7.

HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

7.HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION


INTRODUCTION
A recognisable feature of a human being or any other organism) like height, complexion, shape of
hair, colour of eyes, and shape of nose and chin, etc, are called ‘characters’ or ‘traits’. The
transmission of characters (or traits) from the parents to their offsprings is called heredity. In most
simple terms, heredity means continuity of features from one generation to the next.The
reproduction of organisms produces variations. The variations produced in organisms during
successive generations get accumulated inthe organisms. The significance of a variation shows
up only if it continues to be inherited by the offspring for several generations.
Evolution is a kind of gradual unfolding (or formation) of the new organisms from the pre-existing
primitive organisms through slow and steady changes. We can now define evolution as follows :
Evolution is the sequence of gradual changes which take place in the primitive organisms over
millions of years in which new species are produced.


A.

HEREDITY AND VARIATION
(a) Heredity :


 t includes those traits or characters which are transmitted from generation to generation and are
therefore fixed for a particular individual.
 • Genetics : Study of heredity and variations is said to be known as genetics. The term genetics
was first of all used by W. Bateson in 1905. An Austrian monk namely Gregor Johann Mendel
was the first person to study genetics. He was therefore regarded as the ‘Father of Genetics’.


(b) Variations :


Variation is concerned with the difference between the individuals of same species and also
between the offsprings of the same parents.
 Variations could be of two types :
(i) Somatic variation (ii) Germinal variation


 (i) Somatic variation : Somatic variation affects the somatic cells of an organism. It is neither
inherited from parents nor transmitted to next generation. It is acquired by individual during it’s
own life and is lost with it’s death. It is therefore also called as acquired variation. Somatic
variations are due to :


(I) Environment : This includes the factors that affect the organisms such as food, air, pressure,
humidity, water etc.


  Light : Strong sunlight affects the human skin by increasing the dark pigment melanin in the
epidermal cells. Melanin protects the underlying cells by absorbing the ultra violet rays of the
sun.


  Habitat: It also affects the genetic make – up of an individual and leads to variations.
  Nutrition : It is also one of the various factors that cause variations.
 (II) Use and disuse of organs : Continuous use of an organ makes it better developed whereas
constant disuse makes it reduced.


(III) Conscious efforts : Conscious efforts by man produce somatic variations in humans
themselves, in domestic animals and plants.
 (ii) Germinal variation : This variation affects the germ cells of an organism and is consequently
inheritable. It is received by the individual from the parents and is transmitted to the next
generation.
  Significance of Variation :
 • Variation enables the organisms to adapt themselves to the changing environment.
 • It forms raw material for evolution.
 • It enables the organisms to face the struggle for existence in a better way.
 • It helps men in improving the races of useful animals and plants.
 • It is the basis of heredity.
  • It also leads to the existence of new traits.

Corp. / Reg. Office : CG Tower, A-46 & 52, IPIA, Near City Mall, Jhalawar Road, Kota (Raj.)-324005
Website : www.resonance.ac.in | E-mail : [email protected]
Class_X - 112
Toll Free : 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029
7. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

Q.1 Who is the father of genetics ?

Q.2 Differentiate between somatic and germinal variations with example.
Q.3 Define variation.
Q.4 How is variation important for evolution ?

B. MENDEL’S CONTRIBUTION
 • Gregor Johann Mendel (1822- 1884) in silisian (Austria) now a part of Czechoslovakia. He is
known as the Father of genetics.
 • He conducted his experiments on garden pea (Pisum sativum).
 • Mendel presented his experiments data conclusions before Brunn Natural Society in 1865 and
was published in Annual Proceedings of the Natural History Society in 1866
 • His work was recognized in 1900 after his death (1884). Mendel’s conclusions (laws) were
rediscovered simultaneously by Hugo de vries a Dutch biologist, Carl Correns a German
botanist and Erich von Tschermak an Austrian botanist.


  Some general terms (Terminology) :

• Gene : It is a hereditary unit which carries character from one generation to another
generation.
• Allele : Term allele refers to each of the members of a genetic pair or alternate trait of a gene
pair.
 • Homozygous traits : They have similar alleles for specific trait (TT or tt). They produce only
one type of gametes.
• Heterozygous traits : They have dissimilar alleles for a specific trait (Tt). They produce two
types of gametes.
• Dominant trait : The trait which appears in F1 generation is called as dominant trait. It is
denoted by capital letter. e.g. TT (tall).
• Recessive trait : The traits which does not appear in F1 generation is called as recessive trait.
It is denoted by small letter. e.g. tt (dwarf)
• Genotype : It is the genetic representation of a trait. e.g. TT or Tt for a tall plant.
• Phenotype : It is the expression( physical appearance) of a trait e.g. Tall pea plant. It can be
noted by direct observation of an individual.


