SUBJECT: BIOLOGY

CLASS: SS 1

1ST TERM

SCHEME OF WORK

Week Topic
1 Biology as inquiry: Meaning, branches, processes of science.

2 Recognizing living things: Characteristics, differences between living and non –

living things, organization of life, advantages and disadvantages of complex
organization.

3 Classification of living things

4 Plant nutrition
5 Animal nutrition
6 Modes of nutrition
7 Relevance of biology to agriculture: Classification of plants, effects of
agricultural activities on the ecosystem
8 Pests and diseases of agricultural importance
9 Food production and storage
10 Revision
11 and 12 Examination

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 BIOLOGY AS INQUIRY
The term ‘Biology’ was coined from two Greek words – ‘Bios’ meaning life and
‘Logos’ meaning to study.
Biology is therefore the study of living things (plants and animals) and concerns
itself with the structure, distribution, origin of plants and animals and their relationship with
their environment.

Branches of Biology
1. Morphology
2. Anatomy
3. Physiology
4. Microbiology
5. Taxonomy
6. Cytology
7. Parasitology
8. Genetics
9. Ecology
10.Virology
11.Evolutionary biology
12.Histology
13.Embryology
14.Mycology
15.Biotechnology
16.Genetic engineering
17.Biomedical engineering
18.Molecular biology
19.Biochemistry
20.Palentology
21.Protozoology
22.Bacteriology
23.Botany
24.Zoology
25.Immunology

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 Methods of Inquiry
Science is knowledge arranged in orderly manner especially knowledge
obtained by observation, testing of facts and pursuit of facts. Science is both an organised
body of knowledge (product) and a way of finding out knowledge.

Scientific Methods of Inquiry

The scientific method is a systematic approach to investigating inquires that arise from
an observed natural phenomenon.
The main scientific methods include:

1. Observation
2. Hypothesis
3. Experimentation
4. Result
The chart below summarises the scientific methods of inquiry;

Make Identify Formulate Design

observation problems hypothesis Experiment

Conduct
Experiment
Reject or modify
hypothesis

Analyse result and

Draw conclusion

Share finding

Law Theory Accept hypothesis

1. Observation and recognition of the problem

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 This involves the use of senses to describe an observation by the use of the
characteristics and properties of the material. The problem to be solved must be clearly
stated in the form of a hypothesis.

2. Collecting accurate data through careful observation, measurement and comparism.

3. Testing the hypothesis: through experimentation, data collected may lead to new ideas.
4. Arriving at logical conclusions using all available facts.

Scientific attitude
1. Unbiased basis for conclusion
2. Curiosity
3. Respect for accuracy
4. Respect for experiments
5. Quickness in identifying the significance of observation
6. Respect for the principle of cause and effect

Assignment
1. Briefly explain the meaning of control experiment
2. List and explain at least five (5) usefulness of science to man.

WEEK TWO
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

Everything in the world can be classified as living or non – living things. Living
organisms show high degree of organization. They possess certain attributes which include:
 Complex organization of life
 Metabolism
 Reproduction
 Responsiveness
 Evolution
The following characteristic life functions are associated with living things:
1. Nutrition
2. Movement
3. Respiration
4. Excretion
5. Irritability / Sensitivity
6. Growth
7. Reproduction
8. Adaptation
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9. Lifespan/ Death
10.Competition
11.Evolution
12.Homeostasis
13. Limited size

1. Nutrition: Nutrition is the ability of living organisms to feed. All living things feed to
provide chemical energy for work and materials for growth and repair of worn out
parts.

2. Movement: Movement is the ability of an organism to change its position (whole

body or part of its body) form one place to another. Most animals move from place to
place either in search of shelter, food, mates, escaping from enemies or in response to
stimuli.

3. Respiration: Respiration is the exchange of gases between organisms and their

environment. All living things respire in order to oxidize food substances which
releases chemical energy used for all life processes.

4. Excretion: this is the removal of waste products from the body. Living things must get
rid of waste substances from the body if not they can cause the death of the organism.

5. Irritability/Sensitivity: Irritability is the ability of living things to respond to stimuli.

Living things exhibit sensitivity in order to enable them survive in their various
environments. Stimuli include heat, light, pain, water, sound, chemical substances etc.

