[DOCUMENT TITLE]

BELLS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, OTA

ARC. 204: HISTORY AND THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE II

COURSE OUTLINE

The times in architecture: Medieval-emergence, age, architects of the period, ideas and

philosophies, Romanesque, Gothic, inventions and structures; Renaissance-

emergence, age, architects of the period, ideas and philosophies, inventions and

structures; Baroque and Rococo -emergence, age, architects of the period, ideas,

philosophies, inventions and structures; Post Industrial-emergence, age, architects of

the period, ideas and philosophies, art noveaux, art and craft, international movement,

eclecticism, industrial movement, inventions and structures. Exposure to video

documentary discussing time in architecture.

Introduction

This section provides an overview of the history of architecture in Western

Civilization. It includes an outline of architecture covering the major periods of

development. The section provides opportunities for discussion relative to the

influence of society and context on architectural design.

The history of architecture is a study of expression through the use of created spaces.

Architectural history illustrates our attempts to achieve beautiful, functional and

meaningful solutions in spatial organization in order to satisfy the needs of the time

and local culture. The study of architectural history relates to the study of people. It is

a study of the needs, the knowledge base and the goals of each period in civilization.
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Architecture reflects the conditions of the age from which it springs. Architecture is

the product of all sorts of factors, social, political, economic, scientific, technical and

religious beliefs. The language of architecture is permeated with a culture's sense of

what they should do, where to do it, when it should be done, how important it is, and

how these actions relate to the rest of the community, the material world and the

supernatural world. Architecture communicates to the community the meaning of their

actions as well as how their actions relate to the human, material, and spiritual worlds.

The definition of an architectural language means that architecture can be "read". A

person may discover how a culture organizes itself socially, materially and

metaphysically. Architecture is like a book that a culture "writes" for its members.

Architecture is also about understanding a world view. Whenever a member of a

culture looks at a work of architecture in his/her realm, its meaning can be understood

through the “reading” of the building. This meaning governs their actions and

understanding of the world around them

The study of history plays a role in education. The way we act and the things we do

depend to a great extent on our past experience. Our social make-up is a combination

of experience and background. One of the functions of history is to help us to live in a

larger sense. History provides a wider dimension of knowledge in conjunction with our

past.

In Europe during the early times through medieval periods, buildings were not

attributed to specific individual architects. The designer was almost anonymous in

these cases. Guilds were eventually formed by craftsmen to organize their trade.

Architectural styles developed and texts on architecture began to be written. These

texts became canons to be followed during the design of important works, especially

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religious architecture. Some examples of early history canons are the works of

Vitruvius (Rome) and Vaastu Shastra (India).

The Roman writer Vitruvius created the first architectural treatise for Western

Architecture known as the “Ten Books on Architecture”. He defined three essential

components for a building to be deemed as Architecture: firmness, commodity and

delight. Architecture was to be: • Structural (Firmness): Realistically, a building is

dangerous without adequate structure. • Practical (Commodity): A building would be

regarded as nothing more than large scale sculpture without practicality. • Visual Art

(Delight): A building would be perceived as basic utilitarian construction without

beauty. It is through possession and balance of these three items that a building would

be perceived as an architectural statement according to Vitruvius.

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SUMMARY OF ARCHITECTURAL PERIODS:

Period Name Time Frame Summary Comments
Ancient World Prehistory • Megalithic Builders

• Religious monuments

• Circular orientation related to natural elements

Egyptian 3000 – 672 • Megalithic Builders
BC
• Religious monuments for the dead and gods

• Context of desert and cliffs

• Built for external viewing and impressions.

• Mathematical proportions
Greek 1100 – 146
BC

• Last of the Megalithic Builders

• Religious monuments the gods

• Built for external viewing, access on all sides

• Clear order of arrangement and proportions

• Development of column orders (capitals, proportions and cornice lines)

• Mathematical precision and structured design

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Roman 509BC – 70 • Development of concrete and structural arch

AD
• Religious monuments the emperors and heroes

• Built for interior spaces, external viewing and access controlled

for structured perception
• Theatrical use of natural lighting

• Mathematical precision in design.

Early Christian 4th– 6th cent • Carried forward with Roman forms
AD
• Simple, unadorned buildings

• Interior spaces well developed

• Structure exposed on interior, keeping exterior plain

Byzantine 4th–10th cent • Radial, symmetrical plan/section development
AD
• Highly decorative buildings

• Interior spaces heavily developed and articulated

• Structural advancement in development of dome system

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Romanesque 1000 to 1200

AD

• Roman styles reinvented with new vertical expansion

• Structure partially exposed on exterior

• Development of rib vaulting for added ceiling heights

• False frontages used to provide alternative shapes to the building, other than
what the section would show

• Use of Roman design philosophy with exaggerations used for stylistic

changes to suit the new buildings

• Like Roman but mainly a poor copy since skills had been lost during the time
in between style development

Gothic 1150 – 1500 • Romanesque style taken to extremes

AD
• Interior spaces dramatically lit with natural light to affect the
participants

• Wall surfaces thinned with extensive glazing added

• Additional structural effects added to support thinner wall

systems (buttresses)
• Tracery developed to provide articulation to wall and ceiling
systems

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Renaissance 1420 – 1600

AD

• A return to Greek/Roman design philosophy

• Design based on proportions of man

• Mathematical precision brought back for entire building

• Breakthroughs in structural engineering for domes

• Formality in design and art carried forth in buildings

• Classical detailing

Baroque 1600-1750 • The Renaissance exaggerated

AD
• Design leading to a world view, planetary path inclusion

• Time re-enters the design philosophy as an element of travel

and layout, previously seen in Egypt
• Detailing more dramatic with extensions in Renaissance
proportions.

• Sculptural elements included in building design

• Less mathematical rigidity than Renaissance

Rococo 1650-1750 • The Baroque period exaggerated in a sub-style
Mannerism AD
• Rococo presents the extreme in detailing, over the top
Georgian
sculptural elements

• Mannerism creates a mix and mingle of styles according to

"whim" of designer, using Renaissance principles extracted to
suit the new "look"

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• Georgian more restrained with sculptural elements buts not to

the extreme of other sub-styles
• Mathematical rigidity almost lost

The Eighteenth 1760-1860 • Neoclassicism provides a return to Roman styling and

Century AD
proportions
• Neoclassicism
• Romanticism was revival of architectural historical styles,
• Romanticism allowing for development through integration of alternative
• Eclecticism details
• Eclecticism derived from Romanticism borrowing ideas from
different architectural styles to suit the current need. This style
copied “beauty” to reinvent the forms
• Industrial Revolution provides new materials to construct the
old forms

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BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE
A. Influencing conditions of time and place:
1 . Place :
a) location: Byzantium, Constantinople
b) geography: centre of trade routes
c) materials: bricks, concrete, imported limestone and marble
d) climate: warm, sunny
2 . Time :
a) dates: 4 th – 10th centuries AD
b) concurrent events: 323 AD – Constantine changes capital of Roman
Empire from Rome to Byzantium (Constantinople)
325 Council of Nicea
375 Huns invade Europe
800 Charlemagne proclaimed Emperor by Pope
1453 Constantinople captured by Turks
c) social conditions: social change, upheaval, turbulent decline of
Roman Empire accompanied by barbaric invasions, Flourishing
trade, Feudalistic despotism
d) religious conditions:
Monotheistic Christianity,
Split between East and West,
Church gradually became more political and wealthier.
B. Needs : fireproof buildings, monumental central space

C. Forms:
Dome and vault, strong central space
Dome on square support by means of pendentives (an advance in structure)
Most outstanding example: Hagia Sophia (532 – 537)

D. Expression:

• Lavish, rich, ornamental decoration on interiors

• Marble and mosaics in intricate geometric patterns

• Appeal to the emotions and the senses

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Byzantine architecture is the next step in design advancement following Early Christian
architecture.

Early Christian architecture is noted to be plain, undecorated and flat relative to the wall
surfaces. This architecture reflected the early non-materialistic values of religion. A life of
servitude, poverty and non-material wealth was what the church promoted. This philosophy is in
direct contrast to the ideals previously seen in Egyptian architecture where glory of a man came
after death, being entombed with worldly goods for the afterlife. New Christian beliefs spread
throughout the Empire espousing the non-materialistic approach.

Byzantine architecture grew out of this early belief system as the religion matured and
gained spiritual and political strength. The Byzantine style grew from the stark, severe aesthetic of
Early Christian architecture. The Byzantine style was intended to serve the liturgy, providing an
experience of the mass and emotional experience for the persons within the church.

It is for the enhanced experience of the liturgy that a symbolic architectural expression of
religious ideals was developed. The building became more than a shelter for worship. It became
an expression of the significance of the new religious faith. The designs for Byzantine churches
created dazzling visions of the symbols related to the sacred themes of the church.

Hagia Sophia Plan (532 a.d.)

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It is through the use of ornamentation of both the building structure and

form that the basic building form evolved. Interior decoration and ornamentation
were combined with fundamental design techniques developed for Early
Christian churches.

The geometric planning of Byzantine architecture was typically based on

the dimensions of a cube – height, width, and depth were all of equal dimensions
to provide a clear, definitive space. This planning method produced a square
central core of the building. The core design provided additional design
challenges related to the structural systems required to dome the area.

A new structural system was created for this type of design which involved
the use of pendentive dome structures. This method produced the structural
ability to support a round dome on the square corners of the rotunda below. The
use of pendentives is considered an advance in structural design, used to solve a
difficult problem.

Byzantine Dome on Pendentives

The Byzantine style of design and construction is isolated within the

Byzantine and Constantinople regions. This style is primarily an Eastern empire
development, though its influence relative to ornamentation was widely felt within
the Western empire design philosophy.

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The prime example of this style is the Hagia Sophia located in

Constantinople. In this structure, no visible surface is left in a natural state.
Decoration, art and sculpture are located everywhere.

Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (532 a.d.)

The social and political conditions during this period had dramatic affects
on the church, both physically and organizationally.

The Church was growing in power and influence since its proclamation as
the religion for the Empire. The Church leaders became more powerful as the
bank accounts of the papacy swelled. It is important to remember that salvation
for the common people came through the act of giving financially to the Church.
The clergy were revered by common folk as spiritual and community leaders,
thus providing the clergy with immense power over parishioners through their
influence as the voice of God.

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The strength of the Roman Empire was declining as the Christian Church
grew in power. Social change, barbaric invasions and a decaying rule of the
Emperor led to the fall of Constantinople to the Turkish forces in 1453. Rome
also fell to the marauding invaders. The constituencies previously governed by
the empire were left to either establish their own governing bodies or fall prey to
marauders sweeping Europe. Feudalistic empires were created by those with
the force to rule.

Hagia Sophia Interior

The power of these individual smaller monarchies paled in comparison to

the power of the Church. The Church still held power over people from the
previous Roman Empire. The governmental organization of the Church
remained in place, facilitating a continuation of its own spiritual rule.

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ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE
A. Influencing conditions of time and place:
1 . Place :
a) location: Western Europe, especially Italy, France, England,
Germany
b) geography: trade routes, regional influences
c) materials: local materials, stone, brick, old columns
d) climate: regional differences such as:
North: dull, cold, more snow and rain
South: brighter, warm, no snow
2 . Time :
a) dates: 1000 to 1200 AD
b) concurrent events: 1096 to 1270 Crusades
c) social conditions: feudal system, growth of villages
d) religious conditions: monastic system, religious pilgrimages

B. Needs : Castles and fortifications, Churches: fireproofing, several altars

C. Forms:
Castles concerned with fortification rather than aesthetics
Monasteries were often several buildings grouped around cloisters
Churches derived from early Christian basilicas
Vaulted stone ceilings with ribbed intersections and clustered columns
Round arch and round vault, square bays
Bell towers developed near entrance
Horizontality, alternating big and small columns, basic stonework

D. Expression: Regional Differences predominate

• North: more massive rugged masonry and decoration, more vigorous

• South – more classical and geometric decoration, more quiet and refined

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Romanesque architecture was developed during the time of Medieval

Europe. This period was one of knights and ladies, kings and castles, monks and
cloisters and the Holy Crusades.