• Monohybrid cross : It involves the study of inheritance of one pair of contrasting characters.
e.g. nheritance of tall and dwarf characters.
• Dihybrid cross : It is the study of inheritance of two pairs of contrasting characters.
• Trihybrid cross: It is the study of inheritance of three pairs of contrasting characters.
• Back cross : The cross between F1 generation with any of the parents is known as back
cross.
• Test cross : The cross between F1 generation and the recessive parent is called as test cross.
• Emasculation : The removal of anther from a flower for the cross pollination
(a) Mendel’s Experiment :
Mendel chose garden pea as plant material for his experiments, since it has following advantages :
 • Short life cycle.
 • Well defined characters
 • Bisexual flowers
 • Predominantly self – fertilization
 • Easy hybridization
 • Cross fertilization is possible

Corp. / Reg. Office : CG Tower, A-46 & 52, IPIA, Near City Mall, Jhalawar Road, Kota (Raj.)-324005
Website : www.resonance.ac.in | E-mail : [email protected]
Class_X - 113
Toll Free : 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029
7. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
(i) Traits chosen by Mendel for his experiment : There are seven traits which Mendel has
selected, they are as follows :
S.No. Characters Dominant Recessive
1. Stem height Tall Dwarf
2. Flower colour Violet White
3. Flower position Axial Terminal
4. Pod shape Inflated Constricted
5. Pod colour Green Yellow
6. Seed shape Round Wrinkled
7. Seed colour Yellow Green


  Mendel performed experiments in three stages :



• He made sure that, the plant which he had selected must be a true breeding plant, by letting
the plant to undergo self – fertilization.
• He performed the process of cross pollination of alternate forms of traits. The resultant
generation obtained was termed as hybrid, and these hybrids formed are called as F1
generation i.e. First filial generation.
• He allowed the hybrid to self pollinate upto five generations and these generations are
subsequently termed as F2, F3, F4 and so on.


(ii) Reasons for Mendel’s success :

• He selected true breeding [pure] pea plant for his experiment.
• He studied single trait at a time.
• He kept an accurate mathematical record of his breeding experiments and noted down the
number of each type of offspring produced in each cross.
• He was lucky enough to select the seven traits , as the gene for these traits are located on four
different chromosomes.


(b) Monohybrid cross :

• When the F1 generation was obtained, it was found that the resultant generation would
express only one of the trait and not the other.The trait which is being expressed is called as
dominant, whereas the one which is not expressed is called as recessive trait.
• The F2 generation is obtained by self pollination, the dominant and the recessive traits
obtained were in the ratio of 3 : 1 i.e. 75% of the offsprings which appeared in F2 generation
had dominant trait, while 25% had recessive trait. This ratio of 3 : 1 is also said to be known as
Mendelian monohybrid ratio.
Dwarf pea plant
TT × tt

T T t t

In F1 all are tall

(F1 × F1)
Tt × Tt
T t T t

T t

T TT Tt

t Tt tt

In F2 we will get 3 : 1 ratio.

TT Homozygous tall
Tall [3]
Tt Heterozygous tall
tt Homozygous dwarf Dwarf [1]

Homozygous tall : Heterozygous tall : Homozygous dwarf

1 : 2 : 1
Corp. / Reg. Office : CG Tower, A-46 & 52, IPIA, Near City Mall, Jhalawar Road, Kota (Raj.)-324005
Website : www.resonance.ac.in | E-mail : [email protected]
Class_X - 114
Toll Free : 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029
7. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
YYRR × yyrr

YR YR yr yr

yr yr

YR YyRr YyRr

YR YyRr YyRr
All F1 plants are yellow and round seeded
YyRr × YyRr

YR Yr yR yr YR Yr yR yr

YR Yr yR yr

YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr

Yr YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr

yR YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr
yr YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr

