AKTU (ACCURATE INSTITUTE

UNIT V –STAFFING IN SOFTWARE

PROJECTS

Managing People

Understanding Behavior
 Handling of projects with practical experience becomes a vital role in the
aspect of project management.
 The managers must be able to decide on whether it is better to have
experienced staff or get an expert advice.
 There are numerous theories defined to explain people’s behavior.
 The theories are structures based on “If A is the situation then B is likely
to be the solution”.
 Other than the structures, there a wide range of influences on a situation
which are invisible to the users which makes it difficult to decide on the
solution.

Organizational Behavior

Work Objectives
 Fredrick Taylor analyzed the productive way of doing things and
trained the workers with these objectives:
 To select the best people for the job
 To instruct them in the best methods
 To give them incentives based on their performance
 These work objectives defined by Taylor emphasis exclusively on the
financial basis of the staff motivation and performance-related pay.
 This encouragement to the staff will help the project group to work
together in achieving their goals which ultimately increases the
productivity.
 People may be motivated by money, but they are motivated by other
factors as well.

Theory X and Theory Y

 Some managers’ work for money being instrumental or called as
cash- oriented persons can be categorized based on their individual
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attitudes.
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 Donald McGregor labeled two different attitudes as Theory X and Theory

Y.
 Theory X includes
 On an average, not every human likes to work.
 Somebody must have the control and direct the person to work.
 Generally, people do not like hold responsibilities.
 Theory Y includes
 People must like to work not forced to do it.
 External control is not the way to reach organizational goals.
 There must a commitment towards the work allocated to
individuals.
 An average human can learn to accept and seek responsibility.
 Creative qualities must be widely distributed.
 Individual’s behavior towards the organization can be observed
when their boss is not available.
 Theory X environment makes everybody to relax which can be seen
visibly whereas Theory Y is more a goal oriented approach of the
people involved in the development.
 A reward does not need to be a financial reward but it could be
something like a sense of achievement.
 This theory explains the expectations which have a greater influence
towards the organizational behavior.

Best methods for staff selection

Selecting the right person for the right job

 Taylor formulated this factor of selecting the right person for the right
job.
 The other factors which includes the use of software tools,
methodologies, programming productivity and so on.
 It is always better to have the best people employed in the right place
of work for effective productivity.
 Say for example, a study on comparing experienced programmer in
debugging a code with a less experienced person was futile when the
results
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were drawn.
 According to Gerald Weinberg, “Most programmers prefer to work
alone where they are not disturbed by other people”.

Recruitment Process
 There is a lot of stress for every project manager about choosing the
right people to make up their team.
 Recruitment is an organizational responsibility process of selecting
the person form their organization.
 Meredith Belbin categorizes people in recruiting process into two
different types.
 Eligible candidates are those persons who have the right
information needed by the organization in paper, i.e. the
curriculum vitaecontains the right number or years and right
paper qualifications.
 Suitable candidates can actually do the job well but are not
officially eligible. Ideal candidates once given a post are likely to
be more loyal towards the welfare of the organization.
 Actual skills have to be taken into account while selecting a person
rather than mere eligibility.
 The recruitment policy must avoid discrimination of race, gender,
age or irrelevant disabilities.
 A recruitment process must include:
 Creation of job specification: type of task that has to be carried out
must be documented and agreed.
 Creation of job profile: constructs a profile of the person needed
to carry out the job with qualities, qualifications, education and
experience.
 Obtaining applicants: placing an advertisement within the
organization or the local press to get a maximum number of
potential applicants.
 Examine Curriculum Vitae: all the received CV’s are compared with
the job holder profile and if satisfied are called for interview.
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 Interviews: these include the aptitude tests, technical tests,

personality tests and examination of previous work. Group
discussions are also used for evaluating and examining the
statements provided in the CV.
 References: need to be verified and a medical examination test
can also be done if needed.

Instruction in the Best Methods

 The responsibility of the team leader becomes very high in case of
recruiting new members into the team.
 Half way through the project process, maximum effort must be taken to
make the induction of a new member into the team as an effective one.
 Team members must be continually assessed by the team leader to meet
their demands in the development process.
 Proper training must be given to every staff member involved in the
development of the project.
 There are many companies which provide training to the staffs by
conducting specific courses and giving hand-on training about the new
software tool by demonstration.
 Whatever may be, the training process must be actually implemented
by the team members as a whole in order to meet the objectives.

