Applied Physics
In this lesson you will…
• Define electric current and ampere
• Describe the direction of charge flow in conventional current.
• Explain the origin of Ohm’s law.
• Calculate voltages, currents, or resistances with Ohm’s law.
• Describe a simple circuit.
Current
§ Rate of flow of charge
§ Amount of charge per unit time that crosses one point
Δ𝑄
𝐼=
Δ𝑡
§ Symbol: (I)
§ Unit: ampere (A)
§ Small computer speakers often have power supplies that give 12 VDC at 200 mA.
How much charge flows through the circuit in 1 hour and how much energy is used
to deliver this charge?
§ Δ𝑄 = 720 C
§ E = 8640 J
Conventional Current
§ Electrons are the charge that flows
through wires
§ Historically thought positive charges
move
§ Conventional current à imaginary
flow of positive charges
§ Flows from positive terminal and into
negative terminal
§ Real current flows the opposite way
Drift Velocity
§ Electrical signals travel near speed of light, but
electrons travel much slower
§ Each new electron pushes one ahead of it, so
current is actually like wave
!" $%&'
§𝐼= = = 𝑞𝑛𝐴𝑣(
!# !#
§ q = charge of each electron
§ n = free charge density
§ A = cross-sectional area
§ 𝑣! = drift velocity
§ Think of water pumps
§ Bigger pumps à more water flowing
§ Skinny pipes (more resistance) à less water flow
§ Electrical Circuits
§ Bigger battery voltage à more current
§ Big electrical resistance à less current
Ohm’s Law
𝑉
𝐼 = or 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑅
§ V = emf
§ I = current
§ R = resistance
§ Unit: V/A = ohm (W)
Resistors
§ Device that offers resistance to flow
of charges
§ Copper wire has very little
resistance
§ Symbols used for
§ Resistor à
§ Wire à
§ Our speakers use 200 mA of current at maximum volume. The voltage is 12V. The
current is used to produce a magnet which is used to move the speaker cone. Find
the resistance of the electromagnet.
§ R = 60 Ω
In this lesson you will…
• Explain the concept of resistivity.
• Use resistivity to calculate the resistance of specified configurations of material.
• Use the thermal coefficient of resistivity to calculate the change of resistance with temperature.
Another way to find resistance
§ The resistance varies directly with length and inversely with width (or cross-
sectional area) a wire
§ Kind of like trying to get a lot of water through a pipe
§ Short, thick wire à small resistance
§ Long, skinny wire à large resistance
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
§ 𝜌 = resistivity
§ Unit: W m
§ Table 20.1 lists resistivities of some materials
§ Metals à small resistivity (1x10-8 W m)
§ Insulators à large resisitivity (1x1015 W m)
§ Semi-conductors à medium resistivity
Why are long wires thick?
§ Wire thicknesses are measured in gauges. 20-gauge wire is thinner than 16-gauge
wire. If 20-gauge wire has 𝐴 = 5.2×10)* 𝑚+ and 16-gauge wire has 𝐴 = 13×
10)* 𝑚+ , find the resistance per meter of each if they are copper.
§ 20-guage à .0331 Ω/𝑚
§ 16-guage à .0132 Ω/𝑚
Resistivity and Temperature
𝜌 = 𝜌& 1 + 𝛼Δ𝑇
§ 𝜌 = resistivity at temperature T
§ 𝜌, = resistivity at temperature T0
§ 𝛼 = temperature coefficient of resistivity
§ Unit: 1/°C (or 1/K)
§ Metals
§ Resistivity increases with temperature
§ a is positive
§ Semiconductors
§ Resistivity decreases with temperature
§ a is negative
Resistance and Temperature
𝑅 = 𝑅! 1 + 𝛼Δ𝑇
§ R = resistance at temperature T
§ R0 = resistance at temperature T0
§ 𝛼 = temperature coefficient of resistivity
§ Unit: 1/°C (or 1/K)
§ A heating element is a wire with cross-sectional area of 2×10)* m+ and is 1.3 m
long. The material has resistivity of 4×10)- Ωm at 200°C and a temperature
coefficient of 3×10)+ 1/°C. Find the resistance of the element at 350°C.