European civilization was in a state of confusion. The decline of the

Roman Empire combined with the struggle for power between monarchies left
society in a state of flux. The end of the Roman political and social institutions
was followed by decay of the classical way of life. There was little construction
undertaken during the 5th to 7th Century periods (500-700 A.D.).

The Christian church survived this period, managing to provide a sense of

continuity, stability and culture for the citizens. It was due to intervention of the
Christian church in 800 A.D. that a new leader was chosen. On Christmas Day,
800 A.D., Pope Leo II crowned Charlemagne as the Holy Roman Emperor. He
became the first head of an empire that would survive the next 1000 years.
Napoleon dissolved the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.

Baptistery, Florence Cathedral (1066 a.d.)

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Charlemagne ruled over territory that included Germany, Italy,

Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, France, and the smaller
intermediary countries. He led the revival efforts for the new cultural evolution by
engaging scholars and artists throughout Europe to provide a new direction.

The new buildings undertaken at the outset evoked the original Roman
efforts by copying the detailing and design. There was however a loss sustained
in building design. The Roman buildings had remained relatively intact, available
for use as examples or sometimes even for materials, however the talent of
skilled trades had been lost during the dark years of war and turmoil. The new
artisans could attempt copies of the originals, but the copy never surpassed the
original quality.

Mont St. Michel Cathedral, Normandy, France (1023 a.d.)

Charlemagne died early into his reign in 814 A.D. He had accomplished
much prior to ascending to the throne but never had the opportunity to see his
efforts truly realized. It would be another two hundred years after his death
before monumental building would begin in earnest.

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Building began after 1000 A.D. with a new style and philosophy that had
derived from the earlier abstractions on Roman planning. The new architecture
held true to the Roman ideology of construction using column/wall combinations
and the versatile arch. The new style however, presented variations in
abstraction, fragmentation and the volumes enclosed.

The new design philosophy took the Roman ideals to the extreme and
sometimes beyond. Cloister designs for abbeys (centers of the monks) and
planning for worship areas shows a block geometry being followed.

The groupings of buildings and enclaves brought forth building shapes of

rectangles, cubes, cones, and cylinders for the various parts. These block
shapes were adorned in a new fashion, similar to the Byzantine style yet not
quite as dramatic.

Pisa Cathedral, Italy (1063 a.d.)

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The exterior structure of the building was partially exposed, a reverse trend from what had
happened during the Early Christian architectural period. The interior scale remained relatively
simple in decoration but the volume (heightto-width ratio) had now increased beyond Roman
proportions. Early Christian architecture was based on the Roman basilica and carried through the
Roman philosophy of proportion. Romanesque architecture challenged these proportions.

The height and massing (visual weight) of the structures increased dramatically, lifting the
interiors to new levels. The use of colonnades in the planning of the new structures allowed for
variations in the width of the central aisle. Colonnades aided in narrowing the central aisles,
though the planning included additional side aisles on both sides of the church. The side aisles
increased the overall width of the plan, therefore lifting the overall sloped roof height. A higher
roof level over a narrower central aisle created a large narrow volume of space for the individual
person to perceive.

The five aisles included the centre aisle (main traffic lane), two main side aisles for public seating
or gathering and two outer aisles. These outer aisles were termed the ‘ambulatory’, meaning that
they were to be used for circulation and display of artifacts.

A higher central aisle caused a corresponding change in the location of the light source. Many
churches were only dimly lit by candles, thus relying on daylight to illuminate the interior space.

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This style of architecture provided very little in the way of windows or

glazing. This fact, combined with the reality that the limited glazing installed was
excessively high, meant that far less light traveled down to the floor area. This
situation contributed to a mysterious, almost ghost-like feeling to the interiors,
playing on the emotions of the participants.

Speyer Cathedral, Germany (1030 a.d.)

Regional styles were developed using the basic interpretation of

Romanesque design principles. Due to the fact that a central ruling authority such
as the Roman Empire no longer existed, regional styles varied greatly. This
design methodology allowed a lot of interpretation and abstraction depending on
the specific conditions of the individual building. The opportunity to absorb a
style, yet develop regional guidelines to its interpretation, signaled the beginning
of specific regional architecture.

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Examples of regional styles are found throughout Europe, including:

• Pisa Cathedral (1063) and Bell Tower (1173), Italy (known as the
Leaning Tower of Pisa)

• Tower of London, England (1078)

• Speyer Cathedral, Germany (1030)
• The Cathedral of Florence Baptistery (1066)

The Pisa Cathedral and Speyer Cathedral are examples of buildings that
followed the basilica planning methods, with increased proportions in their
vertical form.

Interior, Speyer Cathedral

Structural advancements were made during this period. The problem of

fire-proofing the buildings remained quite serious. It was not uncommon for fire
to destroy the wooden roof structure of a church while the stone walls remained
standing.

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GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

C. Forms:
Romanesque cathedral plan remained
Ribbed vaults, developing into fan vaulting
Pointed arch, rectangular bays
Flying buttresses
Slender masonry supports, stone cage skeleton

Figure 49: Ribbed Vault, St. Etienne Cathedral, France (1125 a.d.)

D. Expression:

• Great verticality, dramatic structure, lacy, intricate forms

• beautiful stained glass, doorways richly ornamented with sculpture

• French Gothic is more vertical, lacy; unified plan, west towers

• English Gothic is more quiet, square; cross-shaped plan, central spire

• Late English Gothic developed more decorative, elaborate fan vaulting

• Italian Gothic is more static, smaller openings, more horizontal

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Gothic architecture produced a radical change from the architecture of the

Romanesque period. The Romanesque period pushed the limits of scale and
massing but left the actual decoration of the interior space to a minimum. Gothic
architecture spun this philosophy around to the point where there is almost no
wall surface or structure system left untouched.

The Gothic system of design is accredited to France where it is most

recognized. Notre Dame is the epitome of Gothic architecture in Paris. The
actual origins of the phase stemmed from Normandy, England.

Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris (1163 a.d.)

The period of Gothic architecture is marked by great social change.

These changes contributed to the ideals of Gothic architecture by creating
additional reverence for the presence of God within everyone’s lives.

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Marco Polo’s travels opened up a brand new world of contrasting cultures to those known in
western civilization. The influence of this information on a peasant mentality cannot be fully
analyzed. It may be said that a larger world, contrasting cultures and a different set of beliefs in
religion and philosophy would cause the average person to seek his own security and purpose in
the world.

There was a decline in the feudal system of governance, providing more freedom to generations
of families. This freedom marked a dramatic change from earlier Roman and even feudal rule.
Even though a peasant may be considered free in a legal sense, they will still seek comfort and
security on a spiritual scale. It should be noted that the majority of citizens remained unschooled;
ignorant in terms of basic skills related to reading and writing. Paganism had been reduced to
superstition during the time of Early Christian architecture. Superstition however did not
disappear, living on through spoken word.

Other events occurred during this period which further brought citizens closer to the church. The
100-Year war broke out between France and England. This conflict, as does all war, brought the
potential aspect of death home to every family. Death may have been honourable in the Roman
society; death in these times meant the possibility of an afterlife or perhaps the unpleasant
alternative. Piety and servitude were required by the Church in order to better one’s opportunity
for entrance into the Kingdom of God.

Chartes Cathedral, France (1194 a.d.)

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The Black Death, plague of the Middle Ages, broke out in 1348. This catastrophe took the lives
of thousands in many painful, unpleasant ways. The cause of it was not understood by many at
the time, relative to their knowledge base which was quite limited. The methods of preventing the
spread of disease were also unknown and so the scourge prevailed. The Church in this case was
the best likely source of protection they could believe in. The Church had survived through
hundreds of years including battles, varied crisis actions and challenges. It was thought to be
invincible; therefore those who participated in the rites of the faith may receive protection.

Positive aspects during this period included:

• Continued growth of urban and semi-urban populations. Increased numbers of
people were gathering in concentration, thus a more accessible audience could be had
for worship services and contributions.
• Trade, commerce and travel were all on the rise. Trading markets (cities and towns)
were growing, requiring additional resources. This additional trade spurred the levels
of commerce in a positive growth circle; each citizen contributing to the growth of the
other. Travel was increased as the populations became centralized, allowing for
accessing goods and services on the way to alternate locations.

• Civic pride grew as residents took responsibility for their chosen town or birthplace.
The effect of these influences is seen in the way a city could be regarded almost as an
independent state in much the same way early Greece operated. Civic administration
had wide-ranging authority and control with all citizens participating. The best example
of this is seen in Florence where construction on the Cathedral of Florence was begun
under the pretense of raising a structure so beautiful that no man would ever succeed
in surpassing its glory. The funds for this effort came from all sources, including a
civic tax applied to the reading of the wills and testaments of the deceased. Citizens of
Florence were taxed even in death to pay for the intended cathedral.
The Cathedral of Florence stands out as a superior achievement of the Italian Gothic
period. Whether or not its beauty was ever surpassed remains a personal question for
every observer.

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S. Maria del Fiore Cathedral, Florence (1296-1436)

Each of the social conditions noted relate to the spiritual needs of the population. Religious
participation reached a high in its intensity, enthusiasm, and emotion. The publication of the
Gutenberg Bible in 1456 allowed for the wide-range distribution of a previously-regarded sacred
text.

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The printed word spread throughout nations far and wide, bringing the
word of God directly to the mass population. This spread added fuel to the
religious fire which was already raging. There was a clear devotion to the Church
carried forth on unquestioned faith. Mankind was truly insignificant when
contrasted to the greater reality of God and spirituality.

Notre Dame Interior, Paris

Cathedrals occupied the centre of focus within towns, serving as focal

points, gathering places and safe houses in the times of crisis.

A secondary shift in social activities occurred during this period. The rise
of craftsmen guilds was facilitated as common tradespersons created a new level
of organization. The concentration of increased numbers of skilled trades within
urban settlements allowed for the trades to bond under a united organization,
thus the creation of the guilds.

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There had been a loss of skilled trade during the Romanesque period; a
loss of the skills attributed to the Roman technology. The formation of new guilds
for each trade (masons, carpenters, sculptors and artists) allowed for trading of
information and training in the specific skill. The positive affect of this
development is found through the exquisite detailing and structural
advancements made in construction during this period.

The formation of guilds also contributed to the design and construction of

new meeting places for the members and the public. Construction on new
market areas, guild houses and town halls saw a marked increase during this
period.

Gothic traditions through the implementation of the guild methodology

affected the architectural profession immensely. This period saw the actual
creation of workshops for architects. These workshops were the first of their kind
where those thought gifted in the art of architecture could be clearly identified and
trained by the elders of the guild. The guilds sought to promote and enhance
their talents, theoretically being the first opportunity for schooling in architecture.

Strasbourg Cathedral, Germany (1277 a.d.))

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It is through the creation of guilds that specialization among the construction industry was
begun. No longer was the lead mason or patron of a structure responsible for the final product.
This responsibility was turned over to those trained in achieving the artistic vision and structural
integrity of a building. The Gothic architect carried many roles relative to each commission,
including design authority, structural engineer, and lead builder as well as contributing artist.

The designs of the new structures took a radical turn during this period of architecture. The
structures of the previous Romanesque period were thought to be overbuilt relative to the wall
thickness and weight of the building. Solutions were sought to reduce wall thickness and weight
in order to speed production as well as create a new effect of lightness and verticality. Every aspect
of the building was considered relative to the whole in the effort to achieve a unified coherent
result. There were no false fronts involved at this time, as were present during the Romanesque
period.

The basic principles of Gothic architecture were derived from the logic of Roman designs.
A building must achieve success relative to its structural integrity, its visual impact and its
symbolic meaning.

(1) Structural Integrity

The Gothic designs carried forward on the premise that the structure of a building must
be seen exposed for participants to visually feel the bones of the building. Gothic
architecture slimmed down the thickness of the wall systems found in Romanesque. This
slimming was made possible by emphasizing the skeleton structure on both the interior and
exterior of the building.