6. Growth: Growth is an irreversible or permanent increase in the size and mass of an

organism. Growth enable organisms repair and replace damaged tissues in their
bodies. Food eaten by organisms provides the basis for their growth.

7. Reproduction: Reproduction is the ability of a living organism to give birth to young

ones or offspring of its own kind. Living things must reproduce for the continuation of
life.

8. Adaptation: Adaptation is the way living organisms get used to their various
environments in such a manner that they would be comfortable.

9. Life span/Death: All living things must die because they have a definite and limited
life span or period of existence. All living things must pass through these stages of life:
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 Origin or birth Growth Maturity Productivity Decline (old age) Death

10. Competition: this is the ability of living things to struggle for all necessities of life in
order to survive in their various environments. Living things compete for food, space,
light, water, mates etc in order to survive and be in continuous existence.

11. Evolution: living things have the ability of gradually changing into new successive
forms of life. During evolution, changes occur in population and the organisms in
population are able to metabolize, respond and reproduce better.

12. Homeostasis: Homeostasis is the ability of living organisms to maintain a condition

of balance or equilibrium within its internal environment. All living things have the
ability to keep their internal environment constant eg temperature, pH, salt content in
constant form etc.

13. Limited size: All living things have a limited size. For example, a dog cannot grow to
the size of an elephant.

Assignment
1. Define the following terms (i) Defecation (ii) Excretion (iii) Egestion
2. List at least 5 examples of excretory metabolic waste in man
3. State at least 5 differences between living things and non – living things.

ORGANIZATION OF LIFE
Organization of life is the existence of life from a single – celled organism to a
multi – cellular organism with complex forms that perform different functions.
Organization of life enables us to classify organisms based on complexity and
evolutionary advancement.
The different levels of organization of life include:
1. Cell or cellular level: A cell is the structural and functional unit of protoplasm
surrounded by a membrane containing nuclear and cytoplasmic materials eg Amoeba,
paramecium, euglena, chlamydomonas etc.
2. Tissues: A tissue is a collection of cells which are similar in structure and performs
similar functions. Tissues have the same origin and occupy the same position in the body
of the organisms eg Hydra.

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 Examples of tissues of man and their functions

Tissue Function
1. Epithelial tissue Forms the skin and lines of tubes
2. Blood tissue Conveys food and oxygen round the body
3. Skeletal tissue Supports the body and aids movement
4. Nerve tissue Co-ordinates and conducts impulses
5. Muscle tissue Movement of the parts of the body
6. Connective tissue Binds together other tissues

Examples of tissues of man and their functions

Tissue Functions
1. Epidermal tissue Lining and protection of plants surface
2. Vascular tissue Transportation of food and water
3. Strengthening tissue Gives strength and support to plants
4. Photosynthetic tissue Manufacture of food
5. Packing tissue Provide spaces for new cells and stored food

3. Organ: an organ is a collection of different tissues that perform a common function or

functions eg kidney, liver, heart, lungs, eyes, nose, ear, spinal cord, ovaries, urinary
bladder etc.
A living thing maybe an organ. Such a living thing is said to be at the organ level
of organization of life. Examples of organs in plants are onion bulb, a rhizome, root,
stems, leaves etc.

4. System: A system is a set of organs which co- operate to carry out one of the vital
function of life. Examples of systems are respiratory system, digestive system, nervous
system, reproductive system etc.
Some systems in man and their functions

System Main organs Main Function

1 Respiratory Nose, trachea and lungs Intake of air and exchange of gases
.
2 Nervous Brain and spinal cord Nervous co- ordination
3 Circulatory Heart and lungs Blood circulation, respiratory gases and
chemicals
4 Skeletal Bones, cartilages and Provides places for attachment of muscles and
muscles aids movement
5 Digestive Oesophagus, stomach, Digestion of food
pancreas and intestine
6 Reproductive Testes in males and Reproduction
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 uterus in females
7 Excretory Kidney and urinary Removal of metabolic wastes from the body
bladder

COMPLEXITY OF ORGANIZATION
Some organisms are organized at the system level. Such organisms are more advanced
and complex than those at other levels of organization.
In the animal kingdom, all animals from Platyhelminthes to mammals are organized at
the system level. Higher plants also have many systems such as transport system, root system,
shoot system, supporting system and reproductive system.

