KTU - CST202 - Computer Organization and Architecture Module: 4

CONTROL LOGIC DESIGN: Control organization, Hardwired control,

Module: 4 microprogram control, control of processor unit, micro-program
sequencer, micro-programmed CPU organization, horizontal and
vertical micro instructions,

CONTROL LOGIC DESIGN

The process of logic design is a complex undertaking. The binary information found in a
digital system is stored in processor or memory registers, and it can be either data or control
information.
The logic design of a digital system is a process for deriving the digital circuits that perform
data processing and the digital circuits that provide control signals. The timing for all registers in
a synchronous digital system is controlled by a master-clock generator. The clock pulses are
applied to all flip-flops and registers in the system, including the flip-flops and registers in the
control unit.
Two representations which are helpful in the design of systems that need a control are
timing diagrams and flowcharts. A timing diagram clarifies the timing sequence and other
relationships among the various control signals in the system.A flowchart is a convenient way to
specify the sequence of procedural steps and decision paths for an algorithm.
The design of control logic cannot be separated from the algorithmic development
necessary for solving a design problem. Moreover, the control logic is directly related to the data-
processor part of the system that it controls.

CONTROL ORGANIZATION

Once a control sequence has been established, the sequential system that implements the
control operations must be designed. Since the control is a sequential circuit, it can be designed by
a sequential logic procedure.
Disadvantages of sequential control logic are
• Large number of states
• Excessive number of flip-flops and gates
• Design methods uses state and excitation tables but in practice they are cumbersome
Goal of control logic design should be development of a circuit that implements the desired
control sequence in a logical andstraightforward manner. Designers used specialized methods for
control logic design which is considered as the extension of the classical sequential logic method
combined with register transfer method.
We consider four methods of control organization
KTU - CST202 - Computer Organization and Architecture Module: 4

• One flip-flop per state methods

• Sequence register and decoder method
• PLA control
• Micro-program control
The first two methods result in a circuit that must use SSI and MSI circuits for the
implementation.A control unit implemented with SSI and MSI devices is said to be a hard-wired
control.If any alterations or modifications are needed, the circuits must be rewired to fulfill the
new requirements.
The PLA or micro-program control which uses an LSI device such as a programmable
logic array or a read-only memory. Any alterations or modifications in a micro-program control
can be easily achieved without wiring changes by removing the ROM from its socket and inserting
another ROM programmed to fulfill the new specifications.

One flip-flop per state methods

This method uses one flip-flop per state in the control sequential circuit. Only one flip-flop
is set at any particular time: all others are cleared. A single bit is made to propagate from one flip-
flop to the other under the control of decision logic. In such an array, each flip-flop represents a
state and is activated only when the control bit is
transferred to it.
In this method, maximum numbers of flip-
flops were used. Example: A sequential circuit
with 12 states requires a minimum of four flip-
flops because 23< 12< 24. Control circuit uses 12
flip-flops, one foreach state
The advantage of this method is the
simplicity with which it can be designed. This type
of controller can be designed by inspection from
the state diagram that describes the control
sequence. This also offers other advantages like
savings in design effort, an increase in operational
simplicity, and a potential decrease in the
combinational circuits required to implement the
complete sequential circuit. The disadvantage is
that this method would increase system cost since
more flip-flops are used.
Figure shows the configuration of a four-state sequential control logic that uses four D-
type flip-flops: one flip-flop per state Ti, i = 0, 1, 2, 3.

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KTU - CST202 - Computer Organization and Architecture Module: 4

At any given time interval between 2 clock pulses, only one flip-flop is equal to 1; all others
are 0. The transition from the present state to next state is a function of the present Ti that is a 1
and certain input conditions.
The next state is manifested when the previous flip-flop is cleared and a new one is set.
Each of the flip-flops is connected to the data processing section of the digital system to initiate
certain micro-operations. The control outputs are a function of the T's and external inputs. These
outputs may also initiate micro-operations
If control circuit does not need external inputs for its sequencing, the circuit reduces to
straight shift register with a single bit shifted from one position to the next. If control sequence
must repeated over and over again the control reduces to ring counter.
Ring counter is a shift register with the output of last flip-flop connected to the input of the
first flip-flop.In a ring counter single bit continuously shifts from one position to the next in a
circular manner.
For this reason, this method is also called ring counter controller

Sequence Register and Decoder Method

This method uses a register to sequence the control states. The register is decoded to
provide one output for each state. For n flip-flops in the sequence register, the circuit will have 2"
states and the decoder will have 2" outputs.
For example, a 4-bit register can be in any one of 16 states. A 4 x 16 decoder will have 16
outputs, one for each state of the register. Both the sequence register and decoder are MS1 devices.

