CE-2101 Fluid Mechanics

Flow Through Orifices & Notches

Outline:
• Flow Through Orifices
– Terminologies
– Hydraulic coefficients
• Flow Over Notches
– Terminologies
– Triangular notch
– Rectangular notch, and
– Trapezoidal notch
• Vortex flow and types
• Numerical problems
Flow Through
ORIFICES
 Introduction:
• “Orifice is an opening in a vessel through which the
liquid flows out.”
• This hole or opening is called an orifice, so long as
the level of the liquid on the upstream side is above
the top of the orifice.
• The usual purpose of an orifice is the measurement
of discharge.
• It can be provided in the vertical side of the vessel or
in the base. But the former is more common.
Types of Orifices According to:

• Small
Size • Large

• Circular
Shape • Rectangular
• Triangular

Shape of the • Sharp-edged

edge • Bell-mouthed

Nature of • Fully submerged

Discharge • Partially submerged

 Important Terms:
Jet of Water:
“The continuous stream of liquid, that comes out or
flows out of an orifice, is known as Jet of water.”
Vena Contracta:
• Vena contracta is the point in a fluid stream where
the diameter of the stream is the least, and fluid
velocity is at its maximum.
 Vena Contracta:
• Consider a tank, fitted with an orifice. The liquid particle, in
order to flow out through the orifice, move towards the
orifice from all directions.
• A few of the particles first move downward, then take a turn
to enter into the orifice and then finally flow through it.
• It may be noted, that the liquid particles lose some energy,
while taking the turn to enter into the orifice.
• It has been thus observed that the jet, after leaving the
orifice, gets contracted.
• The maximum contraction takes place at a section slightly on
the downstream side of the orifice, where the jet is more or
less horizontal. Such a section is known as vena contracta as
shown by section C (1-2) in figure.
Vena Contracta:
 Hydraulic Coefficients:
Following four coefficients are known as hydraulic coefficients
or orifice Coefficient.

1) Coefficient of contraction
2) Coefficient of velocity
3) Coefficient of discharge
4) Coefficient of resistance
 1. Coefficient of Contraction:
• “The ratio of area of jet, at vena contracta, to the area of
orifice is known as coefficient of contraction.”
• Mathematically,

Area of jet at vena Contracta

Cc 
Area of Orifice

• The value varies slightly with the available head of the liquid,
size and the shape of the orifice.
• An average value of Cc is about 0.64.
 2. Coefficient of Velocity:
• “The ratio of actual velocity of the jet, at vena contracta, to
the theoretical velocity is known as coefficient of velocity.”
• Mathematically,

Actualvelocity of jet at venaContracta

Cv 
Theoretical velocity of jet

• The difference between the velocities is due to friction of the

orifice.
• The value of coefficient of velocity varies slightly with the
different shapes of the edges of the orifices.
• For a sharp edged orifice, the value of Cv increases with the
head of water.
 2. Coefficient of Velocity:
• The following table gives the values of Cv for an orifice of
10mm diameter with the corresponding head (given by
Weisback).
H 20mm 500mm 3.5m 20m 100m
Cv 0.959 0.967 0.975 0.991 0.994

Note:
• An Average value of Cv is about 0.97.
• The theoretical velocity of jet at vena contracta is given by
relation :
V  2 gh
Where, h is head of water at vena contracta.
 3. Coefficient of Discharge:
• “It is the ratio of actual discharge through an orifice to the
theoretical discharge.”
• Mathematically,
Actualdischarge
Cd 
Theoretical discharge
Actualvelocity x Actualarea

Theoretical velocity x Theoretical area
 C v x Cc
• Average value of coefficient of discharge varies from 0.60 to
0.64.
 4. Coefficient of Resistance:
• “The ratio of loss of head in the orifice to the head of water
available at the exit of the orifice is known as coefficient of
resistance.”
• Mathematically,
Loss of head in the orifice
Cr 
Head of water