So here phenotypic ratio is 9 : 3 : 3 : 1

(d) Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance :
(i) The principle of paired factors : Each character in an individual is governed by two factors
called as gene. The alternative form of gene is called as alleles or allelomorphs. If an
individual consists of similar types of alleles, they are called as homozygous e.g. TT, tt while
those having different types of alleles are called as heterozygous e.g. Tt etc.
(ii) The principle of dominance or law of dominance : When two homozygous individuals with
one or more sets of contrasting characters are crossed the characters that appear in the F1
hybrids are dominant characters and those which do not appear in F1 are recessive characters .
(iii) The principle of segregation or law of segregation : [Law of purity of gametes] The law of
segregation states that when a pair of contrasting factors or genes or alleles are brought
together in a heterozygous condition, the two remains together without being contaminated but
when gametes are formed from them the two separate out from each other. This is also known
as Mendel’s first law of heredity.
(iv) The principle of independent assortment or law of independent assortment : If the
inheritance of more than one pair of characters is studied simultaneously, the factors or genes
for each pair of characters assort out independently. It is called as Mendel’s second law of
heredity.
(e) Genes :
 • The term ‘gene’ was introduced by Johanssen for Mendelian factor. Gene determines the
physical as well as physiological characteristics. Mendel’s called them Factors.
 • They are transmitted from parents to their offsprings generation after generation. Genes are
located on chromosomes where they occupy specific position called as locus. Chromosomal
theory of inheritance was given by T. Boveri and W.S. Sutton in 1902.

Q.1 Define dominant and recessive allele.

Q.2 What is the diffference between back and test cross ?
Q.3 Who rediscovered Mendel’s work ?
Q.4 Why did Mendel choose garden pea as plant material for experiment ?


Corp. / Reg. Office : CG Tower, A-46 & 52, IPIA, Near City Mall, Jhalawar Road, Kota (Raj.)-324005
Website : www.resonance.ac.in | E-mail : [email protected]
Class_X - 115
Toll Free : 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029
7. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

(C) SEX DETERMINATION

 • Chromosomes are of two types :
 • Autosomes or Somatic chromosomes : These regulate somatic characters.
 • Allosomes or Heterosomes or Sex chromosomes : These chromosomes are associated
with sex determinations. Sex chromosomes were first discovered by “Mc Clung” in
grasshopper. X chromosome was discovered by Henking.
 • XX – XY Type : This type of sex determination is first observed by Wilson and Stevens in
Laygaeus insect. t is of two types :
(a) XX female & XY male :
In this type of sex determination female is homogametic while male is heterogametic. e.g. Humans
44+XX × 44+XY

22+X 22+X 22+X 22+Y

44+XX 44+XY 44+XX 44+XY

(Female) (Male) (Female) (Male)
(b) XY female and XX male :
In this type of sex determination female is heterogametic while male is homogametic. e.g. Butter
flies, moth and vertebrates like birds, fishes and reptiles.

Q.1 Differentiate between autosomes and allosomes.

Q.2. Who discovered X-chromosomes?
Q.3 Who discovered sex chromosomes?
Q.4 Who discovered XX-XY type of sex determination?

D. ORIGIN OF LIFE
Several theories have been put forward to explain the origin of life.
(a) Theory of special creation :
According to this theory life was created by some Super Natural Power (God). This theory has no
evidence, hence it is a rejected theory.
(b) Theory of spontaneous generation :
According to this theory life is originated repeatedly from nonliving materials, automatically from time
to time. This theory was supported by Thales and Aristotle.
(c) Theory of biogenesis :
Scientist like Redi, Lazzaro Spallanzani, Louis Pasteur proposed and proved the biogenesis concept
of Huxley and Harvey that new organism arises from pre-existing ones.
(d) Cosmozoic theory :
t states that, life came to earth from some heavenly bodies in the form of spores and seeds.
(e) Modern theories (Naturalistic Theories) :
Life originated upon earth by a long series of physiochemical changes which brought about a
gradual evolution of first inorganic and then organic compounds (chemical evolution). It results in the
formation of protoplasm.
This includes –

Corp. / Reg. Office : CG Tower, A-46 & 52, IPIA, Near City Mall, Jhalawar Road, Kota (Raj.)-324005
Website : www.resonance.ac.in | E-mail : [email protected]
Class_X - 116
Toll Free : 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029
7. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
(i) Oparin – Haldane Theory : Given by A.I. Oparin (Russia) and Haldane (England)
Book - Origin of life
• According to oparin and Haldane” Life originated abiogenetically first but biogenetically ever
since.”
• “Chemical evolution through physio-chemical process” was the main theme and also called
Materialstic theory of oparin + Haldane.
• First life originated as single cell in oceanic water (salty water).
• According to oparin and Haldane life orignated (up to Eukaryotic cell) in the following phases.
 I. 1st Phase : Atomic phase : Only atoms of each element were present -
In earth core - Heavy metals (Fe, Cu, Ni, pb)
In earth crust - Si, Na , K, Mg, Al, P, F, Cl
In atmosphare - H, He, Ar, N, O, C
 II. 2nd Phase - Molecular phase and formation of simple inorganic compound like -
 • H2 - most reactive, 90% and make early enviroment highly reactive.
 