Figure shows the configuration of a four-state sequential control logic. The sequence
register has two flip-flops and the decoder establishes separate outputs for each state in the register.
The transition to the next state in the sequence register is a function of the present state and the
external input conditions.

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KTU - CST202 - Computer Organization and Architecture Module: 4

If the control circuit does not need external inputs the sequence register reduces to a counter
that continuously sequence through the four states so called counter decoder method

PLA control
The external sequence register establishes the present state of the control circuit. The PLA
outputs determine which micro-operations should be initiated depending on the external input
conditions and the present state of the sequence register. At the same time other PLA outputs
determine the next state of the sequence register.

The sequence register is external to the PLA if the unit implements only combinational
circuits. Some PLAs include not only gates but also flip-flops within the unit. This implement a
sequential circuit by specifying the links that must be connected to the flip-flops in manner that
the gate links are specified

Micro-program Control
The purpose of control unit is to initiate a series of sequential steps of micro-operations. At
any given time certain operations are to be initiated while all others remain idle. The control
variable at any given time can be represented by a string of 1's and 0's called control word. The
control words can be programmed to initiate the various components in the system in an organized
manner.
A control unit whose control variables are stored in a memory called a micro-programmed
control unit. Each control word of memory is called Microinstruction and Sequence of
microinstructions is called Micro-program.
Control memory is usually ROM since an alteration of micro-program is seldom needed.
The use of micro-program involves placing all control variables in words of the ROM for use by
the control unit through successive read operations.The content of the word in the ROM at a given
address specifies the micro-operations for the system.
Dynamic micro-programming permits a micro-program to be loaded initially from the
computerconsole or from an auxiliary memory such as magnetic disk. Writable control

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memory(WCM) can be used for writing but usedmostly for reading. A ROM, PLA or WCM when
used in a control unit is referred as acontrol memory
Control memory address register specifies the control word read from control memory. The
ROM operates as a combinational circuit with address value as the input and the corresponding
word as the output. The content of the specified word remains on the output wires as long as the
address value remains in the address register.
If the address registers changes while the ROM word is still in use then the word out of the
ROM should be transferred to a buffer register. If the change in address and ROM word can occur
simultaneously no buffer register is needed. The word read from memory represents a
microinstruction.The microinstructionspecifies one or more micro-operations for thecomponents
of the system.
Once these operations are executed, the control unit must determine its next address. The
location of the next microinstruction may be next one in the sequence or it may locate somewhere
else in the control memory. Some bits of the microinstruction to control the generation of the
address for the next microinstruction.
The next address may be function of external input conditions. The next address is
computed in the next address generator circuit and then transferred into the control address register
to read the next microinstruction.

HARDWIRED CONTROL

The control hardware can be viewed as a state machine that changes from one state to
another in every clock cycle, depending on the contents of the instruction register, the condition
codes and the external inputs. The outputs of the state machine are the control signals. The
sequence of the operation carried out by this machine is determined by the wiring of the logic
elements and hence named as “hardwired”.
Control logic derived in this section is a hardwired control of the one flip-flop per state
method. The design of hardwired control is carried out in 5 consecutive steps
1. The problem is stated
2. An initial equipment configuration is assumed
3. An algorithm is formulated
4. The data processor part is specified
5. The control logic is designed

Statement of the problem

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KTU - CST202 - Computer Organization and Architecture Module: 4

The problem here is to implement with hardware the addition and subtraction of two fixed-
point binary numbers represented in sign-magnitude form. Complement arithmetic may be used,
provided the final result is in sign-magnitude form.
The addition of two numbers stored in registers of finite length may result in a sum that
exceeds the storage capacity of the register by one bit. The extra bit is said to cause an overflow.
The circuit must provide a flip-flop for storing a possible overflow bit.

Equipment Configuration
The two signed binary numbers to be added or subtracted contain n bits. The magnitudes
of the numbers contain k = n - 1 bits and are stored in registers A and B. The sign bits are stored
in flip-flops As and Bs.