Motivation

Motivation Theories
There are various theories formulated by different persons for
motivating the people to work. They are,
 Taylorist Model
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
 Expectancy Theory of Motivation.
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Taylorist Model
 In this model, Taylor emphasis on the piece-rates and day-rates.
 Piece-rates are those where the workers are paid a fixed sum for each
single item they produce whereas day-rates refer to the daily pay that
is given to the workers on a timely basis.
 The tendency towards dispersed or virtual projects where the staffs
either work in organization or work at home has a difference in the
payment based on time worked.
 The amount paid to the workers will not directly relate to maximize the
output in order to maximize their income.
 The amount of output will normally depend on the working group
and not based on an individual.
 A reward based on piece-rates is directly proportional to the work
produced. But a support team cannot be adjudged by a single person,
instead it is group activity and the reward must be given to the group
as a whole.
 In Taylorist model, the reward system makes excessive distinctions
between co-workers that result in damaging morale and productivity.
 This can be balanced by giving bonuses to project team members
after completion of a successful project.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

The basic human needs placed by Maslow in an ascending order of importance
are:

1. Physiological Needs: These are the basic needs for sustaining human life
itself, such as food, water, warmth, shelter, and sleep. Maslow felt that
until these needs are satisfied to the degree necessary to maintain life,
other needs will not motivate people.

2. Security or Safety Needs: These are the needs to be free of physical danger
and of the fear of losing a job property, food, or shelter.
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3. Affiliation or Social Needs: Since people are social beings; they need to
belong, to be accepted by others. It includes friendship, the need to love and
be loved, socializing, etc.

4. Esteem Needs: Once people begin to satisfy their need to belong; they
tend to want to
be held in esteem both by themselves and by others. This kind of need
produces such satisfactions as respect, power, prestige, status, and self-
confidence.

5. Self-actualization Needs: This is the highest need in the hierarchy. It is the

desire to become what one is capable of becoming—to fully realizes one's
potential and to accomplish what one is capable of achieving.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

 People tend to be dissatisfied about their job due to certain factors. They
are
 Hygiene or maintenance factors
 Motivators
 A hygiene factor makes the person dissatisfied if they are not rightly
used. For example, the working condition of the worker.
 Motivators can make the person feel that the job is worth doing it, like
a sense of achievement or the challenge of the work.
 Higher-level of maintenance factors can be provided by large
organizations whereas better motivation can be provided to workers
who work in smaller organizations.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

 Vroom identified three influencing factors on motivation. They are:
 Expectancy
 Instrumentality
 Perceived value
 Expectancy is a belief that working harder will lead to better performance.
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 Instrumentality is the belief that better performance will be rewarded.

 Perceived value denotes the resulting reward.
 When all these factors are high, then the motivation level will also be
high. At the same time, a zero level for any one of the factor can
remove motivation completely.
 For example, when the developer is suppose to get a software package
supplied by a third party to work and it contains a bug, the worker
gives up since how much hard work the worker puts in it will not lead
to success denotes zero expectancy.
 On the other side, if the user is not using the package supplied by the
developer, instead the user works on an alternative tool, it makes the
developer feel that it is waste of time and leads to zero instrumentality.
 Suppose if the user is using the package but keeps on complaining
about the package and makes the developer responsibility for all short-
comings, then at some point of time the developer will not like to get
involved for implementing a newer package which leads to low perceive
value of reward.

The Oldham-Hackman job characteristic model

 Oldman and Hackman coined a rule that managers should group

together the elements of tasks that is carried out must be meaningful
and satisfying assignments.
 The satisfaction of any job will depend on the following factors:
 Skill variety
 Task identity
 Task significance
 Autonomy
 Feedback

Elements of Tasks

 Factors that make the job meaningful to the person who is doing it
are skill
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variety, task identity and task significance.

 Skill variety is the number of different skills that the job holder has
the opportunity to exercise.
 Task identity is the degree to which the person’s work and its results
are identifiable as belonging to the person.
 Task significance is the degree to which the job has an influence on others.
 The autonomy factor is the discretion about the way the person works.
 Feedback is the information the person receives back about the
results of his/her work.
 Personal growth needs and their working environment also
influence the perception of the job.
 In general, activities of the developing product should be designed
in such a manner that the person must feel personally associated with
it.
Methods to Improve Motivation

 Managers must adopt the factors listed below to improve motivation.

 Set specific goals
 Provide feedback
 Consider job design
 Specific goals must be demanding goals but yet acceptable by staff
and should gain approval from them.
 Providing feedback reflects the performance of the staff about how they
are progressing.
 Considering job design makes the job more interesting and provides the
staff with greater responsibility.