 III. 3rd - Phase Formation of first simplest organic compound

CH 4 , NH3,H 2 U.V.Rays, cosmic ray Simple amino acid,
Water Vapour fatty acid, simple
lightning and thundering sugar, N2 bases
  Due to formation of above organic compound it was become possible to originate life or it was
first step towards protoplasm synthesis. Prebiotic Soup - Hot dilute mixture of simple organic
compound in sea water termed as prebiotic soup by Haldane.
(ii) Stanley Miller & H.C. Urey Experiment [Experiment for verification of prebiotic soup] :
 • This experiment verified the Oparin Haldane theory by creating [stimulating] in their laboratory
the probable conditions on the primitive earth.
 • They built an apparatus of glass tubes and flasks and created an atmosphere containing H2,
CH4, NH3 ,H2O in one chamber – energy was also supplied by electric sparks.
 • The resultant mixtures were allowed to condense. Experiment was run for one week. Chemical
composition of the liquid revealed glycine, alanine and aspartic acid.
 • Thus biotic synthesis of organic molecules was confirmed.

Fig.7.1 Miller’s Experiment

(f) Lamarckism :
First theory of evolution was proposed by Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744–1829) in his book
Philosophie Zoologique (1809). The term Biology was given by Lamarck & Treviranus.
 Basic concepts of Lamarckism :
(i) Internal vital forces : Some internal forces are present in all organisms. By the presence of
these forces organisms have the tendency to increase the size of organs or entire body.

Corp. / Reg. Office : CG Tower, A-46 & 52, IPIA, Near City Mall, Jhalawar Road, Kota (Raj.)-324005
Website : www.resonance.ac.in | E-mail : [email protected]
Class_X - 117
Toll Free : 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029
7. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
(ii) Effect of environment and new needs : Environment influences all types of organisms.
Changing environment gives rise to new needs. New needs or desires produce new structures
and change habits of the organism.
(iii) Use and disuse of organs : If an organ is constantly used, it would be better developed
whereas disuse of organ results in its degeneration.
(iv)  nheritance of acquired characters : During the life time of an organism new characters
develop due to internal vital forces, effect of environment, new needs and use and disuse of
organs.
 • These acquired characters are inherited from one generation to next.
 • By continuous inheritance through many generations these acquired characters tend to make
new generation quite different from its ancestors resulting in the formation of new species.
  Examples in support of Lamarckism :
• Long neck and large fore limbs of Giraffe.
• Aquatic birds stretch their toes and developed webs.
• Snakes have lost their legs.
• Deer become a good runner by the development of strong limbs and streamlined body.
• Retractile claws of carnivorous animals.
 Criticism of Lamarckism :
• According to first concept organisms tends to increase their size but it is not a universally truth,
e.g. Among angiosperms the trees seem to have been primitive and the shrubs, herbs and
grasses evolved from trees but the size is reduced during evolution.
• Second concept is false as we can’t have a sprout wings wishing to fly like birds.
 Objection against third concept : Eyes of regular reader do not increase in size and power
with increasing age, the constantly beating heart maintains a constant size through
generations.
• Fourth concept is completely false because acquired characters are not inherited.
(g) Weismann Theory :
Weismann cut off the tails of rats for about twenty two generations but there is no reduction in the
size of the tail. On the basis of this experiment Weismann proposed the theory of continuity of
germplasm.
  According to Weismann :
 • Two types of matters are present in organisms, somatoplasm and germplasm.
• Somatoplasm in somatic cells and germplasm in germinal cells.
 • Somatoplasm dies with the death of an organism while germplasm is transferred into next
generation.
 • f any variation develops in germplasm it is inherited while if variation develops in
somatoplasm it is not transmitted.
(h) Neolamarckism :
Although Lamarckism remained controversial but some scientists gave following evidences in favour
of Lamarckism they are called as neo Lamarckism. According to Neo Lamarckism environment
affected the inheritance of acquired characters. According to it changing environment gives rise to
some physical and chemical changes in organism which affect germplasm, and these acquired
characters are definitely inherited.
(i) Darwinism or theory of Natural selection :
“Darwinism” or Theory of natural selection was proposed jointly by Charles Darwin (1809-1892) and
Alfred Wallace in 1859. This theory was later on explained by Charles Darwin in his Book ”The
origin of species” by means of “Natural Selection” (1859). When he went on a voyage on the famous
ship “H.M.S. Beagle” (1831- 1836) period.
(i) Postulates of Darwinism : He had proposed five important postulates namely
• Multiplication of individual of a species in a geometric proportion.
• Due to geometric multiplication and due to the availability of limited food and space for these
individuals the struggle for existence is seen.