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The walls were substantially thinned almost to the point of structural

failure due to their height. It is true that many attempts to achieve a
“weightless” wall system met with failure as the wall fell to the ground
during construction.

The solution to a thinner wall came in the form of bracing on the

exterior. These knee-braces, known as buttresses or flying buttresses,
were used to butt the main wall structure and brace it against the forces
generated by the wall and roof system.

Buttress Section, Amiens Cathedral (1220 a.d.)

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Buttresses were primarily used for a structural purpose. They were

integrated into the overall aesthetic through sculptural detailing and
ornament in keeping with the main body of the church. In this way, they
also contributed to the visual appeal of the Church.

Buttresses also allowed the opportunity for an increase in the

number of windows contained within the wall system. Since the structural
loads were being reinforced and redirected outward, the wall could be
opened up to allow more light to the interior spaces.

Buttress Detail, Lyon Cathedral

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The structural advancements made during this period included variations on the original
semi-circular Roman arch. The Romanesque period had developed the method of rib vaults
to handle transitions in the roof system. Gothic design took the rib vault concept and
stretched it vertically to form ridge points, evidenced in the vaults and roof structures.

Groin vaults were used at changes in directions of the roof system. The crossing of the
ribs was used to accentuate the floor area below, being a sacred or special location within
the Church.

The use of rib vaulting, springing almost vertically from the walls, created the illusion that
the roof system floated over the upper (clerestory) windows. This structural method
contributed to the feeling of weightlessness within the interior. The rib vaults also aided in
redistribution of the structural load due to the large number of them included.

(2) Visual Impact

The visual impact of the new cathedrals was both breathtaking and humbling. Parishioners
were able to feel that they were a part of a worldly congregation, participating in a soaring,
spiritually uplifting place of worship. The use of the exposed structural forms, a web of
columns, vault, ribs, and buttresses, was meant to enclose an overall space that soared to
the heavens.

The scale of the buildings exceeded the limitations of the

Romanesque period, lifting the roof structure to new heights, changing the vertical
proportion of height to width within the building.

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Milan Cathedral (1387 a.d.)

Whereas Romanesque churches were felt to be dim and mysterious
due to their minimal windows set far above the congregation, Gothic
churches were the exact opposite.

The structural system allowed for a greater number of windows,

both large and small. Gothic architecture took advantage of this
opportunity. Gothic churches achieved unsurpassed visual effects in
lighting, using the same consideration as the Romans; the use of glazing
and light sources for drama.

Extensive glazing was used over the entire wall area. The scale
and height of the building was emphasized by the huge windows.
Monumental designs in stained glass, window shape and placement, and
the focus of light within the interior contributed to the visual impact of the
church. The use of "tracery" was developed during this period.

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“Tracery” was the term given to the process of thinning down the exterior
walls and exposing the structural elements on both the exterior and
interior. This method developed through applications in England where
tracery was employed as exaggerated ribs and vault lines. This effect
furthered the weightlessness feeling, lifting the overall visual appeal of the
interiors.

Interior Wall Heights of Cathedrals

1: Noyon
2: Laon
3: Paris
4: Chartes
5: Reims
6: Amiens

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The use of sculpture and sculptural elements applied to the buildings was another concept
explored during this period. The exteriors of the buildings were finished with elaborate
sculptures on almost every available surface. If it didn’t have a window, it likely had
something carved.

Sculpture served a dual purpose in many cases. It could be intended as decorative or

spiritual (gargoyles incorporated to frighten away evil spirits of Satan) while at the same
time hold a functional purpose (the same gargoyles were the drainage points for the roof
system).

Structure contributed to the visual appeal in the manner that it too was carried out to
replicate common worldly elements. This situation is seen in the bases of columns carved
to mimic tree roots, securing the structure firmly to the earth. Column capitals were
intricately carved in Corinthian or Ionic forms, derived from the Greeks and interpreted for
the new symbolism of the period.

(3) Symbolic Meaning

The symbolic meaning for the new churches was found through the combination of the structural
impact and visual appeal. It was important to identify the cathedral as an image of Heavenly
Jerusalem within the House of God. The building had to achieve a sense of transcendence
above earthly limitations, soaring to the heavens in order to create the spirit of a ‘higher
being’ within the parishioners.

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It should be remembered that religious fervor was high during this

period due to social changes noted at the start of this section. Persons
seeking salvation had to feel that they had arrived at a place unlike
anything they would experience elsewhere in the city. This feeling would
facilitate and reinforce their beliefs, continuing on the tradition of worship.

Gloucester Cathedral, England (1337 a.d.)

These affects and intentions relative to the design of churches also

facilitated the elevation of clergy and the Church within the social system.
The Church was revered and feared more than ever for the power it held
over the common man. It was the most powerful political entity of its time.

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RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE (ITALY)

A. Influencing conditions of time and place:
1 . Place :
a) location: Italy (Florence and Rome)
b) geography: City-states of Italy which held prestige and power
c) materials: marble and travertine, ruins of old Roman buildings
d) climate: bright, sunny Mediterranean climate, high sun angle
2 . Time :
a) dates: 1420 - 1600
b) concurrent events: 1456: Publication of Gutenberg Bible
1492: Columbus discovers America
1519: Magellan circumnavigates the globe
c) social conditions: Man begins to make his own decisions again
Humanism – interest in worldly things
Skepticism – questioning and doubting realities
Classical Re-interest – Roman antiquity
Proud independent city-states
Individual clients; self-expression
d) religious conditions:
Questioning of Church authority, more worldly church glory to
man, not God

B. Needs : Impressive houses for new wealthy class, palaces, churches

C. Forms:
Church took on two forms: basilica form and vaulted form
Dome with lantern became important
Villa was classical, formal, symmetrical, well-proportioned
Landscape was formal, symmetrical, related to architecture
D. Expression:

• Self-expression, based on re-interest in classical antiquity

• Preoccupation with surface, façade, proportion, vision

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E. Architects and Buildings:

1 . Brunelleschi:
Foundling Hospital, Florence 1419
Dome of Florence Cathedral 1420
Palazzo Chapel, Florence 1420
San Lorenzo Church, Florence 1425
San Spirito Church, Florence 1440
Pitti Palace, Florence 1435

2 . Alberti:
Rucellai Palace, Florence 1451
Sante Maria Novella, Florence 1456-1470
San Andrea, Mantua 1470
De Re Aedificatoria published 1485

3 . Bramante:
Tempietto of San Pietro, Rome 1502
Plans for St. Peter’s Cathedral, Rome 1506

4 . Michelangelo:
Medici Chapel, Florence 1521
Laurentian Library, Florence 1526
The Capital, Rome 1540
St. Peter’s Cathedral, Rome 1546

5 . Palladio:
Basilica, Vicenza (Venice) 1549
Villa Capra, Vicenza 1550

6 . Vignola:
“Rule of the Five Orders” 1562
IL Gesu Church, Rome 1568

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RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE (FRANCE)

A. Influencing conditions of time and place:
1 . Place :
a) location: Paris and Loire Valley
b) geography: Unified kingdom after 1500
c) materials: stone
d) climate: cool, dull light, northern climate
2 . Time :
a) dates: 1500 - 1560
b) concurrent events: 1453: End of Hundred Year’s war
1517-1555 Reformation, begins in Germany
1545-1563 Counter Reformation
1535 Cartier discovers St. Lawrence River
c) Social conditions: Unified royal centralized government
Military expeditions into Italy brought contact with
Italian Renaissance
After 1559, civil and religious war in France
d) religious conditions: Few new churches built after Gothic period
From 1558 to end of century, France was involved with religious
wars between Catholics and Protestants

B. Needs : Fashionable mansions and chateaux for newly enlightened nobles to

emulate the Italian merchants and bankers

C. Forms:
Gothic castle tradition preserved in the towers, dormers, large windows, high
roofs, enormous chimneys and masonry construction of the.
Symmetry, horizontality, round archways and classical decoration applied as
Italian craftsmen adapted to the French clients.

D. Expression:

• Italian renaissance ideas manifested themselves in the French tradition

after 1515 when the King brought Italian craftsmen to France to work on
the new chateaux along the Loire Valley.

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E. Architects and Buildings:

1 . Loire School of Fontainebleau:
Chateau of Blois 1515-1525
Chateau of Chambord 1519-1547
Chateau of Fontainebleau 1528-1537
Chateau of Chenonceaux 1556

2 . Pierre Lescot:
Palace of the Louvre 1546-1559

The Louvre (Seine River Elevation)

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RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE (ENGLAND)

A. Influencing conditions of time and place:
1 . Place :
a) location: London and immediate area
b) Geography: isolation by the sea, maritime contact with European
continent
c) materials: stone, brick, timber
d) climate: temperate, humid, dull
2 . Time :
a) dates: 1550-1642
b) concurrent events: 1558-1603 Reign of Elizabeth I
1588: Defeat of Spanish Armada
1603: Shakespeare publishes “Hamlet”
1611: English Bible published
1642: Civil war begins in England
c) social conditions: Increased freedom and travel
Expanding commerce and trade
New class of wealthy merchants and middle class
Renaissance ideas and way of life become
fashionable
d) religious conditions: Henry VIII became head of Church (1534)
Elizabeth I enacts 39 Articles of Faith (1563)
B. Needs :
Stately mansions for new gentry class of wealthy merchants who wanted to
express their Renaissance style of living
C. Forms:
Symmetrical forms, rectangular mansions, with large rectangular windows
D. Expression:

• Regularity, formality, horizontality, classical decoration

• Formal, symmetrical gardens

E. Architects and Buildings:
1 . Indigo Jones:
Queen’s Banqueting House, London 1619-1621
Queen’s House, Greenwich 1618-1635

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RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE

Renaissance architecture symbolized a change in both social philosophy and

architecture. The previous period of Gothic architecture responded greatly to fears of
the known and unknown world. These fears eventually passed, leading to a new age of
thought and reason.

Many divergent streams of thought began during the Renaissance period. The
history of the time has typically been broken out into the differing paths of Italy, France,
and England. There remain many similarities which will be explored in this section.

Wars had ended (Hundred-Year War between France and England), the plague was
defeated and new commerce and trade flourished throughout Europe. This period was
one of growth and expansion relative to commercial enterprise.

The publication of the Gutenberg Bible spread the word of God during this period,
though not without some controversy between theologians and the Church. The Church
had become highly politicized thus it was being seen as more of a governmental
institution than a religious organization.

St. Peters, Rome (1506 a.d.)

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The wealth generated by expansion of trade and commerce grew. This growth in
wealth created a whole new class of citizens; those who could afford the extremes in art,
building, clothing and self-promotion. These citizens now desired expansive homes and
gardens, artwork to glorify and promote their positions, and demonstrate their power of
wealth. These citizens, previously timid, were now bold.

Socially, the new health and overall civic wealth of the nations allowed for a turn in
philosophy. Citizens were able to question the nature of politics and reason rather than
being solely concerned for survival. A new skepticism arose that questioned the rule of
nations as well as the power of the Church. Mankind was feeling strong – this feeling
was reflected in the ideas of Humanism. Humanism is a philosophy that puts mankind at
the centre of his own enquiry, whereas it had previously been God.

Palazzo Medici, Florence (1444 a.d.)

Mankind began learning from themselves, rather than taking Gospel as the sole
direction of life. This attitude fostered the creation of proud, independent city-states that
grew in wealth and power. Humanism led individual patrons to seek new methods of
self-expression through art, patronage, and architecture.

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An interest in historic values accompanied the reviewed interest in mankind. Scholars, artists and
patrons looked for guidance on rational design. As was noted during the Gothic period, design was
a sense of proportion or abstraction of volume. Artisans of this period sought a new way to
ascertain design philosophy with reason. Their solution was to look back hundreds of years, to the
time of the Roman Empire and the architecture of that period.