Measures for enhancing Job

 Managers must involve the following measures to enhance the job

design: .
 Job enlargement
 Job enrichment
 Job enlargement is exactly reverse of specialization where the person
doing
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the job carries out a wider variety of activities.

 Say for example, a software developer associated with maintenance
group might be given additional responsibility for specifying minor
changes in other phases.
 Job enrichment is where the job holder carried out tasks at
managerial and supervisory level.
 Say for example, programmers in maintenance group might be given
authority to accept requests for changes for a very small period (five
days) without getting manger’s approval.

Ethical and Programmed Concerns

Ethics relates to the moral obligation to respect the rights and interests of
others – goesbeyond strictly legal responsibilities.

Three groups of responsibilities:

 Responsibilities that everyone has

 Responsibilities that people in organizations have

 Responsibilities relating to your profession or

calling Organizational ethics
There are some who argue that ethical organizational ethics are limited:
Stockholder theory (e.g. Milton Friedman). An employee’s duty is to
the owners of the business (which often means the stakeholders)
above all others – although legal
requirements must be met.
Competitive relationships between businesses.
Competition may cause you to do things that could have a negative
impact on the
owners or employees of competitive businesses Uniform Treatment
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One example of organizational ethics is the uniform treatment of

all employees. Small business owners should treat all employees with the
same respect, regardless of their race, religion, cultures or lifestyles.
Everyone should also have equal chances for promotions. One way to
promote uniform treatment in organizations is through sensitivity
training. Some companies hold one-day seminars on various
discrimination issues. They then invite outside experts in to discuss
these topics. Similarly, small company managers must also avoid
favoring one employee over others. This practice may also lead to
lawsuits from disgruntled employees. It is also counterproductive.

Social Responsibility
Small companies also have an obligation to protect the community.
For example, the owner of a small chemical company needs to
communicate certain dangers to the community when explosions or other
disasters occur. The owner must also maintain certain safety standards
for protecting nearby residents from leaks that affect the water or air
quality. There are state and federal laws that protect people from
unethical environmental practices. Business owners who violate these
laws may face stiff penalties. They may also be shut down.

Financial Ethics
Business owners must run clean operations with respect to
finances, investing and expanding their companies. For example,
organizations must not bribe state legislators for tax credits or special
privileges. Insider trading is also prohibited. Insider trading is when
managers or executives illegally apprise investors or outside parties
of privileged information affecting publicly traded stocks, according to
the Securities and Exchange Commission. The information helps some
investors achieve greater returns on their investments at the expense
of others. Executives in small companies must strive to help all
shareholders earn better returns on their money. They must also avoid
collusive arrangements with other companies to deliberately harm other
competitors.
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Considerations
A small company's organizational ethics can also include taking
care of employees with mental illnesses or substance abuse problems,
such as drug and alcohol dependency. Ethical business owners help their
employees overcome these types of problems when possible. They often
put them through employee advisor programs, which involves getting
them the treatment they need. Employees may have issues that lead to
these types of problems. Therefore, they deserve a chance to explain their
situations and get the help they need.

Professional ethics
Professionals have knowledge about the technical domain that
the general public does not. Ethical duty of the expert to warn lay people
of the risks involved in a particular course of action. Many professions,
or would be professions, have codes of conduct for their members

Working in teams

 Not all people involved in the development process like to work in

groups.
 But major software projects always have to work in groups and many
people do not like to work in groups.
 Any organization involved in the development process will have
various departments reflecting its structure.
 Formal groups can be formulated based on the different departments
and task groups can be formed based on specific tasks carried.
 Task group can contain different people from different departments to
work together to carry out a specific task.
 Every task group formed for specific activities to be carried out are
dissolved once the task is completely achieved.

Becoming a team
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 Making people work together is the most difficult task that the
project manager has to carefully handle.
 A team cannot perform instantly; it has to develop over time.

Team Formation Model

 Every team has to go through five different stages of

development as depicted in the Team Formation Model namely,
 Forming
 Storming
 Norming
 Performing
 Adjourning
 Forming : basic ground rules and general behavior are set up to try and
get to know each other in the team.
 Storming: grouping methods of operation have to establish as there
is a chance of conflicts arising due to leadership.
 Norming: a group identity emerges as the conflicts are largely settled.
 Performing: how the tasks are handled by the team.
 Adjourning: disbanding of the group.