Figure shows the registers and associated equipment. The ALU performs the arithmetic
operations and the 1-bit register E serves as the overflow flip-flop. The output carry from the ALL)
is transferred to E.
It is assumed that the two numbers and their signs have been transferred to their respective
registers and that the result of the operation is to be available in registers A and A s. Two input
signals in the control specify the add (qa) and subtract (qs) operations. Output variable x indicates
the end of the operation.
The control logic communicates with the outside environment through the input and output
variables. Control recognizes input signal qa or qs and provides the required operation. Upon
completion of the operation, control informs the external environment with output x that the sum
or difference is in registers A and A, and that the overflow bit is in E.

Derivation of the Algorithm

Designate the magnitude of the two numbers by A and B. When the numbers are added or
subtracted algebraically, there are eight different conditions to consider, depending on the sign of
the numbers and the operation performed. The eight conditions may be expressed in a compact
form as follows:
(±𝐴) ± (±𝐵)

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KTU - CST202 - Computer Organization and Architecture Module: 4

If the arithmetic operation specified is subtraction, we change the sign of B and add. This
is evident from the relations:
(±𝐴) − (+𝐵) = (±𝐴) + (−𝐵)
(± 𝐴) − (−𝐵) = (±𝐴) + (+𝐵)
This reduces the number of possible conditions to four, namely:
(±𝐴) + (±𝐵)
The four possible combination are
When the signs of A and B are the same: (+𝐴) + (+ 𝐵) = +(𝐴 + 𝐵)
(−𝐴) + (− 𝐵) = −(𝐴 + 𝐵)
When the signs of A and B are not the same
(+ 𝐴) + (− 𝐵) = +(𝐴 − 𝐵) [ if(A>B) ]
−(𝐵 − 𝐴) [ if(B>A) ]
(−𝐴) + (+𝐵) = −(𝐴 − 𝐵) [ if(A>B) ]
+(𝐵 − 𝐴) [ if(B>A) ]
The flowchart shows how we can
implement sign-magnitude addition and
subtraction with the equipment as shown
in previous diagram.
For more details about flowchart,
refer text book “Digital Logic and
Computer Design” by M. Morris Mano;
Page 418.

Data Processor Specification

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KTU - CST202 - Computer Organization and Architecture Module: 4

Figure (a) shows the data-processor with the required control variables. This ALU has four
selection variables, as shown in the diagram. The variable Is loads the output of the ALU into
register A and also the output carry into E. Variables y, z. and w complement B, and A, and clear
E, respectively.

Figure a. Data Processor Register and ALU

The block diagram of the control logic is shown in figure (b). The control receives five
inputs: two from the external environment and three from the data-processor. To simplify the
design, we define a new variable
S = As⊕ Bs
This variable gives the result of the comparison between the two sign bits. The exclusive-
OR operation is equal to 1 if the two signs are not the same, and it is equal to 0 if the signs are both
positive or both negative. The control provides an output x for the external circuit. It also selects
the operations in the ALU through the four selection variables S2, S1, S0, and Cin. The other four
outputs go to registers in the data-processor as specified in the diagram.

Figure b. Control Block Diagram

Control State Diagram

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KTU - CST202 - Computer Organization and Architecture Module: 4

The design of a hard-wired control is a sequential-logic problem. As such, it may be

convenient to formulate the state diagram of the sequential control. The function boxes in a
flowchart may be considered as states of the sequential circuit, and the decision boxes as next-state
conditions.
The micro-operations that must be executed at a given state are specified within the
function box. The conditions for the next state transition are specified inside the decision box or
in the directed lines between two function boxes. Consequently, different designers may produce
different state diagrams for the same flowchart, and each may be a correct representation of the
system. The control state diagram and the corresponding register-transfer operations are derived
in below figure.

We start by assigning an initial state, To, to the sequential controller. We then determine
the transition to other states T1, T2, T3, and so on. For each state, we determine the micro-operations
that must be initiated by the control circuit. The figure below shows the sequence of register
transfers.

Design of Hardwired Control

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KTU - CST202 - Computer Organization and Architecture Module: 4

The control can be designed using the classical sequential-logic procedure. This procedure
requires a state table with eight states, four inputs, and nine outputs. The sequential circuit to be
derived from such a state table will not be easy to obtain because of the large number of variables.
The circuit obtained by using this method may have a minimum number of gates, but it
will have an irregular pattern and will be difficult to analyze if a malfunction occurs. These
difficulties are removed if the control is designed by the one flip-flop per state method.
A control organization that uses one flip-flop per state has the convenient characteristic
that the circuit can be derived directly from the state diagram by inspection. No state or excitation
tables are needed if D flip-flops are employed.
Remember that the next state of a D flip-flop is a function of the D input and is independent
of the present state. Since the method requires one flip-flop for each state, we choose eight D flip-
flops and label their outputs T0, T1, T2, . . , T7. The condition for setting a given flip-flop is specified
in the state diagram.
For example, flip-flop T2 is set with the next clock pulse if T1= I or if T0 = 1 and qa = 1.
This condition can be defined with the Boolean function:
DT2 = qaT0 + T1
where DT2 designates the D input of flip-flop T2.If there is more than one directed line
going into a state, all conditions must be ORed. Using this procedure for the other flip-flops, we
obtain the input functions given in table below.