The Renaissance period saw the rediscovery of Vitruvius, the Roman writer who penned “Ten
Books on Architecture”. Vitruvius’ writings were relative to design of many items from
architectural buildings to military warfare devices. His book spoke of clear proportions, rational
planning and meaning applied to each component of a building.
This book promoted the essence of proportion to be based on the size of a man.

Humanist proportions were derived strictly from the proportions of mankind. The book detailed
the mathematics required to fully plan and execute construction of many public building types –
town halls, cathedrals, homes and public stadiums. This book was treated as the designer’s
"handbook" for the current time.

Artists of the Renaissance went through a new kind of training; being skilled in all possible arts
as opposed to only one. This breed of artist was the type of person we now refer to as a
“Renaissance Man”. A Renaissance man may be termed “Jack-of-alltrades” to define a person
who is highly skilled in many arts.

Baptistery Doors, Duomo Florence (1410)

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The skills of Renaissance architects covered areas of sculpture, painting, poetry,

science and philosophy. These men were highly educated through schooling and guilds.
The guild movement was very active for all arts and trades, providing highly skilled
personnel as well as excellent teaching capabilities.

Renaissance artists and architects included famous persons such as Leonardo da

Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo and Bramanti. These men went through the training
whereby a master builder became an architect through study of literature and historic
buildings. Leonardo da Vinci produced a famous art work on the proportions of man.
This work was based on the writings of Vitruvius.

Da Vinci, The Proportions of Man

The knowledge base of the period grew rapidly. The vision of this period was
founded on the spiritual and intellectual autonomy of the individual. There was a new
faith centred on the power of human reason. Mankind was the focus once again through
the philosophy of “Humanism”.

This knowledge base also brought forward a new interest in antique culture, spurned
on by the discovered writings of Vitruvius. Writings became a means to spread
knowledge and teach newcomers to the profession. Alberti created three current
treatises based on art, sculpture and architecture. While considered new at the time, his
text was originally based on the knowledge put forth by Vitruvius.

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All this knowledge and acquired skill combined to create new architecture. The new talents were
also used to solve old problems, namely the dome of the Florence Cathedral. This Cathedral,
begun in 1066, was a mixture of styles with the bell tower Romanesque and the Cathedral itself
Gothic. The dome over the sanctuary had never been completed. Brunelleschi was the man,
originally a sculptor but now an architect, who solved the structural impossibility to cover the
church. His manner and methods were proven to be a major breakthrough in design and
construction.

The success of this one man, and many talents practicing throughout Italy, carried forward a new
level of status, training and recognition for architects. New designs were being attributed to
individuals, thus granting them recognition. Patrons sought out the talent to improve their own
palazzos and villas, as well as social standing of having their own talent. This period also produced
some of the earliest text focused on the biographies of the famous designers. Mankind had begun
to glorify itself.

The breakthrough of structural design of the dome in Florence lent the Cathedral to be known as
the Duomo of Florence. This technique in design carried on with many famous examples, the most
notable being St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome. The actual design for St. Peter’s was begun by
Bramanti and later finished by Raphael and Michelangelo. These men were artists of great renown
who were also regarded as architects of immense talent. St. Peter’s has been copied around the
world including the Capital Building in the United States, constructed hundreds of years later.

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S.Maria del Fiore Cathedral (The Duomo of Florence) (1420) zzzzz

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Planning for new buildings relied once again on mathematical proportions relative to
all items constructed. Column size, spacing, height and width of the building were all
considerations. These formal rules were reflective of the Greek methodology studied
early in this section. It was of the Greeks that Vitruvius wrote and it was of Vitruvius that
the Renaissance flourished.

St. Maria Novella, Florence

(Orig. 1246, Revised 1460)

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Italy
The height of the Italian Renaissance is found in the works of Palladio. Palladio was
educated in the humanist philosophy, studied ancient buildings and proportions, and
dedicated himself to following the rules and norms of architectural design as prepared by
ancient architecture. He based his classic building solutions on proportion, symmetry,
harmony and the beauty of mathematics. Every detail for every space was
proportionally related to each other detail. His work symbolized the accomplishment of
the Italian Renaissance period; antiquity had been rediscovered, revived and
reinterpreted for the new world.

Villa Capra, Italy (1550)

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France
France underwent a similar transformation in philosophy during this period. There
was a greater level of detail applied to design relative to the teachings learned at the
hands of the Italian craftsmen. Travel was frequent during this period which led to a
greater exchange of ideas. Persons would often travel to new locations for months or
even years to work, study and teach.

The French style differed from the Italian, a divergence in regional architecture.
Regional styles were to become more pronounced as the centuries progressed.

The Louvre, Paris (1546)

The French style preserved the Gothic castle tradition, incorporating towers,
dormers, large windows and steeply pitched roofs. Weather had an effect as the French
climate was cooler with more precipitation (snow, rain) than the Italian climate.

Symmetry, horizontality and proportional detailing soon found their way into French
architecture. The King brought Italian craftsmen in to work on Royal projects, which
influenced French architects and patrons towards the new philosophy of Humanism. In
1540 , Serlio arrived from Italy to serve as the King’s architect, a renowned position in the
Royal Court.

Chateau de Chanonceaux, France (1515)

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England
England was also a part of the great change relative to architecture. Civil changes
occurred throughout the period including the succession from the Catholic Church in
1534 as Henry VIII took on the role of leader of the Church in England. Shakespeare
published “Hamlet”, performed at the Stratford-on-Avon, theatre in the round. The
English bible was published (1611), and there was a resounding defeat of the Spanish
Armada, the naval fleet (1588).

A new class of wealthy merchants and middle-class citizens emerged, ready to

accept the fashionable way of life promoted by the Renaissance. Stately mansions were
erected for these new (and old) patrons of English architecture.

The new designs were clearly focused on the rudimentary design styles of the
Renaissance – symmetry, formality, horizontality, combined with classical decoration.
Even their landscaped gardens were kept to the same principles of design. Large
windows were incorporated to capture as much northern light as possible, while the
proportions remained in keeping with the Renaissance philosophy.

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BAROQUE ARCHITECTURE (ITALY)

A. Influencing conditions of time and place:
1 . Place :
a) location: Rome
b) geography: City-states of Italy which held prestige and power
c) materials: marble and travertine, ruins of old Roman buildings
d) climate: bright, sunny Mediterranean climate, high sun angle
2 . Time :
a) dates: 1600-1750
b) concurrent events: 1642: Galileo dies
c) social conditions: World of contrasts and broadening horizons
Foundations of modern science laid
d) religious conditions: Questioning, struggle, reformation, reformation
gave Italian Church more power and unity
B. Needs :
Popes and Cardinals required magnificent churches, palaces, tombs to
commemorate themselves and to assert their renewed power and authority
C. Forms:
Oval rather than circular forms
Space and form became much more plastic and sculptural
Illusion replaced logical visual organization of form and space
Space-time architecture (Time becomes key component), spatial flow

D. Expression:

• Three dimension curve, dramatic detail, illusion, visual movement

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BAROQUE ARCHITECTURE (ITALY)

E. Architects and Buildings:

1 . Michelangelo:
(Father of Baroque Architecture)
The Capital, Rome (Designed 1540, completed 1655)

2 . Maderno:
St. Susanna, Rome 1596-1603
St. Peter’s, Rome 1606-1612
(Nave and façade)

3 . Bernini (Greatest Baroque sculptor)

Altar Canopy, St. Peter’s, Rome 1624-1633
Colonnaded Plaza, St. Peter’s, Rome 1655-1661

4 . Borromini
San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane 1633-1667

Altar Canopy, St. Peter's, Rome (1624)

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BAROQUE AND ROCOCO ARCHITECTURE (FRANCE)

A. Influencing conditions of time and place:
1 . Place :
a) location: Paris and Versailles
b) geography: Unified kingdom after 1500
c) materials: stone
d) climate: cool, dull light, northern climate
2 . Time :
a) dates: 1600-1715: Baroque
1715-1760: Rococo
b) concurrent events: 1598: Edict of Nantes
1608: Champlain founds Quebec
1643-1715: Louis XIV reigns (Baroque)
1715-1774: Louis XV reigns (Rococo)
1763: British gain Canada for Treaty of Paris
1789-1795: French Revolution
c) social conditions: Military dictatorship
Absolute Monarchy
Struggle and strife
Baroque: formal, pageantry, pompous, public
Rococo: informal, intimate, casual, private
d) religious conditions: Edict of Nantes in 1598 gave religious rights and
freedoms to both Catholics and Protestants

B. Needs : The absolute monarchs of the Baroque required elaborate palaces to

express their supreme position and accommodate the pageantry of their
courtly style of living. Middle class bourgeoisie required intimate
Rococo salons, townhouses, apartments

C. Forms:
Baroque palaces: large, symmetrical, central entry and articulated corners
Grand scale and oval planning for pageantry
Rococo mansions: Smaller, more intimate in scale, asymmetrical planning

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At the end of the Protestant reformation, the Papacy was centralized in Rome. Spiritual values
that had been challenged were now confirmed and reinforced. This reaffirmation of faith brought
new power to the Church. New power meant new opportunities to build, especially for the
purposes of the Pope and senior administration. New buildings were a clear means to assert and
display the renewed power of the Church.

This period also saw great developments occurring in the field of science.
A rational world was defined through the discoveries of Galileo, Newton and Kepler; scientists
and philosophers who were solving the puzzles of the world and known universe. The theory of
planetary motion relative to the sun was a critical development within the science of the times.
The world and the universe were proven in mathematics, line and form. These forms became
important elements within the new architectural designs.

St. Paul's Cathedral, London (1675)

Architecture had become international with distinct movements spreading throughout Europe as
was seen by the overlap of Italian styles into France during the Renaissance. European countries
from Italy to France, including England, Spain, Austria and Germany, as well as the New World
of the Americas, benefited from the new design philosophies.

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Michelangelo was the driving force in the development of the new style.
He produced a radical, sculptural concept of architecture (a living form) that
served as the departure from Renaissance styles.

Baroque design presented a fluid form and shape with expressive use of
the oval, now known as the shape of the planet's pathways around the sun. The
oval form symbolically linked the design scheme to the universal planetary
pathway; an alliance with the heavens.

Baroque architecture served as an umbrella style under which a wide

variety of design forms were assembled in previously unknown combinations.
This style was much more interpretive and sculptural than the rigid mathematical
forms of the Renaissance.

Orsan Michele, Florence (1650)

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The term ‘Baroque’ was used to categorize the style of art and architecture
that departed from the established norm, without a clear, rigid definition of itself.
Baroque styling was dramatic and majestic with the use of illusion to create
effects within the space. The lines of structure and sculpture were exaggerated
to provide greater prominence. The combination of sculptural, expressive detail
with fluid form and space created a new sense of wonder.

The Baroque style often appeared bizarre, grotesque, and even irregular
when compared to previous classical designs. Baroque forms expressed
ornamentation, promoted color variations, and used both direct and indirect
lighting for theatrical effects. The key to fully understanding the design concept
for Baroque architecture lies in contemplating the plan in conjunction with the
presented façade. It is through this method that the grand, theatrical nature of
the style can be seen.

The Baroque style also contained sub-styles of design development.

These sub-styles presented variations of the overall Baroque philosophy.
Variations were due to regional differences, stylistic desires and personal talents
of the architects. The sub-styles included Mannerism, Rococo, and Georgian
architecture.

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Baroque Mannerism (Italy)

Mannerist designs adhered to one of two design styles – either copying or
abstracting.

The copy style was produced by designers who were content to mimic
( copy) the style of design from the Renaissance. This method may have been
followed due to the reverence of Renaissance structures and the Renaissance
architects. Many practitioners of this style were hard pressed to claim that they
could actually improve on what may be regarded as a flawless design of
Leonardo de Vinci or Raphael. The lack of confidence in the new design
professionals led them to copy the original design.

Palazzo Medici Courtyard

The unique nature of the Mannerist copies is found in the absence of
detail, plan form, or clarity of the completed structure. While these new
structures were elegant and complete, they lacked the cohesion and originality of
the original building.