Corp. / Reg. Office : CG Tower, A-46 & 52, IPIA, Near City Mall, Jhalawar Road, Kota (Raj.)-324005
Website : www.resonance.ac.in | E-mail : [email protected]
Class_X - 118
Toll Free : 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029
7. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
• The operation of natural selection on the existing variability in order to select the best fitted
variations.
 Variations : They are rule of nature and proved to be beneficial for better existence.
 Natural selection : Natural selection is the principle element of Darwin’s theory. The principle
by which the preservation of useful variations is brought about was called as natural selection.
(ii) Merits of Darwinism :
• The major achievement of Darwin was to recognize one of the major factor in adaptation i.e.
natural selection.


(iii) Demerits of Darwinism : 



 • n Darwin’s natural selection principle the death of the unit and the survival of the fittest was
conceived.
• Darwin also believed that the natural selection operates on variations but he did not consider
the possibility of the origin of new hereditary variations, which are really responsible for origin
of species.
• Darwin also did not distinguish between hereditary and environmental variations.


(j) Neo–Darwinism :


 • It is a modified form of Darwinism, along with the recent researches of Weisman, Mendel,
Huxley, Gates, DeVries etc.


 • They performed various experiments to remove objections against Darwin’s Theory.



 • Neo–Darwinism comprises three important postulates :

(i) Genetic variability : t means the variations that occur in the genetic constitution of an
organism. They could be of following types :
• Chromosomal aberrations [deletion, duplication, translocation and inversion]
• Chromosomal numbers [ haploidy, polyploidy etc.]
• Gene mutation
• Hybridization
(ii) Natural selection : According to Neo – Darwinism the organism which is more adapted
towards environment matures first and produces more progenies, as compared to less
adapted organism.
 • t shows positive selection method.
 • t can overcome environmental stress.
 • t produces greater progeny than others.
(iii) Reproductive isolation : It is the failure of interbreeding between the related groups of
living organisms and is essential to prevent the dilution of differences between the genetically
different species.

Q.1 Why was early atmosphere called reduced atmosphere?

Q.2 What does the theory of biogenesis suggest?
Q.3 Define natural selection.
Q.4 What is the objection against lamarckism?

E. SPECIATION & EVOLUTION
(a) Speciation :
• A species is a population of organisms consisting of similar individuals which can breed
together and produce fertile offspring. Species can be of plants or of animals. Wheat, paddy,
sunflower, lotus, mango, neem, humans, tiger, dog and cat, etc., are all examples of various
types of species. The human beings who look so different from each other in terms of size,
colour and looks are said to belong to the same species (Homo sapiens) because they can
interbreed to produce fertile offspring (sons and daughters). The process by which new
species develop from the existing species is known as speciation.

Corp. / Reg. Office : CG Tower, A-46 & 52, IPIA, Near City Mall, Jhalawar Road, Kota (Raj.)-324005
Website : www.resonance.ac.in | E-mail : [email protected]
Class_X - 119
Toll Free : 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029
7. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
• The important factors which could lead to the rise (or formation) of a new species are the
following :
(i) Geographical isolation (Allopatric speciation e.g. Darwins finches) of a population caused by
various types of barriers (such as mountain ranges, rivers and sea). The geographical isolation
leads to reproductive isolation (Sympatric speciation e.g. Pig frog and Gopher frog in different
habitats) due to which there is no flow of genes between separated groups of population.
There can be a number of ways by which interbreeding between two beetles of two subgroups
stop.
 • The changes in DNA structure or number of chromosomes will make the gametes
incompatible and prevent fertilization.
 • The morphology of reproductive organs may change, which prevents compatibility and
fertilization.
 • The difference in the behaviour of male and female will also prevent mating.
• The organisms may have developed different breeding periods.

