, the exponent will be negative

SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS
Ammeter
strength of an electric current
Anemometer
measure the speed, direction and pressure of the wind
Voltmeter
potential difference between two points
Barometer
atmospheric pressure and conditions
Callipers
diameters of wire, tube or rod
Calorimeter
quantities of Heat
Thermometer
temperature
Hydrometer
relative density of liquids
Hygrometer
moisture content or the humidity
Microscope
magnified view of very small objects
Clinometer
angles of slope, elevation, or depression of an object with respect to gravity's direction
Rain Gauge
Rainfall
Seismograph
intensity and origin of earthquakes shocks
Sextant
angular distance between two objects
Speedometer
speed of the vehicle
Phonograph
used for reproducing sound
Sphygmomanometer
Blood pressure
Stethoscope
hearing and analysing the sound of Heart

CHEMISTRY
Matter – Vocabulary
Chemistry
Science that describes matter – its properties, the changes it undergoes, and the energy
changes that accompany those processes
Matter
Anything that has mass and occupies space.
Fundamental Laws of Matter
There are three fundamental laws of matter
– Law of conservation of mass
– Law of constant/definite composition
– Law of multiple proportions
Anton Lavoisier
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed, it is transformed into something
else.
Joseph Prousz
LAW OF DEFINITE COMPOSITION
• A given compound always contains the same, fixed ratio of elements.
LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS
• Elements can combine in different ratios to form different compounds
Kinetic Molecular Theory
• Tiny, constantly moving particles make up all matter.
• The kinetic energy (motion) of these particles increases as temperature
increases.
Four States Of Matter
SOLIDS
• low KE - particles vibrate but can’t move around
• definite shape & volume
• crystalline - repeating geometric pattern
• amorphous - no pattern (e.g. glass, wax)
LIQUIDS
• higher KE - particles can move around but are still close together
• indefinite shape
• definite volume
GASES
• high KE - particles can separate and move throughout container
• indefinite shape & volume
PLASMA
• very high KE - particles collide with enough energy to break into charged
particles (+/-)
• gas-like, indefinite
shape & volume
• stars, fluorescent
light bulbs, TV tubes
PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Physical Properties
properties that can be measured or observed without changing the chemical nature of the
substance
~can be perceived by physical senses~
Intensive
It does not depend on the amount of the substance present.
Ex. COLOR DENSITY B.P./M.P.
Extensive
It depends on the amount of matter being measured.
Ex. Volume Mass
Chemical Properties
Properties that are only observable when the substance reacts with another substance thereby
causing a change in the chemical composition of the substance.

Changes of Matter
1. Physical
Changes in the physical properties of matter and takes place without changing the
chemical composition
2. Chemical
Changes in the chemical properties of matter
Chemical composition is altered producing a new substance
Ex. Iron Rusting, Wood Burning, Banana Rotting
3. Nuclear
Changes in the nuclear properties of matter
Changes in the atomic properties of an element
Ex. Fusion (combine) and Fission (divide)

CLASSIFYING MATTER

Pure substances
Pure type matter which cannot be separated physically
~homogenous~
Elements
• matter composed of identical atoms
• EX: copper
METALS
• Metals are lustrous (shiny), malleable, ductile, and are good conductors
of heat and electricity
• They are mostly solids at room temperature.
NON-METALS
• They are dull, brittle, nonconductors (insulators).
• Some are solid, but many are gases
• Bromine is a liquid
METALLOIDS
• Semimetals: They have characteristics of both metals and nonmetals
• They are shiny but brittle
• ~they are semiconductors~
Compound
 matter composed of 2 or more elements in a fixed ratio
 properties differ from those of individual elements
 EX: salt (NaCl)
Acids
• Ionize to form hydronium ions (H3O+) in water
HCl, H2SO4, H3PO4, HF
Bases
• Dissociate or ionize to form hydroxide ions (OH-) in water
NaOH, KOH
Indicator
substance that changes color in an acid or base
Examples:
• litmus - red/blue
• phenolphthalein - colorless/pink
•
Mixtures
Variable combination of 2 or more pure substances.
Homogeneous
 Uniform and the different components of the mixture cannot be seen
 Exhibits one phase
 Particles never settle
 ~Solutions~
 Heterogeneous
 Heterogeneous Mixture
 uneven distribution of components
 colloids and suspensions
 EX: granite
Colloid
• medium-sized particles
• particles never settle
• Tyndall effect - particles scatter light (looks cloudy)
EX: milk
Suspension
• large particles
• particles will settle
(needs to be shaken)
• particles scatter
light or can be opaque
Ex: antibiotics

HISTORY OF ATOM
Democritus (400 B.C.)
Proposed that matter was composed of tiny indivisible particles
Not based on experimental data
Greek: atomos
John Dalton (1807)
British Schoolteacher
• based his theory on others’ experimental data
Billiard Ball Model
• atom is a
uniform,
solid sphere
Henri Becquerel (1896)
Discovered radioactivity
• spontaneous emission of radiation from the nucleus
Three types:
• alpha () - positive
• beta () - negative
• gamma () - neutral
J. J. Thomson (1903)
Cathode Ray Tube Experiments
• beam of negative particles
Discovered Electrons
• negative particles within the atom
Plum-pudding Model
Plum-pudding Model
• positive sphere (pudding) with
negative electrons (plums) dispersed throughout
•
 Ernest Rutherford (1911)
• Gold Foil Experiment
Discovered the nucleus
• dense, positive charge in the center of the atom
Nuclear Model
Niels Bohr (1913)
Bright-Line Spectrum
• tried to explain presence of specific colors in hydrogen’s spectrum
Energy Levels
• electrons can only exist in specific energy states
Planetary Model
Erwin Schrödinger (1926)
Quantum mechanics
• electrons can only exist in specified energy states
Electron cloud model
• orbital: region around the nucleus where e- are likely to be found
James Chadwick (1932)
Discovered neutrons
• neutral particles in the nucleus of an atom
Joliot-Curie Experiments
• based his theory on their experimental evidence
Element Nomenclature
atomic number = #p+
mass number = #p+ + #n0
charge = #p+ - #e-
neutral atom: #p+ = #e-
The Periodic Table
Dmitri Mendeleev (1869, Russian)
Organized elements by increasing atomic mass.
Predicted the existence of undiscovered elements.
Henry Mosely (1913, British)
Organized elements by increasing atomic number.
Fixed problems in Mendeleev’s arrangement.
Chemical Bond
• Strong attractive force between atoms or ions in a molecule or compound.
• Formed by:
• transferring e- (losing or gaining)
• sharing e-
• Octet Rule
• most atoms form bonds in order to have 8 valence e-
• full outer energy level
• like the Noble Gases!
Chemical Reactions
Represented by chemical equations:
Reactants → Products
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
Reactants: starting materials
 Products: new compounds formed
Balancing Chemical Reactions
Law of Conservation of Mass:
• The law of conservation of mass states that no atoms can be created or destroyed in a
chemical reaction,
• So the number of atoms that are present in the reactants has to balance the number of
atoms that are present in the products.
Traditional method:
1. Write down your given equation
2. Write down the number of atoms per element
3. Save hydrogen and oxygen for last, as they are often on both sides.
4. Start with single elements.
5. Use a coefficient to balance the single atoms.
6. Balance the hydrogen atoms next.
7. Balance the oxygen atoms.