Initially, flip-flop T0 is set and all others are cleared. At any given time, only one D input
is in the 1 state while all others are maintained at 0. The next clock pulse sets the flip-flop whose
D input is 1 and clears all others.
The circuit for the control logic is not drawn but can be easily obtained from the Boolean
functions in table. The circuit can be constructed with eight D flip-flops, seven AND gates, six OR
gates, and four inverters. Note that five control outputs are taken directly from the flip-flop outputs.
MICRO-PROGRAM CONTROL

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In a micro-program control, the control variables that initiate micro-operations are stored
in memory. The control memory is usually a ROM, since the control sequence is permanent and
needs no alteration. The control variables stored in memory are read one at a time to initiate the
sequence of micro-operations for the system.
Each micro operation is associated with a specific set of control lines which, when
activated, causes that micro operation to take place. Since the number of instructions and control
lines is often in the hundreds, the complexity of hardwired control unit is very high.
The hardwired control unit is relatively inflexible because it is difficult to change the
design, if one wishes to correct design error or modify the instruction set
The micro programmed control unit consists of following components.
Control memory:
In micro programmed control, the micro programs
for all instructions are stored in the control memory (CM).
The control signals to be activated at any time are
specified by a microinstruction, which is fetched from
Control memory (CM).
Control address register
The control address register holds the address of
the next microinstruction to beread.When address is
available in control address register, the sequencer issues
READcommand to the control memory.
Microinstruction register
After issue of READ command, the word from the
addressed location is read into themicroinstruction
register.Now the content of the micro instruction register generates control signals and nextaddress
information for the sequencer.
Micro-program sequencer
A sequence of one or more micro operations designed to control specific operation,such as
addition, multiplication is called a micro program.The sequencer loads a new address into the
control address register based on thenext address information
Advantages of Micro programmed control
• It simplifies the design of control unit. Thus it is both, cheaper and less error prone
implement.
• Control functions are implemented in software rather than hardware.
• The design process is orderly and systematic

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• More flexible, can be changed to accommodate new system specifications or to correct

thedesign errors quickly and cheaply.
• Complex function such as floating point arithmetic can be realized efficiently.
Disadvantages
• A micro programmed control unit is somewhat slower than the hardwired control
unit,because time is required to access the microinstructions from CM
• The flexibility is achieved at some extra hardware cost due to the control memory and
itsaccess circuitry.
Microinstructions
The words stored in a control memory are microinstructions, and each microinstruction
specifies one or more micro-operations for the components in the system.
Example: Control Sequence for instruction Add (R3), R1:
1. PCout, MARin, Read, Select4, Add, Zin
2. Zout, PCin, Yin, Wait for the MFC
3. MDRout, IRin
4. R3out, MARin, Read
5. R1out, Yin, Wait for MFC
6. MDRout, Select Y, Add, Zin
7. Zout, R1in, End
The microinstruction for the above control sequence can be expressed as follows.

Once these micro-operations are executed, the control unit must determine its next
address.Therefore, a few bits of the microinstruction are used to control the generation of the
address for the next microinstruction. Thus, a microinstruction contains bits for initiating micro-
operations and bits that determine the next address for the control memory itself.
Techniques of grouping of Control Signals
The grouping of control signal can be done either by using technique called
o Vertical organization,

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o Horizontal organization.
Horizontal Micro-Instructions
The scheme of micro-instruction by assigning one bit position to each control signal is
called horizontal micro-instructions.
Example: 011101001101001110
In a horizontal microinstruction every bit in the control field attaches to a
controller.Horizontal microinstructions represent several micro-operations that are executed at the
same time. However, in extreme cases, each horizontal microinstruction controls all the hardware
resources of the system.
Vertical Micro-Instructions
We can reduce the length of the horizontal micro-instruction so easily by implementing
another method known as vertical micro-instructions. In this case, Most signals are not needed
simultaneously and many others are mutually exclusive
Example:

In a vertical microinstruction, a code is used for each action to be performed andthe decoder
translates this code into individual control signals. The vertical microinstruction resembles the
conventional machine language format comprising one operation and a few operands. As opposed
to horizontal microinstructions, the vertical microinstruction represents single micro-operations.
Advantage
• Fewer bits are required in the microinstruction.
Disadvantage
• Vertical approach results in slower operations speed.
Comparison between Horizontal and Vertical Organization
Horizontal Vertical

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Long formats. Short formats

Ability to express a high degree of Limited ability to express parallel
parallelism. micro operations.
Little encoding of the control Considerable encoding of the
information. control information
Useful when higher operating
Slower operating speeds.
speed is desired.

Micro-program Sequencer

Micro program sequencer is a control unit which does the tasks of Micro-program
sequencing.There are two important factors must be considered while designing the micro
programsequencer.
o The size of the microinstruction
o The address generation time
Micro-program sequencer is attached to the control memory.It inspects certain bits in the
microinstruction to determine the next address for controlmemory.A typical sequencer has the
following address sequencing capabilities.
1. Increments the present address of control memory
2. Branches to an address which will be specified in the bits of microinstruction
3. Branches to a given address if a specified status bit is equal to 1.
4. Transfers control to a new address as specified by an external source
5. Has a facility for subroutines calls and returns.
The block diagram of Micro-program Sequencer is shown in the below figure.It consists
of a multiplexer that selects an address from four sources and routes it into a controladdress register
(CAR).
The output from CAR
provides the address for control
memory.The contents of CAR
are incremented and applied to
the multiplexer and to the stack
registerfile.
The register selected in
the stack is determined by stack
pointer. Inputs (I0-I2) specify
theoperation for the sequencer
and input T is the test point for a
status bit.Initially the address
register is cleared to zero and clock pulse synchronizes the loading intoregisters.

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For more details about

this, refer text book
“Digital Logic and
Computer Design” by
M. Morris Mano; Page
446 - 449

Micro-programmed CPU Organization

Digital computer consists of: Central Processing Unit(CPU), Memory unit and Input-
output devices. CPU can be divides into 2 distinct and interactive sections namely processing
section: useful device for constructing the processor section of a CPU and control section:
controlling the entire units of computer, micro-program sequencer: constructing a micro-program
control of CPU
Micro-programmed computer
A computer CPU uses the micro-program sequencer. Micro-programmed computer
consists of
1. Memory unit: Stores instructions and data supplied by the user through an input device
2. Two processor unit: Data processor: Manipulates data&Address processor: Manipulates
the address information received frommemory
3. A Micro-program sequencer
4. A control memory
5. Other digital functions
An instruction extracted from memory unit during fetch cycle goes into
instructionregister.Code transformation constitutes a mapping function that is needed to convert
theoperation code bits of an instruction into a starting address for the control memory andis
implemented with ROM or PLA.
Mapping concept provides flexibility for adding instructions or micro-operations
forcontrol memory as need arises.The address generated in code transformation mapping function
is applied to theexternal address (EXA) input of the sequencing.
Micro-program control unit consists of
1. The sequencer: Generates next address
2. A control memory: Reads the next microinstruction while present microinstruction are
being executed in the other units of the CPU and for storing microinstructions
3. A multiplexer: Selects one of the many status bits and applies to the T(test) input of
thesequencer. One of the input of the multiplexer is always I to provide an
unconditionalbranch operation

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KTU - CST202 - Computer Organization and Architecture Module: 4

4. A pipeline register: speed up the control operation, Allows next address to be generated
and the output of control memory tochange while the control word in pipeline register
initiates themicro-operations given by present microinstruction, It’s not always necessary.
The output of control memory can go directly to the control inputs of thevarious units in
the CPU

Micro-programmed Computer Organization

Microinstruction format contains six fields: First 3 fields(I,SL, BRA) provide information
to the sequencer to determine the next address for control memory. [I field (3 bits): Supplies input
information for the sequencer, SL field: Selects a status bit for the multiplexer, BRA field: Address
field of microinstruction and supplies a branch address (BRA) to the sequencer.]
The next 3 fields (MC, PS, DF) are for controlling micro-operations in the processorand
the memory units[Memory control (MC) field: Controls the address processor and the readand

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write operations in the memory unit. The processor select(PS) field: Controls the operations in the
dataprocessor unit. The data field(DF): Used to introduce constants into the processor]
Output from data field may be used to set up control registers and introduce data
inprocessor registers.

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