Individual Characteristics

 Any project team must be formed with the best mix of different
personalities.
 Belbin formulated the need ofbalanced teams based on
individual characteristics of people.
 Chair: these people must be good at conducting meetings, must
be calm, strong and tolerant. Need not be excellent leaders.
 Plant: these people must be good at generating ideas and
giving potential solution to problems.
 Monitor-Evaluator: they must be good evaluators and best in
selecting
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the most feasible solution.

 Shaper: helps in directing the team’s attention to important issues.
 Team worker: must be efficient in creating a good
working environment.
 Resource investigator: helps in finding resources in terms of
both physical resources and information.
 Complete-finisher: people who are concerned with completing
the tasks.
 Company-worker: must be good team player willing to undertake
less attractive work for team’s success.
 To be a good team member, the person must be flexible, restrained,
timely and keeping the common goals of the team in mind all the time.

Group Performance

 There is a strong question raised often: “Are groups more effective than
individuals working alone?”.
 It is the responsibility of the project manager to distinguish the tasks
which are supposed to be carried out together and those tasks to be
carried out by individuals.
 Some works yield better results when worked together as a team, while
some others are slowed down because of the work be
compartmentalized based on individuals.
 There are four different ways of categorizing group tasks. They are:
 Additive Tasks: in this the effort of every person are added to reach
the final result. People involved in additive tasks are
interchangeable.
 Compensatory Tasks: here, the judgements of individual group
members are taken and the results are then averaged. These
result in effective group work rather than the efforts of
individuals.
 Disjunctive Tasks: these tasks have only one correct solution to
the task. Here, if someone comes with a solution and
everybody in the
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team accepts it.

 Conjunctive Tasks: here, the progress is governed by the rate of
the slowest performer where until each and every person
completes their own tasks, the overall tasks do not attain its
completion. In this case, a cooperative attitude of the team
becomes productive.
 A major problem can arise with additive tasks that lead to social loafing.
 Social loafing is a problem where some individuals do not make their
proper contribution when carrying out group assignments.

Decision making

Categories of Decisions

 Decision making process can be categorized into structured and

unstructured.
 Structured decisions are generally simple where the rules are
applied in a straight-forwards way.
 Unstructured decisions are often more complex and require a
great degree of creativity.
 The amount of risk and the uncertainty involved in the development
process can affect the decision making process.

Obstacles to Good Decision Making

 Few factors that affect good decision making process are:

 Faulty heuristics: the rules of thumb or heuristics are useful but
can be misleading. These are based on mere stereotypes.
 Escalation of commitment: this happens when a wrong decision is
made which cannot be altered easily later.
 Information overload: too much of information also might lead
the decision process to choose a wrong one.

Group Decision Making

 In group discussions, different specialists and point of view of

stakeholders
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can be brought together to make a better decision.

 Decisions made by a team can be approved and accepted easily than
decisions imposed by individuals.
 Every group meeting takes the collective responsibility of having
properly briefed of solving complex problems.
 A group can arrive at better solutions for complex problems because
the members of the group have complementary skills and expertise.
 Group meetings provide an opportunity for people to communicate
freely and easily among the members of the group.
 Often, groups are less effective for poorly structures problems where
brainstorming techniques can be used to helps the groups to make it
structured
 Even though, group decision making is effective in achieving
solutions, it has been proved by research that people come up with
more ideas individually than in groups.

Obstacles to Good Group Decision Making

 Group decision making process has its own disadvantages:

 It is time consuming process.
 Conflicts can arise among the members of the group.
 Decisions can be influenced by dominant personalities.
 Once established the group norms can survive many changes of
membership in the group.
 Experimental results have shown that people can modify their
personal judgements to conform to group norms.
 Sometimes people in groups take hasty decisions that can cause
more risk then when they make their decisions on their own known as
risky shift.

Measures to reduce obstacles of Group Decision Making

 To make group decision making process to be more effective and

efficient the Delphi Technique can be adopted.
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 Delphi technique endeavourers to collate the judgements of a

number of experts without actually bringing them face to face.
 The set of procedures is carried out as follows:
 Cooperation of a number of experts is enlisted.
 Problem is presented to the experts.
 Experts record their recommendations.
 Recommendations are collated and are reproduced.
 Collected responses are recirculated.
 Experts comment on the ideas of others and modify their
recommendations.
 If the leader finds any discrepancy, the process is
stopped, otherwise it is recirculated to the experts.
 This method can be adopted to geographically dispersed experts
but the process becomes time consuming.