Fig.7.2 : The separation of species populations in due course of time

(ii) Genetic drift caused by drastic changes in the frequencies of particular genes by chance
along.
(iii) Variations caused in individuals due to natural selection. It should be noted that geographical
isolation is the major factor in the speciation of sexually reproducing animals because it
interrupts the flow of genes between their isolated populations through the gametes.
(iv) Instantaneous speciation : It is a sudden development of new species.

Fig.7.3 : Variations in a population - innerited and otherwise



   IIustration : Let us consider a group of twelve red beetles, which reproduce by sexual
reproduction and lives in the bushes with green leaves.


  • They are preyed upon by crows.

  • More number of the crows are available for eating beetles.
Corp. / Reg. Office : CG Tower, A-46 & 52, IPIA, Near City Mall, Jhalawar Road, Kota (Raj.)-324005
Website : www.resonance.ac.in | E-mail : [email protected]
Class_X - 120
Toll Free : 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029
7. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
  • The fewer beetles are available to reproduce.
• Now let us consider various causes of variation in the population of red beetles.
VARIOUS SITUATIONS OF BEETLES
S.NO. SITUATION OBSERVATION CONCLUSION
Variations have
survival advantage.
Rare variation
came as a
This green beetle can
common
pass the green colour
characteristic
to its progeny. Crows
A green in the population.In
cannot see green beetles
colour variation other words,
on the green leaves of the
1. arises during frequency of certain
bushes so cannot eat them.
reproduction gene traits
The population as
one beetle. (genes control the
compared to red
traits)
beetles, will
changed over
increase by time.
generations.
This is the essence
of the idea of
evolution
This blue beetle
Variations do not
can pass the
have
blue colour to its progeny
survival advantages.
Crows can
Frequency of certain
see blue as well
traits / genes can
as red beetles
A blue colour variation be changed by
on the green leaves
arises during reproduction. accidents in small
of bushes, so crows
populations
2. can eat them.
Both above changes
Population of
provide diversity
beetles grows slowly
without any
and blue beetles
adaptations.
are more in number.
Beetles which
Sub situation : Most of the
are survived are
beetles are killed by elephant
mostly blue.
foot.
This is by chance
Amount of plant
(leaf) material for
the beetles
Appearance of plant disease decreases.Beetles
in the bushes. are poorly
nourished. Average
weight of
3.
beetles decreases.
Sub situation : Disappearance
The change in the
of plant disease in the bushes.
Size of saturated weight of
Amount of plant (leaf)
beetles increases beetles is not
material for the beetles
to normal. inherited over
increases. Beetles are properly
generations.
nourished.

(b) Evolution :
(i) Evolution by stage :
(I) Evolution of eyes : The complex body organs of animals such as eyes have been created in
stages over many generations. First of all rudimentary eye (basic eye) like that of flatworm
(planaria) was formed.The eyes of flatworm are very simple that are actually just eye spots
which can detect light. Even this rudimentary eyes have survival advantage to
flatworm.Starting from this basic design, more and more complex eyes were evolved in
various organisms for example insects , octopus, and invertebrates all have eyes. The
structure of eyes in each of these organisms is however different which suggests their
separate evolutionary origins.

Fig.7.4 : Planaria has very simple eyes

Corp. / Reg. Office : CG Tower, A-46 & 52, IPIA, Near City Mall, Jhalawar Road, Kota (Raj.)-324005
Website : www.resonance.ac.in | E-mail : [email protected]
Class_X - 121
Toll Free : 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029
7. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
(II) Evolution of feathers : Sometimes an evolutionary change produced in an organism for one
purpose later on becomes more useful for an entirely different function. For example, birds
evolved feathers as a means of providing insulation to their bodies in cold weather but later on
these feathers became more useful for the purpose of flying.Even some dinosaurs had
feathers though they could not fly by using these feathers. Birds, however, adapted feathers
for flying.The presence of feathers on birds tells us that the birds are very closely related to
reptiles because dinosaurs (which had feathers ) were reptiles.
(III) Evolution by artificial selection : Man has been taking the advantage of genetic variations
for improving the qualities of domesticated plants and animals. He selects the individuals with
desired characters and separates them from those which do not have such characters.
 • The selected individuals are interbreed.This process is termed as artificial selection.
• If it is repeated for many generations it produces a new breed with desired characters.

Fig. 7.5 : Some crop plants produced by selective breeding

(IV) Artificial Selection: By this selection process, very dissimilar looking structures may evolve
from a common ancestral design.