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The second movement of mannerism was the abstraction movement. This

group would begin in the same manner as the copyists; however greater liberties
were taken in the final building designs. Abstractionists used the classical
elements and created variations of use, composition or placement affect change.

Entrance Facade (1733)

Classical forms were integrated with contrasting or complementary styles
to create a new language of architecture. Columns were paired, windows
previously centred on a grid system were shifted off-centre, pediments were
raised, buttresses were added and new rhythms integrated into the buildings.
This movement created a unity of styles previously unseen in a single structure.

These professionals were designing with knowledge gathered by training

but incorporated intuition and skill to produce new, unique yet reminiscent
building styles. There was a noted return in this style of elaborate surfaces,
curved walls reflecting overall plan schemes, and scalloped or articulated
cornices.

St. Peter’s and the Capital in Rome are defined as achievements within
the Baroque Mannerist styles.

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Baroque Rococo (France)

Architectural styles of France experienced both the Baroque and Rococo
movements during this period. These styles led a shifting movement in artistic
design strength from Italy to France. Italy had led the design philosophy for
architecture during the past 500 years. French developments in design style were
now regarded as the lead proponent of architectural design.

The influence of French design is found in the overlap occurring near the
end of the Renaissance. Italian artists were brought to France by the monarchy
at that time. The skills and talents of these artists were assimilated into the
French cultural style and re-emerged as a new design force.

French Baroque design presented a more restrained expression than

found in Italian Baroque designs. The architecture of the time was a blend of
Gothic and Renaissance styles. The Baroque styling took the current building
forms and incorporated a highly decorative and sculptural resolution to the
surfaces.

Chateaux Detail (1650)

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Baroque was the style primarily used for palaces and mansions of the
monarchy. Palaces were large symmetrical plans with an emphasis on a grand
central entrance with increased depth and articulation of the façade (main
elevation). The planning used the oval form extensively in laying out grand
ballrooms and entries. This design method emphasized the expected pageantry
of the space.

The concept of illusion was incorporated by the use of mirrors throughout

the elegant spaces. The Palace of Versailles features a hall of mirrors,
presenting a space that seemingly never ends.

Baroque designs extended into the landscaping, thus integrating land and
building into the overall concept. Landscape design featured geometrical
planning with defined views and approaches to the building. This manner of
design is similar to the philosophy presented earlier with the Romans, whereby
access to, views of, and overall affect of each building was controlled.

Versailles, France (1669)

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Baroque Rococo design styles followed the main Baroque period. Rococo
design styles were primarily used for wealthy citizens and gentry of the time.
These buildings were mansions in their own right; however they were smaller and
less formal than the Baroque palaces. Socially, it was not wise to possess a
building of greater quality in design and finishes than the monarchy.

Rococo Detailing

Rococo structures abstracted the Baroque principles to use asymmetrical

planning in the order of the buildings. The interiors were generally lighter in
colour. The level of detailing was restrained to provide for intimate casual spaces
as opposed to spaces designed for the pageantry of royalty.

Both design streams carried forward on the basic design themes. They
presented a combination of various styles, carved relief and decoration, elaborate
interiors and utilized wall murals to accentuate the space.

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Baroque Georgian (England )

The Baroque movement expanded to England. It did not have the
intensity of the Italian movement. English design styles presented a restrained
solution, a more sober interpretation of the philosophy. The buildings constructed
lacked the level of sculptural integration and detail as seen in Italian designs.

Gate, Chiswick House, England (1621)

English manors were designed more for comfort than royal pageantry. A
sense of architectural formality was maintained. The use of symmetry was
characteristic of structures during this period.

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Queen's Banquet House, London (1619)

These design solutions provided the architectural field with the full
spectrum of capabilities relative to Baroque styling. While Italian designs pushed
the design limits, English designs integrated styles and classical elements to
present a unified and formal appearance.

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The greatest change of this period was the Industrial Revolution. Watt’s invention of the
steam engine (1768) provided the power required to mass produce. Adam Smith’s writings
advocated the exploitation of labour while providing universal education. Cities and towns swelled
in population, now capable of providing available, expendable and cheap labour.

Opera House, Paris (1861)

The Industrial Revolution was the catalyst for creation of slums within the civic centres as
the demand for centralized labour increased. The ability to mass produce products readily
available for the consumer market created a generalization of taste and fashion throughout society.
This mass production led to a more secular way of life. Neo-Classicism, especially Romanticism,
provided a brief respite from the continuity and new-found drudgery created by undesirable social
conditions. The architecture inspired through reference to what was considered a “great time’ of
mankind: architecture provided a link of history between the revered past and the despised present.

The disappointment in this period of architectural development is that no new styles, new
movements or new growth in the architectural spectrum was achieved. Designs reached to the

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past, collected various elements and reflected typologies to reinforce the aesthetic of a time long
lost.

THE VICTORIAN GOTHIC STYLE

The Victorian Gothic Style was based in England. Architects in England lacked the formal
training process that the Ecole provided in France. English studies were based on training acquired
through apprenticeship in the offices of the Masters of England.

This process of training produced a greater number of successful practitioners each year than the
Ecole’s one solitary yearly graduate. The training process differed between offices, which also
provided for freer association of design and stylistic modification by architects. The English
graduates learned in different ways and at different rates whereas the Ecole provided a solid fixed
curriculum. English architects produced a large number of buildings with far greater range in styles
than those found under the previous two styles existing at the time. Two key figures emerged from
the English training methods – Augustus Pugin and John Ruskin.

St. John the Baptist Hospital (1839)

Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin learned gothic detailing from his father who was a professional
illustrator and draughtsman. During his career, Pugin published two works on architecture. He
advocated Gothic design as the true style of design. Each functional part of the design must present

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the necessary volume and plan. The design solution must assemble all the individual parts in an
orderly fashion. No traditional faces were used in his designs.

Steel was a composite material milled through heat and a mixture of compounds. Three types of
differing materials were created through the industrial process:
1. Cast Iron: cast iron is the basic type of the three materials. Cast iron members
were heavy steel, rough in appearance and extremely strong. Cast iron as a material though,
was hard and brittle, with a defined breaking point. Cast iron would not bend or flex; it
would break and fail once the weight load exceeded the beam's capacity.
2. Steel: steel was considered the middle product produced through the milling
process. Steel is heavy like cast iron but not to the weight extremes. Steel remains quite
flexible. It demonstrates the ability to carry heavy loads. Steel will flex under loading,
bending to the point of failure. Steel, however, does not break as cast iron would. Steel
will bend under failure, still retaining some local bearing capacity. Steel’s ability to be cast
in light or heavy members, excellent loading capabilities, and ease of installation made it a
very useful material in construction.
3. Wrought Iron: wrought iron is the softest of the three materials created by milling.
Wrought iron is considered malleable and flexible, perfect for forming into decorative
shapes. However, due to the “soft” nature of this material, it is not suitable to carry loads
as steel or cast iron could carry. This material was primarily used for finishing, decorative,
or light duty functional purposes. Uses of this material include fences and gates, scroll
work, and metal articulation on wall surfaces.

Cast iron was the principle choice of materials during this period. Its reign as the primary
structural member lasted until 1880. By that time, the process of milling steel members had
advanced to the point where quality control allowed for greater precision during production.

Cast iron was most commonly combined with large expanses of glass to produce striking
structures. These structures, such as the Crystal Palace (1851) were unique in an environment
which had previously only known stone construction. The new method was almost transparent.

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The exposed structure reflected the earlier rib vaulting aesthetic without resorting to decoration or
frivolous attachment.

Cast iron was problematic due to its breaking point weakness. It was highly susceptible to
complete collapse during fires. Cast iron was mostly used in the construction of factories and
markets but it also saw use in the construction of offices and even cathedrals.

Steel advanced construction methods rapidly, once the milling process was perfected. Methods
developed through which to enclose and fireproof steel members, thus protecting the building and
owner’s investment from the inevitable collapse during a fire. England led the way during this
period with advances in production and milling of structural members. England also produced
some of the most striking examples of the new construction. France followed England’s design
lead through engineering triumphs in steel such as the Eiffel Tower and the Statue of Liberty
(designed by Gustav Eiffel). Science had progressed rapidly starting at the end of the Eighteenth
Century to the point where exact knowledge could replace the guesswork in structural design. The
science of statics, laws of forces and weights, combined with gravitational calculations were
developed from Newton’s laws. These formulas became the basis for new architectural standards.
A new profession emerged through the training and application of this new knowledge; the
profession of civil engineering. The process of structural engineering relative to construction was
now removed from the architect’s responsibility. The responsibility passed to the new professional
engineers.

Theoretical design conflicts emerged with the new discoveries of concrete (now known as
ferroconcrete) and steel. The formal design system of the Greek and Roman cultures was
invalidated by these new materials. Concrete could be cast in different ways, carry different
loads, and be used more sculpturally. Steel could span greater distances than the arch, carry
heavier loads, and yet produce a “lighter”, less weighty structure. The use of steel and iron

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challenged the previously fixed proportions of columns and beams visually, as steel did not need
the mass or proportional scale of masonry construction. Construction occasionally had to add
steel members to present the appearance of heavy support when in fact additional support was
not required. The base of the Eiffel Tower had additional arches installed in order to appease the
public perception that the lightweight base was not stable.

Base Detail, Eiffel Tower

MODERN ARCHITECTURE

The rise of Modern Architecture came about due to a break in historicism. The design style was
used to break the bonds with the past and establish a new aesthetic based on new materials.

Intellectual shifts occurred in philosophy and the study of evolutionism. Mankind could adapt to
a rapidly changing environment. A new philosophy based on the individuality of mankind
(Individualism) developed. This new philosophy is similar to the Humanist philosophy that
emerged during the Renaissance era.

This philosophy focused on the ever-increasing achievements of mankind – telephones,

steamships, motor cars, trains, and even airplanes. It reflected a new age of technology and design;
a new spirit of man. The industrial revolution had been tamed by mankind. The production of new
materials with boundless possibilities was at his disposal through the use of the machine.
Philosophical thought went so far as to view the human body relative to a machine. The human
body does its own repairs, sees to its own maintenance and fueling and has the capability to
produce new machines (babies) to sustain the population.

Architecture had taken on diverse styles with philosophical approaches at either end of the design
theory. Several key architects emerged as leaders in the field with their own philosophies
regarding design.

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Le Corbusier was one of the first early modernists. The bulk of his career and achievements is
reviewed under the next chapter. Le Corbusier believed that the machine aesthetic (to look like or
mimic in appearance) was the proper solution for a new architectural design style. Buildings did
not have to function or operate like machines, but they should reflect a “machine-like” appearance
to make the most out of the new materials.

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The “machine-like” style idiom became the core design philosophy for
Modernist Architecture.

Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-Le-Duc, a French architect, was an early

proponent of Modernist theory. He studied the historic building forms, especially
Gothic architecture, to analyze the buildings in terms of structural stability,
relevance and basic building form. His theories proposed rationalism in
architecture to incorporate the structural aesthetic in the building.

Viollet-le-Duc concluded that Gothic Architecture was the most effective

way to build a church with stone material (maximizing light and height). He also
concluded that iron should not be used to fake ancient shapes. It was his belief
that shapes which were highly efficient for stone (the best material available in
the Middle Ages) were not suitable for iron. His use of decoration on a building
was one where the use of a decoration kept the structure visible. Viollet-le-Duc
never applied his theories but several of his proposals for iron structures where
built by Art Nouveau architects.

Art Nouveau Metro Entrance, Paris (1900)

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Queen Anne Style House (1890)

England, having led the field in structural steel advancement, now
experienced an aesthetic backlash against the modernist movement. This
response developed a new design style based on models constructed during the
reign of Queen Anne, in the Seventeenth Century. This new design style
adopted the name of ‘Queen Anne Style’ for the historical reference period.