• The loss of head in the orifice takes place, because the walls
of the orifice offer some resistance to the liquid as it comes
out.
• The coefficient of resistance is generally neglected, while
solving numerical.
 Problems:
1. A jet of water issues from an orifice of diameter 20mm
under a head of 1m. What is the coefficient of discharge for
the orifice, if actual discharge is 0.85lit/s. (Ans, 0.61)
2. A 60mm diameter orifice is discharging water under a head
of 9m. Calculate the actual discharge through the orifice in
Lit/s and actual velocity of the jet in m/s at vena contracta,
if Cd = 0.625 and Cv = 0.98. (Ans, Q = 23.5 lit/s & Vac = 13m/s)
Flow Over
NOTCHES
 Introduction
• A notch may be defined as:
“An opening in one side of a tank or a reservoir, like a
large orifice, with the upstream liquid level below the
top edge of the opening”
 Introduction
• Since the top edge or the notch above the liquid
level, serves no purpose, therefore a notch may have
only the bottom edge and sides.
• The bottom edge, over which the liquid flows, is
known as sill or crest of the notch and the sheet of
liquid flowing over a notch (or a weir) is known as
nappe or vein.
• A notch is usually made of a metallic plate and is
used to measure the discharge of liquids.
 Types:
• There are many types of notches, depending upon
their shapes. But the following are important from
the subject point of view.

1. Rectangular notch
2. Triangular notch
3. Trapezoidal notch
4. Stepped notch
 Discharge over a Rectangular Notch

• Consider a rectangular notch. in one side of a tank

over which the water is flowing as shown in Fig.
 Discharge over a Rectangular Notch

• Let
H = Height of water above sill of the notch,
b = Width or length of the notch, and
Cd = Coefficient of discharge.
Let us consider a horizontal strip of water of thickness dh at a
depth of h from the water level as shown in Fig.
• Area of the strip = b.dh (i)
• We know that theoretical velocity of water through the strip
 2 gh (ii)
 Discharge over a Rectangular Notch

• Discharge through the strip,

dq = Cd x Area of strip x Theoretical velocity

 C d b.dh 2 gh

• The total discharge, over the whole notch, may be found out
by integrating the above equation within the limits 0 and H.
H
Q C
0
d .bdh 2 gh


1
 C d .b 2 g h 2 dh

0
 Discharge over a Rectangular Notch
H
 3  H
h 2  2  3 
 C d .b 2 g    C d .b 2 g h 2 
 3  3  
 2  0 0

3
 C d .b 2 g H  2
2
3
• Note: Sometimes the limits of integration, in the above
equation, are from H1 to H2 (i.e. the liquid level is at a height
of H1 above the top of the notch and H2 above the bottom of
the notch, instead of 0 to H; then the discharge over such a
notch will be given by the equation.
2
 
Q  Cd .b 2 g H 23 / 2  H13 / 2
3
 Problem-1
A rectangular notch 0.5 meters wide has a constant head of
400 mm. Find the discharge over the notch, in litres per
second, if coefficient of discharge for the notch is 0.62.
Solution:
Given :
b  0.5m
H  400mm  0.4m
C d  0.62
Discharge over the rectangular notch,
3
Q  C d .b 2 g H  2
2
3
Putting values,

Q  x0.62 x0.5 2 x9.81 0.4 3 / 2 m 3 / sec

2
3
Q  0.915 x0.253  0.231m 3 / s  231 litres / s
 Problem-2
A rectangular notch has a discharge of 21.5 cubic meters per
minute, when the head of water is half the length of the notch.
Find the length of the notch. Assume Cd = 0.6.
Solution:
Given :
Q  21 .5m 3 / min  21 .5 / 60  0.358 m 3 / s
H  b/2  0.5b
C d  0.6
Discharge over the rectangula r notch,

Q  Cd .b 2 g H 2
2 3

3
Putting values,
3
b
5
2 2
0.358  x0.6 xb 2 x9.81    0.626 b 2
3 2
5
0.358
b 
2
 0.572 b  0.8m
0.626
 Discharge over a Triangular Notch

• A triangular notch it also called a V-notch.