 • One of the classical examples is wild cabbage plant.

 • Humans have cultivated wild cabbage as a food plant, and generated different vegetables
from it by selection even more than two thousand years ago.
 • The various crop plants developed from wild cabbage plants are :


• Cabbage : t is selected for its terminal buds, where there is a very short distance between
leaves.


 • Kohlrabi : t is selected for its swollen stem position.



• Broccoli : t is selected for its flowers (arrested flower development) and stem.


 • Cauliflower : t is selected for its flower clusters (sterile flowers).



 • Now, wild cabbage is the ancestor and cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kohlrabi and kale are all
its varieties which have been obtained by evolution induced artificially by the farmers. The
ordinary cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kohlrabi and kale look so different from their ancestor
wild cabbage that if people had not seen it being done with their own eyes, they would never
have believed that vegetables having such different structures can be evolved from the same
ancestral vegetable plant.

Corp. / Reg. Office : CG Tower, A-46 & 52, IPIA, Near City Mall, Jhalawar Road, Kota (Raj.)-324005
Website : www.resonance.ac.in | E-mail : [email protected]
Class_X - 122
Toll Free : 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029
7. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
(ii) Morphological evidences of evolution :
(I) Homologous organs or homology : [Same structure but different function] Homology can be
defined as the relationship between the structures which have similarity due to common
ancestors, although these structures may show difference in their functions.
  e.g.
• Fore limbs of vertebrates having pentadactyl limbs of similar origin and similar arrangement of
bones, muscles etc.
• Teeth of man.

Fig.7.6 : Homologous organs

(II) Analogous organs or analogy : [Different structure but similar function] Analogy can be
defined as a relationship between structures, which though differ anatomically but would have
superficial similarity due to similar functions.
  e.g.
• Wings of insects and wings of birds
• Sting of bee and scorpion.
• Fins of fishes and flipper of whales.

Fig.7.7 : Analogous organs

(III) Vestigial organs : Those organs which have no longer function are known as vestigial
organs. These organs have reduced structurally as well as functionally.
 t appears that these organs were well developed in ancestors but due to their reduced or less
use they became functionless.

Fig.7.8 : Vestigial organs of man


Corp. / Reg. Office : CG Tower, A-46 & 52, IPIA, Near City Mall, Jhalawar Road, Kota (Raj.)-324005
Website : www.resonance.ac.in | E-mail : [email protected]
Class_X - 123
Toll Free : 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029
7. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
  There are many vestigial organs in human body.
e.g. • Vermiform appendix in man • External ear in man.
• Nictitating membrane • Wisdom tooth

(iii) Embryological evidences

 • Embryology can be defined as a branch of science that deals with study of development of an
organism from zygote to an adult form inside the egg or mother’s womb.
 • The study of embryo’s from various organisms reveals similarity in the early stages of embryo
development and this theory suggests that these organisms have evolved from common
ancestors.
• e.g. Embryos of fish, Salamander, tortoise, chick, calf and man show the similarity during
embryo development.

Fig.7.9 Comparison pf stages on the development of vertebrate embryos A. Fish, B. Salamander C.Tortoise,
D.Chick,E.Calf, F.Human
(iv) Paleontological evidences :
 • Palaeontology is a branch of science that deals with the study of fossils.
 • The study of fossils of some of the organisms show similarity between the two groups,
 • Fossils provide the evidence that the present animals (and plants) have originated from the
previously existing ones through the process of continuous evolution.
 • e.g. Fossils of Archaeopteryx shows characteristics of both reptiles and birds.
 • The plants and animals that lived in remote past have in many cases left proofs of their
existence in the form of remains in the rocks. These are called as fossils.
 • Leonardo–da – vinci is called as the father of Paleontology.
 • Founder of modern palaeontology is George Cuvier.


  Dating of Fossils :


(I) Relative method (II) Carbon dating method



1. Relative method : The relative method works like this : when we dig into the earth, we finds
fossils at different depths. The fossils which we find in layers closer to the surface of the earth
are more recent ; the fossils which are found in deeper layers are older ; whereas the fossils
found in the deepest layers of earth are the oldest ones. Fossils which we find today were
once living objects.
2. Carbon dating method : All the living objects contain some carbon 14 atoms which are
radioactive.When a living object dies and forms fossil, its carbon 14 radioactivity goes on
decreasing gradually. In the carbon dating method, the age of fossils is found by comparing
the carbon-14 radioactivity left in fossils with the carbon-14 radioactivity present in living
objects today.