Team Structures

Department Structure

 Departmentalization of organizations depends on staff specialties, product

lines, categories of customer or the geographical location.
 In general, the software development process approach is referred as
either function-oriented or task-oriented.
 Function oriented approach deals with different groups that are formed
based on their functional specialization.
 This approach leads to a more effective usage of staff both technically
and in employing the standards that are needed to be concerned.
 With the task oriented approach, members are grouped together with
respect to a specific task.
 The specific task has to be achieved by the group and the group is
dissolved after the successful completion of the particular task.
 Departmentalization is also based on life-cycle phase.
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 In project life cycle phases there are separate teams for development and
maintenance.
 Matrix form of departmentalization can also be formed where there are
two managers namely project manager and programming manager. The
project manager deals with the day-to-day activities while the
programming manager focuses on future career development.
 Egoless programming suggests that the programmers and the
programming team leaders should read other people’s programs so that
the programs become a common property to both.

Team Structure
Team structure addresses the issue of organization of the individual
project teams. There are mainly three formal team structures:

Chief
programmer,
Democratic, and
The mixed control team organizations

Chief Programmer Teams

 If the number of groups is larger, then the work will be slower because
of increased communication. So large projects must be formalized and
must be represented in an centralized structure.
 One way to avoid this, to reduce the number of people and giving them
more support to make the work done which led to the formulation of chief
programmer team.
 The chief programmer defines the specification, design, code, tests and
documents the entire software.
 The chief programmer can have a co-pilot who can assist in writing some
code and discussions.
 An editor can be used to write up the documentation drafted by the chief
programmer, along with a program clerk who maintains the actual code
and a
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tester who validates the code.

 The disadvantage of chief programmer teams is that the chief
programmer is overloaded with lots of information and cannot manage at
some point of time.
 Extreme programming concept can overcome this disadvantage where the
software is developed by pairs of developers with a chief programmer / co-pilot
relationship.

Chief programmer

Team Members

In this team organization, a senior engineer provides the

technical leadership and is designated as the chief programmer.
The chief programmer partitions the task into small activities and
assigns them to the team members.
He also verifies and integrates the products developed by different
team members.

Advantages

The chief programmer provides an authority, and this structure is

arguably more efficient than the democratic team for well-
understood problems.
However, the chief programmer team leads to lower team morale,
since team-members work under the constant supervision of the
chief programmer.
This also inhibits collective and their original thinking.
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The chief programmer team is subject to single point failure since

too much responsibility and authority is assigned to the chief
programmer.
Since the chief programmer carries out many tasks individually, there
is a danger of information overload on the chief programmer

Democratic Team Structure

The democratic team structure, as the name implies, does not

enforce any formal team hierarchy. Decisions are taken based on discussions,
where any member is free to discuss with any other matters.Typically, a
manager provides the administrative leadership. At different times,different
members of the group provide technical leadership.

Advantages:

The democratic organization leads to higher morale and job

satisfaction. Democratic team structure is appropriate for less
understood problems, since a group of engineers can invent better
solutions than a single individual as in a chief programmer team.
A democratic team structure is suitable for projects requiring less
than five or six engineers and for research-oriented projects. For
large sized projects, a pure democratic organization tends to
become chaotic.
The democratic team organization encourages egoless
programming as
programmers can share and review one another’s work.

Disadvantages:

Consequently, it suffers from less man-power

turnover Mixed Control Team Structure

The mixed team organization, as the name implies, draws upon the
ideas
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from both the democratic organization and the chief-programmer

organization. This team organization incorporates both hierarchical
reporting and democratic set up.

The democratic connections are shown as dashed lines and the

reporting structure is shown using solid arrows.
The mixed control team organization is suitable for large team sizes.
The democratic arrangement at the senior engineer’s level is
used to decomposethe problem into small parts. Each democratic
setup at the programmer level attempts solution to a single part.
Thus, this team organization is eminently
suited to handle large and complex programs.

This team structure is extremely popular and is being used in many

software development companies.

Virtual Teams

A Virtual Team – also known as a Geographically Dispersed Team

(GDT) – is a group of individuals who work across time, space, and
organizational boundaries with links strengthened by webs of communication
technology. They have complementary skills and are committed to a common
purpose, have interdependent performance goals, and share an approach to
work for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. Geographically
dispersed teams allow organizations to hire and retain the best people
regardless of location. A virtual team does not always mean teleworkers.
Teleworkers are defined as individuals who work from home. Many virtual
teams in today’sorganizations consist of employees both working at home and
small groups in the office but in different geographic locations.