§ R = 1430 Ω
Superconductors
§ Materials whose resistivity = 0
§ Metals become superconductors at very low temperatures
§ Some materials using copper oxide work at much higher temperatures
§ No current loss
§ Used in
§ Transmission of electricity
§ MRI
§ Maglev
§ Powerful, small electric motors
§ Faster computer chips
In this lesson you will…
• Calculate the power dissipated by a resistor and power supplied by a power
supply.
• Calculate the cost of electricity under various circumstances.
• Explain the differences and similarities between AC and DC current.
• Calculate rms voltage, current, and average power.
Power
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
§ Unit: Watt (W)
§ Other equations for electrical power
§ 𝑃 = 𝐼 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼" 𝑅
# #!
§ 𝑃= $
𝑉= $
§ Let’s say an electric heater has a resistance of 1430 Ω and operates at 120V. What
is the power rating of the heater? How much electrical energy does it use in 24
hours?
§ P = 10.1 W
§ E = 873 kJ
Kilowatt hours
§ Electrical companies charge you for the amount of electrical energy you use
§ Measured in kilowatt hours (kWh)
§ If electricity costs $0.15 per kWh how much does it cost to operate the previous
heater (P = 10.1 W) for one month?
§ $1.09
Alternating Current
§ Charge flow reverses direction periodically
§ Due to way that power plants generate power
§ Simple circuit
Periodicity
§ Voltage, Current, and Power fluctuate with time
§ So we usually talk about the averages
Average Power
§ DC
§ 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
§ AC
§ 𝑃%&' = 𝐼( 𝑉(
§ 𝑃%)* = 0
-
§ 𝑃&+, = " 𝐼( 𝑉(
§ Often P is used to represent average power in all AC circuits.
Root Mean Square (rms)
1 𝐼, 𝑉,
𝑃./0 = 𝐼, 𝑉, = = 𝐼123 𝑉123
2 2 2
§ 𝐼123 and 𝑉123 are called root mean square current and voltage
§ Found by dividing the max by 2
𝐼$ 𝑉$
𝐼!"# = 𝑉!"# =
2 2
Convention in USA
§ V0 = 170 V
§ Vrms = 120 V
§ Most electronics specify 120 V, so they really mean Vrms
§ We will always (unless noted) use average power, and root mean square current
and voltage
§ Thus all previously learned equations work!
§ A 60 W light bulb operates on a peak voltage of 156 V. Find the Vrms, Irms, and
resistance of the light bulb.
§ Vrms = 110 V
§ Irms = 0.55 A
§ R = 202 W
§ Why are you not supposed to use extension cords for
devices that use a lot of power like electric heaters?
§ P = IV
§ P is large so I is large
§ The wire has some resistance
§ The large current and little resistance can cause heating
§ If wire gets too hot, the plastic insulation melts
In this lesson you will…
• Define thermal hazard, shock hazard, and short circuit.
• Explain what effects various levels of current have on the human body.
!!
§ 𝑃= "
§ Low R so high P
§ Thermal Hazards § Can start fires
§ Electric energy converted to thermal § Circuit breakers or fuses try to stop
energy faster than can be dissipated
§ Or long wires that have
§ Happens in short circuits
§ High resistance (thin)
§ Electricity jumps between two parts of
circuits bypassing the main load § Or are coiled so heat can’t dissipate
§ Shock Hazards § Muscles are controlled by electrical
§ Factors impulses in nerves
§ Amount of Current § A shock can cause muscles to
§ Path of current contract
§ Duration of shock § Cause fist to close around wire
§ Frequency of current (muscles to close, stronger than to
open)
§ Human body mainly water, so decent
conductor § Can cause heart to stop
§ Body most sensitive to 50-60 Hz
In this lesson you will…
• Draw a circuit with resistors in parallel and in series.
• Calculate the voltage drop of a current across a resistor using Ohm’s law.
• Contrast the way total resistance is calculated for resistors in series and in parallel.
• Explain why total resistance of a parallel circuit is less than the smallest resistance of any of the resistors in
that circuit.
• Calculate total resistance of a circuit that contains a mixture of resistors connected in series and in parallel.