Corp. / Reg. Office : CG Tower, A-46 & 52, IPIA, Near City Mall, Jhalawar Road, Kota (Raj.)-324005
Website : www.resonance.ac.in | E-mail : [email protected]
Class_X - 124
Toll Free : 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029
7. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

Fig.7.10 : Dating of fossils

(v) Connecting Links : Animals are sharply differentiated and classified into phyla and classes
but there are some existing animals which represent an intermediate position between the two
groups. Such organisms are called as connecting links.


  e.g.


• Virus show connecting links between living and non–living.

• Euglena shows connecting link between plants and animals.
• Proterospongia is a connecting link between protozoa and porifera.
• Neopilina is a connecting link between Mollusca and arthropoda.
• Archaeopteryx is a connecting link between Reptilia and Aves.
• Peripatus is a connecting link between Annelida and arthropoda.
• Echidna is a connecting link between Aves and Mammalia.

Fig.7.11 Connecting links

Corp. / Reg. Office : CG Tower, A-46 & 52, IPIA, Near City Mall, Jhalawar Road, Kota (Raj.)-324005
Website : www.resonance.ac.in | E-mail : [email protected]
Class_X - 125
Toll Free : 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029
7. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
(vi) Human Evolution : The study of Human evolution and culture is known as Anthropology,
which deals with fossils, prehistoric and living man.The sequential arrangement of stages in
evolution is known as Geneology.

• Man belongs to
Phylum – Chordata
Sub-phylum – Vertebrata
Class – Mammalia
Order – Primates
Sub order – Anthropoidea
Super family – Hominoidea
Family – Hominidae
Genus – Homo
Species – Sapiens

• Human ancestory : The arrangement of fossils in evolutionary sequence includes : Tree

shrews  Prosomians (early anthropoids)  Dryopithecus  Ramapithecus 
Australopithecus  Homo Habilis Homo erectus  Homo neanderthalensis  Cro-magnon
 Homo sapiens.

Q.1 Define speciation.

Q.2 Define Paleontology.
Q.3 Give 4 examples of vestigial organs in humans
Q.4 What is atavism ?

Some Additional Points

 Heredity is the transmission of characters from one generation to the next. Variation means differences
between the individuals of the same species.
 Mendel’s factor is now called a gene, and its alternate forms are termed alleles.The latter lie in
homologous chromosomes.
 A cross between F1 individual and a recessive parent is called testcross. It is used to distinguish the pure
dominant from the hybrid dominat individuals.
 More than two alternate forms of a gene in a population are called multiple alleles. for e.g. ABO blood
groups.
 Mutation is an inheritable change in the structure of a gene or chromosomes, or a change in chromosome
number.
 Chromosome mutation (aberration) occurs by deletion, inversion, translocation and duplication.
 Mutations arise by mutagens such as radiation, chemicals and temperature.
 The planet Earth came into existence about 4.5 billion years ago from a large spinning cloud of gas and
dust.
 Life appeared about 3.7 billion years ago.
 Energy for chemical reactions was originally supplied by solar radiation, lightning and volcanic eruptions.
 Miller and Urey, by recreating conditions of primitive earth. produced amino acids, fatty acids and bases
abiotically from simple inorganic molecules (H2O, NH3, CH4,H2) in the laboratory.
 The first organisms were heterotrophs.They presumably obtained energy by fermentation of organic
compounds.
 Organs similar in structure and origin but differnet in function are called homologous organs. Example :
vertebrate forelimbs.
 Organs similar in function but different in structure and origin are termed analogous organs. Example :
insect and bird wings.
 Organisms having characters of two different groups are known as connecting links. Example : lung fishes.
 Rudimentary and nonfunctional organs are called vestigial organs. Example: vermiform appendix in
humans.
 Atavism is the appearance of a remote ancestral organ in some individuals of a species. Example : tail in
some babies.
 Artificial selection is practised to produce improved varieties of crops, ornamental plants, fruit and timber
trees, pets, and domestic animals.
 Speciation (origin of new species) occurs by mutation and selection in isolated populations.

Corp. / Reg. Office : CG Tower, A-46 & 52, IPIA, Near City Mall, Jhalawar Road, Kota (Raj.)-324005
Website : www.resonance.ac.in | E-mail : [email protected]
Class_X - 126
Toll Free : 1800 258 5555 | CIN: U80302RJ2007PLC024029