Why Virtual Teams?

Best employees may be located anywhere in the

world. Workers demand personal flexibility.

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Workers demand increasing technological sophistication.

A flexible organization is more competitive and responsive to the

marketplace.

Workers tend to be more productive – less commuting and travel

time. The increasing globalization of trade and corporate activity.

The global workday is 24 vs. 8 hours.

The emergence of environments which require inter-organizational

cooperation as well as competition.

Changes in workers’ expectations of organizational participation.

A continued shift from production to service/knowledge work

environments.

Increasing horizontal organization structures characterized by

structurally and geographically distributed human resources.

Communication genres

A major influence on the nature of communication genres is the constraints

of time and place. Modes of communication can be categorized as combinations
of two opposite: Same time/Different time and Same Place/Different Place.

Same Place Different Place

Same Time Meetings, Interviews Telephone, Instant Messaging

Different Time Notice Boards E-mail, Voice mail,

Documents

The nature of the information to be conveyed:

o What is the extent and complexity of the information to be conveyed?

A phone conversation if message is simple

o Is it easy to understand? Is the context well known to both the

sender and the recipient?

Two way communication

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o Where the communication is personally

sensitive Face-to-face contacts

At different stages of a project – different communication genres will be

preferred Early stages – meeting(s)

Team members need to build up their trust and confidence in

their co-workers
Decision making

Intermediate stages (design) – teleconferencing

Activities executed in parallel

Some points needs to be

clarified Implementation stages -

emails

Everyone knows his role, work can progress

Communication plans

A communications plan, in project management, is a policy-driven

approach to providing stakeholders with information about a project. The plan
formally defines who should be given specific information, when that
information should be delivered and what communication channels will be
used to deliver the information.

An effective communications management plan anticipates what

information will need to be communicated to specific audience segments.
The plan should also address who has the authority to communicate
confidential or sensitive information and how information should be
disseminated (email, web sites, printed reports, and/or presentations). Finally,
the plan should define what communication channels stakeholders should use
to provide feedback and how communication documentation will be archived as
part of the project records.

In some organizations the communications management plan may also

include a glossary of common project terminology that will be used within
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the project. This

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glossary may define and include samples of templates, reports and forms that
the project manager will use to communicate information.

The result of the communication process could be documented in a table with

the following column headings.

 What – This contains the name of a particular communication event

 Who/target – The target audience for the communication

 Purpose – What the communication is to achieve

 When/frequency – If the communication by means of a single event, then

a specific date can be supplied. If the event is a recurring one, such as a
progress meeting, then the frequency should be indicated

 Type/method – The nature of the communication, for example a meeting

or a distributed document

 Responsibility – The person who initiates the communication

Leadership

 Leadership means the ability to influence others in a group to act

in a particular way to achieve group goals.
 A leader need not be a very good manager or vice-versa since
managers have different roles such s organizing, planning and
controlling.
 It is very difficult to list the common characteristics of good leaders.
 But every leader have a greater need for power and achievement
and must have more self-control and self-confidence than others.
 Leadership is generally based on the idea of authority or power.
Positional Leadership Power
 Power can take the form based on the position of the person.
Positional power can be analyzed as:
 Coercive power: ability to force someone to do something by
threatening punishment.
 Connection power: based on having access to those who have power.
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 Legitimate power: based on person’s title giving a special status.

 Reward power: here the holder gives rewards to those who carry
out tasks to the satisfaction of their leader.
Personal Leadership Power
 Personal power depicts the person’s individual qualities. Personal
power can be analyzed as:
 Expert power: person who is capable of doing specialized tasks.
 Information power: here, the holder has exclusive access
to information.
 Referent power: based on the personal attractiveness of the leader.
Leadership Styles
 In order to make best use of the expertise and commitment of the
people involved the leaders must be an authoritative but at the same
time more flexible and tolerant.
 Sometimes, the leaders must be democratic as well, to have a very
disciplined execution of the plan.
 Leadership styles can be classified as:
 Directive vs. permissive
 Autocratic vs. democratic.
 Directive autocrat makes decisions alone and will be person very
closely associated with the implementation.
 Permissive autocrat also makes decisions alone, but subordinates
have latitude in implementation.
 Directive democrat makes decisions participative and will be a person
very closely associated with the implementation.
 Permissive democrat also makes decisions participative, but
subordinates have latitude in implementation.
 The emphasis is that there are no one best style of leadership which
has to be chosen by the management but it truly depends on the
situation.