Advantages of Complex Organization

1. There is specialization and biological division of labour eg eyes for sight, ear for hearing
etc.
2. Division of labour leads to efficiency of the various organs of the body.
3. Complexity of higher organisms leads to survival in different habitats.
4. Complex organisms have longer life span than unicellular organisms.
5. Complex organisms are able to live on both land and water.
6. Reproduction in complex organisms, do not lead to disintegration of the parent. This is
because reproductive parts such as ovaries and testes are involved.

Disadvantages of Complex Organization

1. Individual cells are not capable of existing independently and therefore depend on one
another.
2. In complex organisms, the surface area to volume ratio is small and the distance from the
exterior to the centre of the body is great.
3. Complexity places greater demands upon the musculature and other supporting structures.
4. Complex animals must be comparatively active to obtain enough food and oxygen within
a given time to support its energy, if not the organism faces the risk of death.
5. With complexity, the ability to regenerate lost parts decreases.

WEEK THREE

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

Classification involves placing living things into groups that have certain features in
common which distinguishes them from other groups. It helps to give a universal scientific
name to every specie.

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 Classification is therefore the science of arranging living things into groups based on
structural, genetics or cellular organization.

History
The system of classification of living things used today is based on that introduced by a
Swedish botanist, Carl Linnaeus (1707 - 1778) in the 18th century. He published the
classification of plants in 1753 and that of animals in 1758.

Taxonomic Grouping
Living things are first split into large groups called kingdoms such as the plant and
animal kingdoms. The kingdoms are further split into large or smaller groups called phyla
(singular - phylum) for animals and divisions for plants.
Each phylum or division is further divided into smaller groups called classes. Each class
is further divided into orders. Orders are divided into families and families into genera
(singular - genus). Each genus is broken into species.
The orderly classification of organisms is as follow:
1. A specie: this is a population of related organisms that can interbreed within themselves
to produce fertile offspring.
2. A genus: this is a group of closely related species
3. A family: this is a group of genera
4. An order: this is a group of related families
5. A class: this is a group of related orders
6. A phylum: this is a group of related classes
7. A kingdom: this is a group of related phyla
The chart below shows the arrangement of classification from the highest to the
lowest level.

Kingdom

Phylum (animal) or
division (plants)

Class

Order

Family

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Genus
 Classification of Humans

Kingdom – Animalia
Phylum – Vertebrata/Chordata
Class – Mammalia
Order – Primate
Family – Hominidae
Genus – Homo
Species – Homo sapiens

Assignment
Show the classification of one named animal and a named plant.

VIRUSES
This an extremely small organism that cannot be seen with an ordinary light microscope
but with an electron microscope.
A virus does not have a true cell structure but it is made up of a coiled strand of RNA or
DNA enclosed within a protein coat. It can be living or non-living.

Reasons why a virus is a living thing

1. It contains RNA or DNA molecule.

2. Capable of reproducing inside a living cell

Reasons why a virus is a non-living thing

1.When it is outside a living cell, it forms a crystalline structure like a grain of sand.
2.It does not have cell membrane.
3.It lacks major cell organelles like chloroplast, mitochondrion, ribosomes, nucleus etc

Structure of a Virus

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 Assignment
1. Describe briefly with diagrams, how a viral cell invades and multiplies in a human blood
cell.
2. List at least 5 diseases each of RNA viruses and DNA viruses.

NEW SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

The modern classification is based on some characteristics which has revealed distinct
similarities between living organisms. This was introduced by Margulis and Schwartz in 1982.
Based on the cellular organization and structural similarities, organisms have been
classified into five kingdoms namely;
1. Kingdom Monera
2. Kingdom Protista
3. Kingdom Fungi
4. Kingdom Plantae
5. Kingdom Animalia

NOTE: This classification places kingdom monera as prokaryotes while the rest kingdoms fall
under eukaryotes.

KINGDOM MONERA
The monerans are the simplest existing organisms that are usually enclosed by a cell
wall. Examples are bacteria which belong to the class Schizophyta and blue-green alga that
belong to the class Cyanophyta. Examples of blue-green alga are oscillaria, nostoc, Anabaena
etc.