Series Wiring
§ More than one device on circuit
§ Same current through each device
§ Break in device means no current
§ Form one “loop”
§ The resisters divide the voltage
between them
§ V divide among resistors
§ V = V1 + V2 + V3
§ V = IR
§ V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
§ V = I(R1 + R2 +R3)
§ V = IRS
§ RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + …
§ A 5.17 kW resistor and a 10.09 kW resistor are connected in series. What is the
equivalent resistance?
§ 15.26 kW
§ Bathroom vanity lights are occasionally wired in series. V = 120 V and you install 3
bulbs with R = 8W and 1 bulb with R = 12W. What is the current, voltage of each
bulb, and the total power used?
§ I = 3.33 A
§ V = 26.7 V, 40 V
§ Ptotal = 400 W
Parallel Wiring
§ Same voltage across several devices
§ Typical house wiring
§ Break in device has no effect on
current
§ Resistors divide current
Derivation
§ Each branch draws current as if the other wasn’t there
§ Each branch draws less current than the power supply gives
§ R =V / I
§ Overall circuit: Large I à Small R
§ Smaller resistance than either branch
Parallel Resistors
1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝑅! 𝑅" 𝑅# 𝑅$
1. A 1004 W resistor and a 101 W resistor are
connected in parallel. What is the equivalent
resistance?
2. If they were connected to a 3 V battery, how
much total current would the battery supply?
3. How much current through each resistor?
Circuits Wired Partially in Series and Partially in Parallel
§ Simplify any series portions of each branch
§ Simplify the parallel circuitry of the branches
§ If necessary simplify any remaining series
§ Find the equivalent resistance and the total current of the following circuit.
5.17 kΩ 101 Ω
3V
10.09 kΩ 100.9 kΩ
1004 Ω
§ Find the equivalent resistance.
5.17 kΩ
10.09 kΩ 3V
100.9 kΩ
1004 Ω 101 Ω
In this lesson you will…
• Compare and contrast the voltage and the electromagnetic force of an electric power
source.
• Describe what happens to the terminal voltage, current, and power delivered to a load as
internal resistance of the voltage source increases (due to aging of batteries, for example).
• Explain why it is beneficial to use more than one voltage source connected in parallel.
§ Emf
§ Electromotive force
§ Not really a force
§ Really voltage produced that
could drive a current
Internal Resistance
§ Batteries and generators have resistance
§ In batteries à due to chemicals
§ In generators à due to wires and other components
§ Internal resistance is connected in series with the equivalent resistance of the
circuit
§ Internal resistance causes terminal voltage to drop below
emf
§ Internal resistance is not necessarily negligible
§ 𝑉 = ℰ − 𝐼𝑟
§ 𝑉 = terminal voltage
§ ℰ = emf
§ 𝐼 = current of circuit
§ 𝑟 = internal resistance
§ A string of 20 Christmas light are connected in series with a 3.0 V battery. Each
light has a resistance of 10 W. The terminal voltage is measured as 2.0 V. What is
the internal resistance of the battery?
§ 100 W
§ A battery has an internal resistance of 0.02 W and an emf of 1.5 V. If the battery is
connected with five 15 W light bulbs connected in parallel, what is the terminal
voltage of the battery?
§ 1.49 V
§ If batteries are connected in series,
their emfs add, but so do the internal
resistances
§ If batteries are connected in parallel,
their emfs stay the same, but the
currents add and the combined
internal resistance is less
In this lesson you will…
• Analyze a complex circuit using Kirchhoff’s rules, using the conventions
for determining the correct signs of various terms.
Kirchhoff’s Rules
§ Junction Rule
§ Total current into a junction must equal the total current out of a junction
§ Loop Rule
§ For a closed-circuit loop, the total of all the potential rises − total of all potential drops =
0
§ (or the total voltage of a loop is zero)
Reasoning Strategy
§ Draw the current in each branch of the circuit (flows out
of positive terminal of battery). Choose any direction. If
you are wrong you will get a negative current.
§ Mark each element with a plus and minus signs at
opposite ends to show potential drop. (Current flows
from + to – through a resistor)
§ If the current leaves the element at +, voltage rise
§ If the current leaves the element at -, voltage drop
§ Apply junction rule and loop rule to get as many
independent equations as there are variables.
§ Solve the system of equations.
§ Find the current through the circuit 10.09 kΩ 4.5 5.17 kΩ
V
3V 101 Ω
1004 Ω
§ Find the currents through each element.