The nature of this design was a Gothic style modified to present a simpler,
less intricate form. The Queen Anne style was transported to America where its
modifications presented it with the new name of the “Shingle Style”. This design
style was greatly sought after by the wealthy as part of their desire to retain or
emotionally return to the elegance of the period.

The use of the ‘Shingle Style’ throughout the United States required
modifications to its basic building materials. This stylistic approach, coming from
the English also underwent sociological change.

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Basic construction changes substituted the use of local, available materials

( wood framing and exterior finish materials) for the historic use of materials (tile
walls and clay forming).

The sociological change was related to the different cultures between the
United States and England. The new American family was more open and
tolerant and a more democratic unit when compared to the British model. Due to
the open, tolerant approach, the requirement for a separation of household
members was removed. This integration enabled the application of an open
planning concept in single family housing.

Trinity Church, Boston (1872)

A combination of the English styling, together with French schooling, is
found in the American architect, Henry Hobson Richardson. In a country lacking
historical precedents, H. H. Richardson became the first American architect to
establish a personal, individualistic style of architectural design. H. H.
Richardson was trained at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts before establishing his
practice in the Boston area. His styling was a combination of French Gothic with
High Victorian English. The resulting designs were monumental and forceful in
their composition. These styles were aptly named “Richardson Romanesque”.

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It is an interesting study in the definition of styles when relating to H. H.

Richardson. Here was a man trained in France, producing combinations of
French/English-based designs, yet he is tagged with Roman influences, through
the ‘Romanesque’ term. His architecture reflected the solidity, strength and
apparent endurance of the Roman themes, thus the designation "Richardson
Romanesque" accompanied his designs.

Winn Memorial Library, Woburn, Mass (1876)

The emergence of individual architects practicing Stateside soon

exploded. This dramatic shift in the recognition of architects was combined with
what was considered a catastrophe for a city, but was an incredible opportunity
for architecture.

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The Great Fire of Chicago in 1871 left a thriving city desolate. Commercial
spaces as well as residential accommodations had been wiped out. This event
provided a clean slate for the architects to show their design talents. The
architects of the era responded to the challenge. Their efforts did not disappoint
those ready for a change.

Chicago experienced an economic and social boom during this period.

Land prices climbed astronomically, especially in the downtown business district.
The need to maximize rentable floor space on less land was crucial to the
developers. The architect’s solution to serve this need was to design vertically.
The first "high-rise" structures began.

Reliance Building (1894)

The advancements in steel manufacturing greatly aided the new design

style. Steel structures could be fireproofed, easily erected and provided a very
quick (relatively speaking) construction schedule.

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A further advancement in the exterior wall system also carried the vertical
thrust. Curtain-wall systems were created. These exterior wall systems were
bolted to the steel frame at the outside edge of the floor plate. These systems
helped to speed construction through mass production of their components. They
also helped the developer by having only a minimal impact of the lower level floor
areas, thus leaving more square footage open for renters.

Wainwright Building, St. Louis (1890)

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THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

The Twentieth Century brought forth a dramatic shift in architectural

design and philosophy. Changes occurred at a rapid pace throughout the
Western World. It had taken the Renaissance movement nearly two centuries to
spread from Florence through western civilization to England. Changes in design
style, philosophy and construction moved from their place of origin within months.

Society and the general populace were slow to embrace the new
ideology. There was a general tendency to cling to the past as a comfortable
known entity.

Technology allowed for great leaps forward in design and style

development. The use of iron, steel, glass, and the new concrete technology
( previously known as ‘ferroconcrete’) was abundant and unrestrained in the new
design styles. Concrete was expressly used as both a form generator as well as
a finished surface.

Goetheanum Centre, Dornach, Switzerland (1924)

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Technology led many designers to focus on the philosophy that a structure should reflect the needs
of the users, without adding decoration or stylistic appearances. Designers also felt that the
structures should reflect the new technology in appearance by exposing structure and materials.
Symbolism in this form was merely implied through the building design, though it was often not
readily apparent.

The styles and techniques applied during this time varied greatly.
Previous chapters were able to focus on the governing style of the period (Gothic, Romanesque,
etc.). This period of architectural development branched out in many different directions
according to the individual philosophies of the respected leaders of each movement.

It is somewhat difficult to group all of the practicing architects of the period under a
limited number of headings. The simplest method is to create the general categories consisting of
four prevalent styles during the period. These four basic design approaches are:
1. Organic: architecture is based on human scale. The structure must be designed in harmony
with nature. Materials are used solely for their intended purpose and function.
Ornamentation is either eliminated or minimized in order to allow the true form of the
building to show.

Michaelaplatz Store (1910)

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This category relates to the architecture of Adolf Loos, practicing in

Europe. He proposed a link between ornamentation (the addition of
elements for decorative purposes) and a crime upon the honesty of the
structure. His philosophy was clearly expressed through the publication of
his treatise on architecture entitled “Ornament and Crime”.

2. Mechanical : The architecture of the mechanical designers saw

buildings as machines for use. This philosophy was applied to the building
regardless if the function was a church, factory, house, or office complex.
The architecture generated through this style is commonly referred
to as the “International Style”. It is a style without contextual reference to
culture, country or local custom. Steel frames with glass skins were the
epitome of this style. Ornamentation was abandoned as it did not reflect
the necessity of the structure.
This architectural style lives on in modern-day designs. At the time
of its generation, it was quite unique. The movement known as “Futurists”
was spawned through this philosophy. Antonia Sant’Elia was a key figure
within this movement.

Milan Central Transport Station (1914)

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Sant’Elia’s philosophy, known as "Futurism", drew inspiration from

the new mechanical world being experience at the time. He believed that
since the ancient cultures took their inspiration from the world during their
time, therefore it was right to do the same now. New architecture should
be a part of the transitory experience, in keeping with the theory of
movement and change. Architecture, like machines, should always be
kept in a state of perceived motion.

Proposed Apartment (1914)

The designs produced by Antonio Sant’Elia were incredibly complex

in the level of foresight he applied. Cities and developments designed
using his philosophy were designs planned for movement. Architecture
should be integrated with the technology of vehicles, trains, airplanes and
motion. His designs integrated all modern-day facets of life at the time. It
is unfortunate that the vision he possessed died with him during World War
I in 1916. His death spelled the demise of the Futurist movement.

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3. Sculptural : The sculptural movement applied a more artistic

approach to design. These practitioners focused on the line and form of
the building, rather than strictly the practical means of construction. There
was a curvilinear aspect to the work, similar to organic but abstracted to
deliver the building almost as a piece of sculpture. This movement
provided the basis for the ‘Expressionist” movement, begun in Germany.
Germany was nearly a dead society at the close of the First World
War. The goals and values of the people, along with the physical
environment, had been destroyed by the ravages of war. This destruction
provided the opportunity for architects to create new forms, reflective of the
culture in an artistic manner.
The theory of the Expressionists was that a better world may be
stimulated and achieved through better architectural design. Architecture
was felt to embody the powerful emotions of society. The designs for new
architecture focused entirely on reflecting these emotions. Structures such
as Einstein’s Tower (Potsdam, 1920) are indicative of this movement.

Einstein's Observatory, Potsdam (1921)

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An interesting fact of these developing theories is that architects could move freely between the
various movements. Ideas and philosophy were shared, debated and incorporated as the
intellectual groups swelled and diminished depending on their strength at the time. These
exchanges of theory allowed for variations of design to occur; mixed breeds of architecture
developed as styles and talents of the individuals were honed.

Chapel at Ronchamp (1950)

Le Corbusier was one such architect who could easily move between differing or complementary
groups. His early designs were purely machine-based, coming from his philosophy that
“houses were machines to live in”. He was also adept at applying sculptural philosophy
success.
This success is evident in the Notre Dame du Haut Chapel at Ronchamp.

4. Art Deco (Art Nouveau): The fourth category is in contradiction to the earlier three. Art Deco
styling saw a return of symbolism and decoration. The symbolism was often taken to
extremes in plan and elevation.
The Futurist and Expressionist movements were early influences on the development of the Art
Deco style. It is interesting to note that the development of this fourth style parallels
previous periods of architecture. In previous periods the governing style would be adopted
and applied until a backlash would occur, contrary to the governing architectural
philosophy.

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Art Deco is a reaction to the previously-noted three categories. The

initial movements did away with ornamentation and unnecessary
decoration. Art Deco brought ornamentation back with a vengeance. This
style may be likened to the Rococo movement. Art Deco is much more
open and fluid than designs seen from the Rococo period.

Chrysler Building, New York (1930)

Art Deco styles presented a translation of two-dimensional patterns
into architectural design and décor. This movement was a more organic
interpretation of fluidity in building design than other styles of the time.
Simple examples presented symmetrical planning with decorative forms
included in the building’s finishes. The extreme example of this category is
seen in the work of Antonio Gaudi of Spain.

Antonio Gaudi saw architectural design as an organic interpretation

of the elements. The surname “Gaudi” is the predecessor of a commonly
used term “gaudy”, meaning expressive, out of place or “off the map”
relative to its context.

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Gaudi presented a transformation of the standard architectural box.

Since there is no such reality as a straight line in nature, then there
shouldn’t be one in buildings meant to reflect the human nature. His
designs reflect this ideal.

Casa Mila Apartments (1905)

The Casa Mila (1905-1910) presented a swooping organic form;

windows and doors are incorporated into curving walls: no straight lines
are found. The extreme example of Gaudi’s work is found in the Sagrada
Family Church (began in 1884, still unfinished). This church rises as an
organic growth of the landscape, reaching to the heavens while embracing
the human form in detail.

Sagrada Family Church (1884)

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The architectural environment shifted, reformed and shifted again during

the early years of this period. Styles were varied as the cultures across the
Western World were exposed to ever changing ideas and opportunities. Within
these shifts, new schools of thought were established.

These schools, like the movements previously discussed, presented sound

theories based on developed philosophy relative to their design style. This
movement created some of the most powerful design styles in the century. This
movement also solidified many talented individuals as masters of the profession,
relative to their reflective style. The various schools and masters listed below are
reviewed in this section.

• The Chicago School

• Louis Sullivan
• Frank Lloyd Wright
• De Stijl Group
• Peter Behrens
• The Bauhaus
• Walter Gropius
• Mies Van der Rohe
• Le Corbusier

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THE CHICAGO SCHOOL

The events in Chicago during the last half of the Nineteenth Century
allowed for a profusion of design achievements within the field of architecture.
Time Period - 1875 to 1925 (specifically 1883 – 1893)
Major events - 1871 – Chicago Fire
1893 – World’s Fair, Chicago
Major developments - Utilitarian design; incorporation of building
function with clearly defined structure (William Jenny)
Aesthetic return of decoration, philosophical learnings
of Louis Sullivan towards design and expression
Achievements - development of the “Chicago” window style, allows for
maximum light and natural ventilation
Characteristic slogan – “Form Follows Function”
Noted buildings - 1884 – Home Insurance Building (Jenny)
1884 – Reliance Building (Burnham)
1889 – Second Lester Building (Jenny)
1890 – Manhattan Building (Jenny)
1894 – Guaranty Building (Sullivan)
1899 – Carson, Pirie, Scott Store (Sullivan)

Manhattan Building, Chicago/William Jenny (1891)

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Louis Sullivan emerged as a leader in design from the talented group of

Chicago architects. He developed a clear style of design and approach to
architectural form which influenced an entire generation of American architects.

Carson-Pirie-Scott Store, Chicago (1899)

Sullivan was educated at the prestigious M.I.T. Institute before traveling to
France to complete his education at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. This training
provided him the basis to derive his architectural philosophy that “form follows
function”. The slogan implies that the final form of a building will be set by the
functions it is intended to enclose. The use of space or design elements relative
to the basic planning was strictly maintained as only those which were required to
suit the client’s needs.

Wrought Iron Detail, CPS Store (1899)

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“ The social and material environment, whose needs were so

pressing, posed an evolutionist challenge to architecture, to
which it responded organically, evolving new forms to meet
those needs. “
Louis Sullivan

The architect, in Sullivan’s perception, was a natural force inspired in

shaping the environment with creative individualism. This philosophy, while
derived from the ‘organic’ stream of architecture, held close ties to the ideals of
the Modernists.