Characteristics of Monerans
1. They are unicellular and microscopic
2. They possess a cell structure but without a definite nucleus, therefore called Prokaryotes.
3. They reproduce asexually by binary fission
4. They do not have major cell organelles like mitochondrion, chloroplast etc.
5. They are enclosed with rigid cell wall.
6. Since they lack a true nucleus without cell membrane, the chromosomal materials are
scattered within the cytoplasm of the cell.
7. They are small in size. The size ranges from 0.1 to 10ʮm in length.
8. Some are autotrophic eg blue-green algae
9. Some are parasitic or saprophytic eg bacteria
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 Assignment
Draw the structure of a bacterial cell

KINGDOM PROTISTA
1. They are eukaryotic cells ie they have definite nucleus and basic cell organelles.
2. Much bigger than the monerans (10 – 100 times bigger)
3. They live mainly in water and body fluids of higher living things
4. They are motile with locomotory structures like flagellum, cilia, pseudopodia (false
feet) etc
The kingdom Protista is made up of three phyla:

1. Phylum Protophyta
2. Phylum Protozoa
3. Phylum Euglenophyta

PHYLUM PROTOPHYTA (plant-like protists)

1. They have cellulose cell wall.
2. Chloroplasts are present, hence they make food by photosynthesis
3. Examples of protophytes are chlamydomonas, chlorella, diatoms etc. these organisms
serve as producers in the aquatic environment.

PHYLUM PROTOZOA (Animal-like protists)

1. They are heterotrophic i.e depend on already made food from plants
2. They lack cellulose cell walls
3. They reproduce asexually by binary fission (dividing into two) and sexually by
conjugation of the male and female sex cells.
4. They are mainly aquatic while few are terrestrial
The phylum protozoa is made up of the following classes:
i. Class Rhizophoda
 The locomotory structure is the false foot called pseudopodia (plural-
pseudopodia) eg Amoeba
 The formation of pseudo makes the organism shapeless (indefinite shape)
 They feed by using the pseudopodia to engulf food
ii. Class Ciliophora
Members of this class move by means of cilia. The cilia may also be used for gathering
food particles into its oral groove before they are ingested. Examples include Paramecium,
iii. Class Mastigophora
Members of this class move by means of flagella eg Trichonomas, Trypanosoma etc
iv. Class Sporozoa

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 They have no locomotory structure and live as parasites in the body of humans and
animals eg Plasmodium which causes malaria

PHYLUM EUGLENOPHYTA
Euglena is a protist which possesses both animal and plant characteristics.
Plant characteristics of Euglena
1. Possesses chloroplast
2. Pyrenoids for storage of starch grains
3. Starch grains are stored as paramyllin granules
Animal characteristics of Euglena
1. Presence of eye-spot
2. Gullet for ingestion of food in the dark
3. Contractile vacuole for excretion and osmoregulation
4. Eyespot foe sensitivity
5. Pellicle is present
6. Myonerves for locomotion
7. Feeds heterophytically

KINGDOM FUNGI
CHARACTERISTICS
1. They are Eucaryotic and multicellular organisms.
2. They do not possess chlorophyll and so, cannot make their own food by photosynthesis.
3. Fungi are saprophytic i.e feed on decay organic matter from dead plants and animals.
However, some are parasitic.
4. Most fungi are made up of branching thread-like structures called hyphae (singular:
hypha). A collection of hyphae is called mycelium. However, a few fungi lack hyphae
and exist as simple unicellular organisms’ e.g Yeast.
5. Majority of the fungi reproduce asexually by producing spores and sexually by
conjugation e.g Rhizopus, Mushroom e.t.c.
6. The wall of the hypha is quite rigid and is made up of a skeletal tissue called chitin.
7. The hypha of some fungi may be septate (having cross walls that divide it into cell like
compartments) or aseptate i.e without cross walls.
8. Fungi generally thrive in moist environment.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

1. They spoil food.

2. They cause diseases especially in crops.
3. The activities of fungi as decomposers help to increase the fertility of the soil and recycle
inorganic nutrients in nature.
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 4. Fungi like yeast is used for fermentation processes in industries for raising the dough of
bread and other confectionaries.
5. Fungi are used for making antibiotics e.g Penicillium notatum is used for producing
Penicillin.
6. Some of them are edible and could be used for making soup e.g Mushroom.

CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI
They are grouped into the following classes
i. Class Zygomytina: Rhizopus/Mucor.
ii. Class Basidiomycotina: Mushroom.
iii. Class Ascomycotina: These are unicellular fungi e.g yeast

Diagram of mushroom, Rhizopus and yeast cell

KINGDOM PLANTAE
CHARACTERISTICS
Members of this kingdom are non-motile, multicellular organisms whose cells are covered
with wall containing cellulose. They have chloroplast containing chlorophyll for manufacturing
their own food by the process of photosynthesis.
The kingdom plantae is divided into three phyla
i. Phylum: Thallophyta
ii. Phylum: Bryophyta
iii. Phylum: Tracheophyta

THALLOPHYTA (NON-VASCULAR PLANTS)

CHARACTERISTICS
1. They are simple green plant.
2. They are commonly found in aquatic habitats.
3. Some members are thread-like or filamentous while few have flat structures called
thallus.
4. They do not bear root, stems and leaves.
5. They reproduce asexually by fragmentation or formation of spores. Sexual reproduction
is usually by fusion of gametes or conjugation.
6. They lack conducting vessels for water and food.
Examples of thallophytes include the common green algae or sea weed known as
Sargassum which has thallus.

BRYOPHYTA (NON-VASCULAR PLANTS)

CHARACTERISTICS
1. They are non-vascular plants i.e they do not possess conducting vessels for food, water
and mineral salt.
2. They usually grow in moist places on land.
3. They lack true roots, stems and leaves but have structures such as rhizoids that appear as
roots.

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 4. The bryophytes show a distinct alternation of generation i.e the sporophyte and
gametophyte alternate in the life cycle.
Examples of bryophytes are the mosses and liverworts.

TRACHEOPHYTA
The members of tracheophyta are vascular plants since they have vessels or vascular
tissues for conducting water and food. This is the largest group of plants. Examples of plants
within this divisions are the seeds producing plants like the flowering plants and spore bearing
plants like the ferns.
Therefore, the tracheophytes are further split into two (2) Sub-divisions.
a. Pteridophyta
b. Spermatophyte

PTERIDOPHYTA
CHARACTERISTICS
1. They have leaves, roots and stems.
2. They are vascular green plants.
3. They bear horizontal underground stems, hence referred to as rhizomes
4. Many tiny roots grow out from the rhizome into the soil.
5. The leaves or fronds develop at intervals along the rhizome and grow upwards above the
soil level. The fronds are coiled when they are young.
6. Mature fronds bear spores for asexual reproduction.
7. The pteridophytes undergo alternation of generation i.e contains sporophytic and
gametophytic stages in the life cycle.
8. They are non-seed producing plants.
Examples of pteridophytes are the ferns e.g dryopteris. Maturity are aquatic while a
few are terrestrial and lives as epiphytes on the trunk of palm trees.

SPERMATOPHYTE
CHARACTERISTICS
1. They are multicellular, seed producing plants.
2. They are vascular plants and have well developed vascular tissues such as xylem vessels
and phloem.
3. They possess true roots, stems and leaves.
4. They are usually terrestrial green plants that need not water for reproduction.
There are two main classes of spermatophyte. These are;
a. Gymnosperm
b. Angiosperm

GYMNOSPERM
CHARACTERISTICS
1. These are plants with naked seeds.
2. They do not bear flowers.
3. The seeds are borne on special structures called cones.
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 4. They are vascular green plants.
Examples of Gymnosperms are Cycads, Gingkos, Conifers and Whistle pines.

ANGIOSPERM
CHARACTERISTICS
1. They are the most advanced green flowering plants.
2. They are vascular plants.
3. They bear flowers. The seeds are enclosed in the fruit which develops from the flower
after pollination.
4. They are mainly terrestrial plants.
Angiosperms are further divided into two sub-classes. They include;
a. Monocotyledon
b. Dicotyledon

ASSIGNMENT
State ten (10) differences between monocotyledenous and dicotyledenous plants.