100.9 kΩ
I1
I2
101 Ω 1004 Ω 3V
I3
5.17 kΩ
4.5 V
10.09 kΩ
In this lesson you will…
• Explain why a voltmeter must be connected in parallel with the circuit.
• Draw a diagram showing an ammeter correctly connected in a circuit.
• Describe how a galvanometer can be used as either a voltmeter or an ammeter.
• Find the resistance that must be placed in series with a galvanometer to allow it to be
used as a voltmeter with a given reading.
• Explain why measuring the voltage or current in a circuit can never be exact.
§ Analog (non-digital) meters
§ Main component à galvanometer
§Ammeters
§Measures current
§Inserted into
circuit so current
passes through it
§ Connected in series
§ Coil usually
measures only little
current
§ Has shunt resistors
connected in parallel
to galvanometer so
excess current can
bypass
§ A knob lets you select which shunt resistor
is used
§ Problems with Ammeters
§ The resistance of the coil and shunt resistors add to the resistance of the circuit
§ This reduces the current in the circuit
§ Ideal ammeter has no resistance
§ Real-life good ammeters have small resistance so as only cause a negligible change in current
§ Voltmeters
§ Connected in parallel to circuit since
parallel has same voltage
§ The coil works just like in the ammeter
§ Given the current and the resistance
of the coil à V = IR
§ To give more range, a large resistor is
connected in series with the coil
§ Problems with Voltmeters
§ The voltmeter takes some the voltage out of the circuit
§ Ideal voltmeter would have infinitely large resistance as to draw tiny current
§ Good voltmeter has large enough resistance as to make the current draw (and voltage
drop) negligible
§ See if you measure up to these meter
problems
§ Read 21.6
In this lesson you will…
• Explain the importance of the time constant, τ , and calculate the time constant
for a given resistance and capacitance.
• Describe what happens to a graph of the voltage across a capacitor over time as
it charges.
• Explain how a timing circuit works and list some applications.
Charging a Capacitor
§ Circuit with a capacitor, battery, and
resistor
§ Initially capacitor is uncharged
§ When battery connected current
flows to charge capacitor
§ As charges build up, there is
increased resistance because of the
repulsion of the charges on the
parallel plates
§ When capacitor is fully charged, no
current will flow
§ Loop Rule
.
• ℰ = / + 𝐼𝑅
• Solve for I
# .
• 𝐼 = $ − $/
• I is rate of change of q
• Differential Calculus says
#
Charging a Capacitor § 𝑉 =ℰ 1−𝑒
)
$%
#
)
§ 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉 1 − 𝑒 $% § Where
§ V is voltage across the capacitor
§ ℰ is emf
§ RC = t (time constant – The time § t is time
required to charge the capacitor to
63.2%) § R is resistance of circuit
§ C is capacitance
§ CV = Q (maximum charge)
#
Discharging a Capacitor § 𝑞 = 𝑄𝑒
)
$%
§ The battery is disconnected )
#
§ 𝑉 = 𝑉, 𝑒 $%
§ The capacitor acts like a battery
supplying current to the circuit
§ Often capacitors are used to charge
slowly, then discharge quickly like in
§ Loop Rule camera flash.
.
• 𝐼𝑅 = /
§ Done by have different values for R
.
• 𝐼= $/
in charging and discharging.
§ Camera flashes work by charging a
capacitor with a battery.
§ Usually has a large time constant
because batteries cannot produce
charge very fast
§ The capacitor is then discharged
through the flashbulb circuit with a
short time constant
§ An uncharged capacitor and a resistor are connected in series to a battery. If V =
12 V, C = 5 µF, and R = 8×105 W. Find the time constant, max charge, max current,
and charge as a function of time.
§ 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡: 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 = 800000 W 0.000005 𝐹 = 4 𝑠
§ 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒: 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = 0.000005 𝐹 12 𝑉 = 0.000060 𝐶 = 60 𝜇𝐶
# -" #
§ 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝐼 = $ = 0((((( 1 = 0.000015 𝐴 = 15 𝜇𝐴
"
§ 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑞(𝑡) = 60 1 − 𝑒 2# 𝜇𝐶
"
§ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐼(𝑡) = 15𝑒 2# 𝜇