Industrial advancement provided a functional means to construct

elevators. This invention allowed greater heights to be achieved, using an ever-
decreasing amount of land. As land prices soared, the need evolved to go
vertical. Elevators responded to this need.

Walker Warehouse, Chicago (1888)

The World’s Fair came to Chicago at the close of the Nineteenth Century.
This event brought architects from the entire globe to view the new achievements
of the Chicago School. The ideas, innovations and theories were absorbed and
traveled back across the world to be abstracted by alternative design methods.

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Frank Lloyd Wright:

The most dynamic, and well known, architect of the Twentieth Century
emerged from the Chicago School. Frank Lloyd Wright began his career under
the training of Louis Sullivan in the firm of Adler & Sullivan. Many of Wright’s
best building solutions are located within the Chicago district. Tours to his sites
occur to this day. His influence remains felt throughout the architectural
profession.

Frank Lloyd Wright was a prolific visionary who managed to capture his
ideas in constructible solutions. The level of control that he applied to his
projects extended over every aspect – homes, furniture, carpets, bedding, and
even the table napkins. He designed an entire existence within his residential
schemes, not just the building.

Wright did not receive the formal education of the architects of his firm. He
did receive intensive training from an early age related to massing, block forms
and composition. The tutelage of Louis Sullivan brought Wright to the point
where he struck out on his own.

Winslow House (1894)

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The prairie houses he designed (1900-1909) were unique in plan and

character. Wright’s plans proposed a destruction of the “box” form commonly
used in housing at the time. He laid out the rooms based on open planning,
allowing for movement, clear sight lines and extensive use of natural lighting.
Fireplaces were massive, considered to be the "heart" of the house. The
fireplaces were open on many sides and typically set in the centre of the entire
living space.

Robie House Plans (1909)

Wright’s plans contained a continuity of space and form, using horizontality
to reflect the landscape of the area. Human proportions were critical in achieving
the correct scale of the building and its individual details. This inclusion of human
proportions into the design process is reflective of the Renaissance era. His use
of wide overhanging eaves served the functional purpose of sun-shades in the
summer. This aesthetic reflects the early Roman designs

Robie House Facade (1909)

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Wright was prolific in design throughout his career. His achievements and
buildings have been thoroughly documented in a wide variety of media. Any
attempt to list his entire career here would result in a completely separate
publication. Some key works completed by Wright include:

• Larkin Building (1904) – central office area, skylight, open working

space.

Larkin Building Interior (1904)

• Robie House (1909) – best noted prairie house design.

• Unity Church, Oak Park – achieved linear organic ornament
integrated into an “H”-shaped plan for the structure. This building
presented a clear continuity of space.

• Imperial Hotel, Tokyo (1916-1922) – earthquake-resistant design

which was tested during many quakes. This achievement garnered
Wright international status.

Imperial Hotel, Tokyo (1912)

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• Kaufmann House (“Falling Water”), Pennsylvania (1936) – a house

constructed using concrete forms, spanning a natural hillside river.
The house provided opportunity for a unity of space, form, material,
landscaping and site integration. The house was constructed using
the cantilever suspension principle.

Kaufman House - Fallingwater (1936)

• Johnson Wax Building, Wisconsin (1936-39) – (tower constructed in

1950) – an early venture into the cantilever principle extracted to
form the column-to-roof connections; tied the two items together in a
single fluid shape. The tower was also constructed by suspending
the floor systems from the central office core.

• V.C. Morris Shop, San Francisco (1947) – the influences of his early
Sullivan training, along with design style of H. H. Richardson, is
evident in this design. The floor plan used an interior spiral ramp to
move patrons between floors. Wright developed this method of flow
further during the design for the New York Guggenheim Museum.

V.C. Morris Gift Shop (1947)

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• Guggenheim Museum, New York (1959) – this building features an

open central atrium space surrounded by a continuous ramp. The
lighting comes from a skylight, used to provide all natural light for
the artwork. This building presented a continuity of space,
movement and structure.

Guggenheim Museum, New York (1959)

Throughout his career, Wright retained control of the design philosophy for
each building. The style of his work moved from square horizontality (functional
simplicity) through to the organic, artistic flow of the Guggenheim, completed at
the end of his career.

Interior of Guggenheim Museum (1959)

Wright’s influence and ideas spread throughout Western civilization by his

writings and publication of his works. His travels took him to Europe as well as
Japan. These excursions influenced him in design, as he influenced those that
followed him.

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EUROPE:

The design field in Europe was split in many directions following the 19th
Century. All of the technological advancements were combined with a renewed
vigor in the pursuit of alternate design schemes.

The fields of art, philosophy and architecture were enmeshed during this
period. Unions of theories and styles between these disciplines were frequent.
Alternative styles were explored by the great talents of the time. Cubism, the
interpretation of space, took form in the art of Braque and Picasso. Futurism, the
simultaneous capture of movement, developed under Boccioni. Schools of
thought and style were developed in the field of architecture.

The Dutch countries experienced the origin of the De Stijl (“the style”)
group under the direction of Theo van Doesburg, a largely theoretical practicing
architect. This group sought to explore the asymmetrical balance of line, form
and space. This exploration ran contrary to the formality of design contributed by
the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. The abstract art of Piet Mondrian is the best known
artwork example of this group. It was a combination of a style similar to Frank
Lloyd Wright with the philosophy of the abstract promoted by Mondrian that
formed the theme for De Stijl.

Mondrian Composition (1920)

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Frank Lloyd Wright was well-known in Europe through his published

writings (1911) and personal travels begun in 1916. De Stijl adopted what they
felt were the applicable design theories of Wright within their ideas to create a
new sense of design.

De Stijl advocated a universal modern style of design. Their style included

humanistic values and idealism as the basis for the design parti. Aesthetic
concerns took precedence over the technological limitations. The group was
committed to the functional ideal of satisfying the physical and spiritual needs of
the client.

Schroder House (1924)

The cultural and societal structure of Europe was changing during this
period. The Russian Revolution occurred as well as the catastrophic World War I.
European economic recovery was on the rise along with the stability of new
representational governments. A new set of hopes and values rose from the
philosophy of the time; promoting the belief in achieving a new sense of mankind
within the world of technology. A major design individual akin to Wright’s
reverence emerged in Germany: Peter Behrens.

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AEG Turbine Plant (1909)

Peter Behrens was the first architect of this period to develop an

architectural philosophy of design that could answer the demands of the newly
industrialized civilization. Behrens formed the first important alliance of
architect/designer with industry. He was the lead designer for the AEG
Corporation, the German equivalent of the General Electric Company. In this
capacity, he was responsible to design everything for the corporation; stationery,
residential and commercial products, as well as factories and offices. It was in
his design for the Turbine Factory (1909) for AEG that the first mainstream use of
a glass curtain-wall occurred.

AEG Poster/Peter Behrens (1907)

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Behrens maintained an architectural office that was the centre for

expression of the new architectural principles. It is a crucial fact to note that the
future architectural leaders of the European, and later American, designs all
worked for Behrens early in the century. These future leaders were Walter
Gropius, Mies Van der Rohe and Le Corbusier.

THE BAUHAUS (Deutsche Werkbund)

The Bauhaus school was Europe’s early contribution to architectural
design of the period. America was leading the design profession, though it
returned to the common methods and materials of the previous era. Europe
carried forward with the machine theory; incorporating and developing the new
technologies for mainstream construction.

The Bauhaus school was a fusion of the Weimar Academy of Fine Arts
and the Decorative School of Arts. The new school was seen as a symbol in the
spirit of doctrine, style, methods, and buildings. The school supported a highly
individualistic style of design methodology among its students. The modern
machine style was the key thrust to this school. The school was started in 1919
by Walter Gropius. It survived until the Second World War, closing in 1933.

The Bauhaus School (1925)

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Walter Gropius:

The Bauhaus school was set up as a school of design, building

( construction) and craftsmanship. It was intended that the students would learn
to unite art and craft: to learn by doing through the construction of design
prototypes. It was a school fostering the combination of theory with the
practicality of task. The ongoing slogan of the environment was “Art and
Technology – The New Unity”. The typical style produced was the International
( Modern) style of architecture.

Bauhaus School (1925)

Walter Gropius led the educational sphere at the Bauhaus and later
emigrated to teach in the United States. His philosophy respected the machine
but placed the emphasis in design on mankind. It was his philosophy that
machines were intended to serve mankind, not the other way around. The social
conditions facilitated by architecture should always make the human element
dominant.

Gropius believed in a division of labour that would create teams of

specialists, with the architect as the lead proponent. His approach to education
focused on the perfection of the process. “The teaching of a method of approach
is more important than the teaching of skills.”

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Harvard Graduate Centre (1950)

Gropius completed many major architectural works, including the buildings
for the Bauhaus itself. His works include:

• Fagus Works (use of the glass curtain-wall), 1911

• Cologne Exhibition Building, 1914
• The Bauhaus School, 1925
• The Harvard Graduate Centre, 1949
• University of Baghdad, Irag, 1959
• U.S. Embassy, Athens, Greece, 1961

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Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe:

Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe was the second key figure to emerge from the Behrens workshop.
His ideal was to attempt to create a classical universal solution for modern architecture, using a
structural minimalist approach. His works attempted to achieve perfection in the structure;
proportions and detail of the design. Mies demonstrated a keen sense of design related to his use
of materials, as evidenced in the Barcelona Pavilion of the World’s Fair in 1929.

Mies Van der Rohe is well known for the slogan “less is more”. This phrase is meant to imply
that the purity of a design solution is found in the simplicity and cleanliness of the integration of
structure and enclosing elements. This slogan has been abstracted in many ways, more or less. It
was his intention to create a spiritual sense of structure that would provide the “bones” of the
building to be wrapped in the “skin” of glazing. He sought to create “universal space” that would
provide the solution to the client’s needs.

Barcelona Pavilion (1928)

Van der Rohe, like Gropius, began practice in Europe but immigrated to the United States to
continue his career. He is credited with the design of the modern glass-walled skyscraper which
dominates the skyline of our major cities. An example of this style is the Seagram Building, New
York City (1954-1958). This building was designed and erected through a partnership between
Mies Van der Rohe and Philip Johnson, a major architect in the United States.

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Seagram Building, New York (1954)

Van der Rohe’s career, again like Gropius, included professional practice
as well as education. His time in the United States included a position as Dean
of Architecture, Illinois Institute of Technology. He designed the IIT campus
buildings and architectural educational program for the institution. The manner of
training advocated by Mies reflected the style of the Bauhaus through
incorporation of theory with practical experience. One must know how to
physically work with materials in order to fully understand how to build with them.

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Farnsworth House (1950)

Noted buildings completed by Mies Van der Rohe include:

• Barcelona Pavilion, Spain,1929

• Tugendhat House, Czech Republic, 1930
• Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, 1942
• Farnsworth House, Chicago, 1950
• Lakeshore Drive Apartments, Chicago, 1951
• Seagram Building, New York, 1958
• New National Gallery, Berlin, 1968

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Le Corbusier:
Charles Edouard Jeanneret-Gris was one of the three gifted students who
passed through the atelier of Peter Behrens. Jeanneret adopted the last name of
his maternal grandfather. The adopted name is now known throughout the
architectural profession – Le Corbusier . Le Corbusier was a talent of many
disciplines – architect, urban planner, sculptor, writer, painter (a strict proponent
of the cubist style).

Corbusier believed in the machine-style aesthetic for architecture. He

believed that machine-like efficiency in design and planning would serve the
physical and psychological needs of the users. Architecture according to his
philosophy was “the masterly, correct, and magnificent play of masses brought
together in the light.”

Le Corbusier Centre, Zurich (1967)

The basis of his philosophy stems from the belief that architecture must
follow the High Modernist theory in establishing a contrast with nature.