Consider a triangular notch, in one side of the
tank, over which the water is flowing.
 Discharge over a Triangular Notch

• Let
H = Height of the liquid above the apex of the notch
q = Angle of the notch
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
• From the geometry of the figure, we find that the width of the
notch at the water surface
q
 2 H tan
2
• Now let us consider a horizontal strip of water of thickness dh,
and at a depth h from the water level as shown in previous
Fig.
 Discharge over a Triangular Notch

• We know that the width of the strip

q
 2H  h  tan
• Area of the strip 2

q
 2H  h  tan .dh
2
• We know that theoretical velocity of water through the strip
 2 gh
• and discharge over the notch,
dq = Cd x Area of strip x Theoretical velocity
q
 C d .2H  h  tan dh 2 gh
2
 Discharge over a Triangular Notch
• The total discharge, over the whole notch, may be found out by
integrating the above equation, within the limits 0 and H.
q
Q 
H
C d .2H  h  tan dh. 2 gh
0 2
q
 2C d 2 g tan 
H
H  h  h.dh
20

 Hh 
q
 Cd 2 g tan H 1/ 2
 h 3 / 2 dh
20
H
 3 5 
q  H .h 2 h 2 
 2C d 2 g tan   q  90 o ,
2 3 5  If
 2 2  0 C d  0.6 and

8 q
5 g  9.81m/s 2
 Cd 2 g tan xH 2
15 2 then Q  1.417 H 3/2
 Advantages of a Triangular Notch over a
Rectangular Notch
1. Only one reading i.e., head (H) is required to be
taken for the measurement of discharge, in a given
triangular notch.
2. If, in a triangular notch the angle of the notch i.e.
θ=90°, the formula becomes very simple (i.e., Q =
1.417H5/3) to remember.
3. A triangular notch gives more accurate results for
low discharges than a rectangular notch.
4. The same triangular notch can measure a wide
range of flows accurately.
 Problem-3
A right-angled V-notch was used to measure the discharge of a
centrifugal pump. If the depth of water at V-notch is 200 mm,
calculate the discharge over the notch in litres per minute.
Assume coefficient of discharge as 0.62.
Solution:
Given :
q  90 o , H  200mm  0.2m
C d  0.62
Discharge over the triangula r notch,
8 q 5
Q  Cd 2 g tan xH 2
15 2
Putting values,
5
8
Q x0.62 x 2 x9.81 tan 45 0 x(0.2) 2 m 3 / sec
15
Q  1.465 x0.018  0.026 m 3 / sec
Q  26 Lit / s  1560 Lit / min
 Problem-4
During an experiment in a laboratory, 280 litres of water flowing
over a right-angled notch was collected in one minute. If the head
of the sill is 100mm, calculate the coefficient of discharge of the
notch.
Solution:
Given :
Q  280 lit / min  0.0047 m 3 / s
H  100mm  0.1m
Discharge over the triangula r notch,
8 q 5
Q  Cd 2 g tan xH 2
15 2
Putting values,
5
8
0.0047  Cd 2 x981 tan 45 0 x(0.1) 2  0.0075 Cd
15
C d  0.0047 / 0.0075  0.627
 Problem-5
A Rectangular channel 1.5 meter wide is used to carry 0.2 cubic
meter of water. The rate of flow is measured by placing a V-
notch weir. If the maximum depth of water is not to exceed 1.2
meter, find the position of the apex of the notch from the bed of
the channel. Assume Cd = 0.6.
Solution:
Given :
Width of rectangula r notch (b)  1.5m
Q  0.2m 3 / s, q  90 o , C d  0.6
Let H  Height of water above the apex of notch.
We know that Discharge over the triangula r notch (Q),
8 q 5
Q  Cd 2 g tan xH 2
15 2
Putting values,
5
8
0.2  x0.6 2 x9.81 tan 45 x( H ) 2  1.417 H 5 / 2
0

15
H  0.46 m
 Problem-6
Water flows over a rectangular notch of 1 meter length over a
depth, of 150 mm. Then the same quantity of water passes through
a triangular right-angled notch. Find the depth of water through the
notch.
Take the coefficients of discharges, for the rectangular and triangular
notch, as 0.62 and 0.59 respectively.
Solution:

Given :
For rectangula r notch b  1.5m
H1  150 mm  0.15 m
C d  0.62
For triang ular notch
q  90 o and C d  0.59
First of all, consider t he flow of water over rectangula r notch.
2 q 5
Q  Cd 2 g tan xH 2
3 2
Putting values,
5
2
Q  x0.62 x1x 2 x9.81 tan 45 0 x(0.15 ) 2
3
Q  1.831 x0.058  0.106 m 3 / s
Now consider t he flow of water over the triangula r notch.
We know that discharge over the triangula r notch,
8 q 5
Q  Cd 2 g tan xH 2
15 2
8 5
0.106  0
x0.59 2 x9.81 tan 45 xH 2 2
15
H 2  0.357 m
 Discharge over a Trapezoidal Notch

• A trapezoidal notch is a combination of a rectangular notch

and two triangular notches as shown in Fig.
• It is thus obvious, that the discharge over such notch will be
the sum of the discharges over the rectangular and triangular
notches.
 Discharge over a Trapezoidal Notch

• Consider a trapezoidal notch ABCD as shown in Fig. For

analysis is purpose split up the notch into a rectangular notch
BCFE and two triangular notches ABE and DCF. The discharge
over these two triangular notches is equivalent to the
discharge over a single triangular notch of angle θ.
• Let
H = Height of the liquid above the sill of the notch.
Cd1 = Coefficient of discharge for the rectangular portion
Cd2 = Coefficient of discharge for the triangular portions
b = Breadth of the rectangular portion of the notch, and
q =Angle, which the sides make, with the vertical.
 Discharge over a Trapezoidal Notch

• Discharge over the trapezoidal notch,

Q = Discharge over the Rectangular notch+
Discharge over the Triangular notch.

2 3
8 q 5
 Cd 1.b 2 g H  Cd 2 2 g tan H
2 2
3 15 2
 Problem-7
A trapezoidal notch of 1.2m wide at the top and 450mm at the
bottom is 300mm high. Find the discharge through the notch, if the
head of water is 225mm. Take coefficient of discharge as 0.6.
Solution:
Given :
Width of notch  1.2m
b  450mm  0.45m
Height of notch  300mm  0.3m
H  225mm  0.225m and C d  0.6
From the geometry of notch, we find that,
q 1200  450 1 750
tan  x   1.25
2 2 300 600
and the discharge over the trapezoid al notch,
2 3
8 q 5
Q  Cd .b 2 g H 2  Cd 2 g tan H 2
3 15 2
3 5
2 8
Q  x0.6 x0.45 2 x9.81 x(0.225 ) 2  x0.6 x 2 x9.81 x1.25 x(0.225 ) 2
3 15
Q  0.085  0.043  0.0128 m 3 / s  128 lit / s
 Vortex Flow:
• If we take a cylindrical vessel, containing some liquid, and
start rotating it, about its vertical axis, we see that the liquid
will also start revolving along with the vessel.
• After some time, we shall see that the liquid surface no longer
remains level. But it has been depressed down at the axis of
its rotation and has risen up near
the wall of the vessel on all sides.
• This type of flow, in which a
liquid flows continuously round
a curved path about a fixed axis
of rotation is called vortex flow.
 Types:
1. Forced or Rotational Flow
2. Free or Ir-rotational Flow
 1. Forced Vortex Flow:
• It is a type of vortex flow, in which the vessel, containing a liquid, is forced
to rotate about the fixed vertical axis with the help of a torque.
• If the applied torque is removed the rotational motion will be slowly
destroyed.
• Now consider a cylindrical vessel containing a liquid initially up to AA as
shown in figure.
 1. Forced Vortex Flow:
• Let the vessel be rotated about its vertical axis O-O. It will be
noticed that the liquid surface, in the vessel, no longer
remains level. But it has depressed down at the axis of its
rotation and has risen up near the wall of the vessel on all
sides (Fig. b).
• If the vessel is revolved with the increased angular velocity, it
will be noticed that the liquid has depressed down to greater
extent at its axis of rotation, risen up to greater height near
the walls of the vessel (Fig. c).
• If we further increase the velocity of rotation, the liquid will
spill out of the vessel and ultimately the axial depth of liquid
will become zero.
 2. Free Vortex:
• It is a type of flow, in which the liquid particles
describe circular paths, about a fixed vertical axis,
without any external force acting on the particles.
• The common example of a free vortex occurs when
the water escapes, through the hole in the bottom of
a wash basin.