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Le Corbusier is noted for many slogans often repeated; “a house is a

machine for living in”. His philosophy (a source of quotation for critics and
supporters) was laid out by his treatise known as “Towards a New Architecture”,
published in 1923. It was through this publication that his method of design using
“The Modulor” was explained. The ‘Modular’ is a process of design that
maintains the scale and proportions of the human figure when designing a
structure. The mathematics of Le Corbusier was largely based on “The Golden
Mean” theory. This theory is explored in detail within the Mathematics section.

The Modular, Le Corbusier

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Villa Savoye (1929)

Le Corbusier’s philosophy promoted five key points to architectural design.

These key points are:
1. The Pillar: columns, known as pilotis, were used to raise the building off the
ground, establishing an open space beneath.
2. The Independent Skeleton: Le Corbusier, like Mies Van der Rohe, believed in a
separation of the wall system from the structural system. The independent skeleton would
expose the structural system of a building, without tying it to the enclosure systems. This
structural system typically contained a flat roof structure. This roof area, known as the
Terrace, provided opportunity for garden or leisure activities.
An interesting item relative to the roof systems is the new resurgence of “green roof” theory for
our current structures. It is now determined that green roofs (using soil and plant life) are
environmentally friendly, provide adequate insulation, and add to the green ecology of our
urban environment. Green roofs are being promoted within the sustainable building
strategies sweeping the industry in the new millennium. We have almost come full circle
in just 30 years to recognize the value of Le Corbusier’s early concepts. Either our society
is far too slow to comprehend, or he was a visionary well ahead of his time.
3. The Free Plan: Interior planning of the buildings was to be left flexible, movable
and free of as many restrictions as possible. The structure was to be independent of the
walls, which left placement of the walls up to the users. Flexibility to adapt is the key thrust
of this component.

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4. The Free Façade : This component relates to the exterior walls of

the structure. Le Corbusier separated the key elements of the buildings
( structure, plan, and elevation) to allow maximum flexibility in the design
process. Each item was still connected, yet flexible to meet the varied
needs of the users.
5. Light : lighting, especially natural lighting, was a critical component
of the architecture. Le Corbusier notes in his definition of architecture that
the masses are “brought together in the light”. His use of glazing was
carefully planned and positioned to provide the most dramatic affect. The
architectural designs show a preference for the ribbon band of windows.
This ribbon effect accents the overall horizontality of the structures,
maintaining a machine-look to the building.

Villa Savoye Staircase

Le Corbusier’s philosophy and approach to architecture are well
documented in publications that rival those written of Frank Lloyd Wright in
quantity. Le Corbusier, like Wright, demonstrated incredible talent and vision
though the grandest of schemes were beyond the reach of civilization. High-rise
housing units set amid vast green fields, with work/shop/live environments, never
translated into construction.

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The Golden Mean

Le Corbusier’s talents are also demonstrated in a completely different

architectural vein; the sculptural form. The Chapel at Ronchamp is a definitive
example of the sculptural style that Le Corbusier displayed. This structure shows
his talent in mass and scale, while also creating dramatic interior lighting
conditions through the careful sizing and placement of the windows.

Main Entrance, Ronchamp (1950)

Major works completed include:

• Villa Savoye, (near) Paris, 1929

• Swiss Pavilion, Paris, 1932
• Marseilles Block (Unites D'habitation), Paris, 1947
• Chandigarh, India, 1951-1965
• Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts, Boston, Mass., USA, 1961

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Success and Failure:

These key figures led the way in the movements of architecture up to World War II. There was
growing trade in the ideas and philosophies circulating around the Western World. New ideas
were infused into the United States for each type or generalization of architecture noted.
Adaptations were made, theories altered, new designs sprung forth, and the profession matured.

It should be noted, as a reality check, that integration of new concepts and designs within the
existing city layout didn’t always work. Designs were at times harassed, shot down, criticized and
occasionally rejected. The new philosophy sometimes failed to be carried through in the detailing
of a building; producing a hybrid or poor example of the original style. Just as the early builders
(Gothic, Renaissance, Romans) occasionally dealt with failure when their theory lacked
constructability (falling down in most cases), so the current architects sometimes met with
disappointment when the theory failed to translate into success after construction. The failure in
modern times was mostly theoretical, rather than structural.

A case relative to this failure involved the public housing units constructed in St. Louis, USA.
The housing units, named “Pruitt-Igoe”, were designed as a cluster of high-rise apartments
constructed out of concrete. The overall complex consisted of 33-11 storey apartment buildings on
a 57-acre site, totaling 2,870 apartments. The land area between the individual apartment blocks
was meant to be playgrounds and parks. The theory was clear, the designs practically planned,
and construction well done. However the project failed once people were added to the mix. Social
housing is intended to serve the middle to lower level of economic spectrum of society (the poor,
to be blunt). Crime, substance abuse, and violence often accompany the lifestyle of the poor.
“Pruitt-Igoe” failed to recognize this social reality.
Crime ran rampant in the buildings. Thieves could escape through any number of stairwells,
evading police, if the police dared to chase thieves into the unknown. Drugs were well-known
throughout the development since dealers were almost guaranteed unsupervised corridors on
almost any floor. Dealers also shared the same means of escape as the thieves. The situation
escalated to the level of abandonment when the police refused to travel any higher than the sixth
floor. The danger in going any higher grew since the stairwells were dangerous due to blind

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corners and dark areas. The elevators were untrustworthy since a person could too easily be
trapped. The remaining residents eventually settled on the bottom six floors of each building. The
upper floors were left for the thieves and dealers to manage.

The integration of building and landscaping also failed in this concept. The land was developed
as green space for the families and children. Families were not about to leave their apartments
unattended if they didn’t have to. A vacant suite was an invitation for the thieves to help
themselves. Children were not allowed to go out on their own since the parents could not supervise
from their apartments. It was also dangerous in the elevators and stairwells so it was not wise to
let children walk alone. The landscaped areas were left unattended and vacant. These areas soon
became the property of thieves and dealers.

The situation at the total development was bad and not self-improving. The decision to demolish
was made in 1972 when the complex was not quite twenty years old. Social housing based on the
high-rise urban theory had failed due to human nature, not design flaw.

Post World War II:

The architectural world opened wide after the Second World War.

A renewed optimism in life occurred at the closure of the second world conflict. Business thrived
as the economy of countries grew. The Western World felt a new sense of pride and
encouragement towards a bright future. Housing construction expanded outside of the city limits
(the urban environment) to create the new sub-urban landscaping (the suburbs). A new corporate
lifestyle emerged, particularly within the United States. Work and home were separating;
commuting became commonplace, and the use of vehicles widespread.

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The affect of architecture came through the urban form of modern structures. Corporations sought
to project an image of new and modern entities that dominated the business world. These desires
were displayed through the use of the high-rise business block.

Steel framing formed the means to build taller and more efficiently than before. Steel and concrete
floor systems were easily erected, allowing quick rise to the structure. The use of glass curtain-
walls, similar to those promoted by the Bauhaus school, allowed for easy enclosure as the building
rose. The designs for these building types became standardized in planning. There was always a
concrete core block which housed elevators, stairs, and essential services (washrooms, ventilation
and service shafts). The concrete core helped to support the perimeter steel frame which carried
the outside edge of the floor systems as well as the exterior curtain-wall.

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A famous example of the sleek, vertical, modern styling achieved through

this design methodology is the Lever House, corporate headquarters of the Lever
Soap Company. This design, completed by the American firm of Skidmore,
Owings and Merrill (Gordon Bunschaft) was constructed in 1950. This building
led the way for new American and World architecture of similar designs.

Lever House, New York (1950)

The modern style ruled the corporate environment due to its aesthetic and
efficiency. The floor plans allowed for free planning of offices or open areas as
well as ease in renovating as corporations grew or shifted their focus. Alternative
styles were still very active among other building types throughout the Western
Civilization.

The revival of styles can be seen in numerous examples during the mid-
20 th Century. Brutalist revival demonstrated a return to bulk massing blocks of
building forms, aesthetically harsh, solid and “permanent” by their use of exposed
concrete and massive wall areas with punched windows.

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Pilgrimage Church, Neviges (1962)

Expressionist revivals were artistically used in many structures of a

specific purpose. Eoro Saarinen displayed the aesthetic of flight in his design for
the Trans-World Airlines terminal in New York (1962). The visual reference to
wings of a bird carries forth the aura of being airborne, the purpose of the
terminal.

TWA Airlines, New York (1962)

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The Sydney Opera House, designed by Jorn Utzon (1959) is based on the
form of ship’s sails. This building sits on a site joining the harbour to the city,
forming the link between land and oceanic forms.

Sydney Opera House (1959)

Additional schools of thought flourished, resulting in architecture of varied

forms and appearances. Architectural theory fluctuated depending on the
practitioner. The importance of context and local surroundings either governed
the design parti or was completely ignored. New buildings blended in or stood
out. The same ideals were applied to additions adjoining existing structures.
Philosophies were personal and became office specific within the architectural
industry.

A new period arose from the dichotomy of architectural thought. This

minor movement, known as Second Modernism, sought to bring the varied
streams back to a single course of design. It did not succeed. Architecture was
on a world stage, as were the architects who envisioned the great works.

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The last half of the 20th Century has produced dramatic works in as many
building styles as there are architects. Philosophy, theory and practice mature
and shift to suit the culture of the country and world. Many individuals have risen
to fame within the profession, espousing their theory through both text and
professional practice.

Vouksenniska Church (1956)

These key individuals, to name only a few, include:

• Alvar Aalto – believed architectural design should focus on serving

the needs of the people. (Vouksenniska Church)

• Louis Kahn – believed architectural design should focus on

facilitating the function of the building’s purpose. (Salk Institute)

Salk Institute (1965)

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• Robert Venturi – promoted gaudy design (Vegas style) which was

the style the culture seemed to desire. (Vanna Venturi House)

Vanna Venturi House

Robert A.M. Stern Storefront (1975)

• Robert Stern – a return to the modernist philosophy of Le Corbusier.

• Michael Graves – post-modernism, using applied elements to mimic
historic facades in abstracted forms. (Disney Hotels)

Disney Hotels, Florida (1987)

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• Richard Rogers – mechanical design strategies, exposing the

structure and systems of the building. (Pompidou Centre)

Pompidou Centre, Paris (1972)

The list is inexhaustible as new talents continually emerge and new styles
are born of old theories. The history remains unwritten as the process continues.

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There are many notable Canadian contributions to the world-class level of

architectural design. Canada remains an open and inviting environment where
new forms are stimulated and developed. Canadian architects of note include:

• Moshe Safdie – designed the National Gallery as well as Canadian

Embassy in Washington, DC. Currently working in Israel. (Habitat,
Montreal)

Habitat, Montreal (1967)

• Arthur Eriksen – British Columbia architect who completed Simon

Fraser University and B.C. Law Courts Building. Currently working
in Vancouver and Los Angeles. (Simon Fraser University)

Simon Fraser University (1963)

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• Douglas Cardinal – First Nations architect, completing designs

based on organic forms; designed First Nations University of
Canada (Regina), Museum of Civilization (Ottawa), and the First
Nations addition to the Smithsonian Institute (Washington, DC).
Currently working in Ottawa.

Canadian Museum of Civilization (1986)

• Frank Gehry – Toronto-born architect practicing in Los Angeles.

Designed the Guggenheim Museum (Bilbao, Spain), American
Embassy (Paris), and the Disney Concert Hall (Log Angeles).

Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao (1993)

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World Trade Centre Site, Daniel Liebeskind Studio (2004)

Architecture as an art form knows no boundaries. Designs may be

completed based on a known design/period style or based on a free form mass
of sculpture. The four basic types discussed at the outset of this chapter still hold
true, though definitions do have to be stretched at times to catch a unique
building type.
The history of architecture in Western Civilization has been one of growth,
development, precedent and reflection. We have achieved a state of world
architecture in this era of information, internet and media. With each successive
time-period studied, architectural design has become more diverse in theory,
practice and construction. The future remains to be seen.

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