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
This kingdom comprises all multicellular motile organisms which ingest complex solids
manufactured food from plants hence, referred to Heterotrophic organisms. Food is digested,
absorbed and assimilated in their bodies.
Animals are placed into two main groups:
1. Invertebrate which are animals without backbone
2. Vertebrata animals with backbone

Invertebrata
The invertebrates include the following phyla:
1. Phylum Porifera
Characteristics
a. Some cells differentiate but has no tissue level of organization
b. Body have two layers of cells
c. Adult do not show locomotion i.e sessile
d. They are all marine
e. Body lack symmetrical
f. Has single body cavity
g. Presence of numerous spores on body walls
h. Usually a skeleton of calcareous or silica-rich spicules or horny fibres
i. No nervous system
j. Asexual reproduction by budding
k. All hermaphrodite
l. They have great regenerative power
Members of this phylum are the sponges
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 Diagram of a sponge

2. Phylum Coelenterata
Characteristics
a. They are aquatic
b. Body designed into cells and tissues i.e more complex than the poriferans (sponges)
c. They are radially symmetrical (body cut into two equal halves through any plane)
d. They have two body layers- ectoderm and endoderm. Between these layers is the
Mesogloea
e. Have two body forms in their life cycle
- stationary cylindrical hydroid polyp usually attached to rocks and
- the free living umbrella shaped medusa
f. They reproduce asexually by budding and also sexually by producing male and
female gametes
Members of the coelenterates include hydra, sea anemone and the coral polyps and
jelly fish which exist as medusa.
There are three classes under the phylum coelenterate. They are:
i. Class Hydrazoa eg Hydra
ii. Class Schphozoa eg Jelly fish
iii. Class Anthozoa eg Sea anemone

Diagram of hydra and sea anemone

3. Phylum Platyhelminthes
Characteristics
a. They may be free- living and aquatic or parasitic in the body of human and animal
b. Have flat bodies. Some are leaf-like, while others are ribbon-like
c. They are bilaterally symmetrical with definite head and tail end
d. They have nervous system including brain and sense organs
e. Presence of digestive system with mouth and no anus i.e one digestive opening
f. They are triploblastic- body is designed into three layers – ectoderm, mesoderm and
endoderm
g. They are usually hermaphrodites and usually reproduce sexually by producing fertilized
eggs
Examples of Platyhelminthes or flat worms include planaria, the flukes and
tapeworms. There are three classes of flatworms:
1. Class Tubellaria eg Planaria
2. Class Trematoda eg Liver fluke
3. Class Cestoda eg Tapeworm

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Diagram of liverfluke and tapeworm

4. Phylum Nematoda
Characteristics
a. These are round worms with unsegmented cylindrical bodies
b. They live as parasites in plants and animals or freely in the soil or water bodies
c. They are bilaterally symmetrical
d. Have gut which opens at the mouth and anus
e. They derive body support by the presence of hydrostatic i.e fluke system in
pseudcodum
f. They have separate sexes and reproduce sexually

Diagram of round worm (Ascaris)

5. Phylum Annelida
Characteristics
a. These are segmented worms with long cylindrical body
b. They live in fresh water or moist soil
c. They have true body cavity or coelom
d. They have well developed nervous and circulatory system
e. Each segment of the annelid have a pair of excretory organs known as the Nephridia
for removing metabolic wastes
f. They respire through their moist body surface
g. They reproduce sexually and sexes may be separate or exist as hermaphrodites
The Annelids and their examples are put into three classes:
1. Class Polychaetae eg Sea worm
2. Class Oligocheatae eg Earthworm
3. Class Hirudinea eg Leech

Diagram of earthworm and leech

6. Phylum Mollusca
Characteristics
a. They have soft unsegmented bodies
b. Possesses tentactles on their heads
c. The molluscs have muscular foot for crawling or burrowing
d. Body is covered with a soft tissue called Mantle
e. Calcareous shells may be present in some species like snails and absent in others like
octopus and slug
f. Most molluscs are aquatic eg octopus etc while a few are terrestrial and live in damp
soils eg snails
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 g. The eyes on the tip of the tentacles are for sensitivity

Diagram of a snail

7. Phylum Arthropoda
This consists of the largest phylum in the animal kingdom.
Characteristics of Arthropoda
1. External body is covered with hard exoskeleton of chitin
2. They generally have jointed or segmented appendages for feeding, movement,
reproduction and sensing
3. The entire bodies of arthropods are segmented
4. They exhibit moulting or ecdysis i.e remove their exoskeleton at intervals during
growth
5. Their bodies are bilaterally symmetrical
6. They are triploblastic i.e have three body layers
7. They are aquatic while others are terrestrial
Examples of arthropods and their classes are:
a. Insecta / Hexapoda eg Cockroach, housefly and other insects
b. Arachnida e.g. spider, scorpion, mites, ticks and bugs
c. Crustaceans e.g. crab, prawns, lobsters, shrimps and crayfish
d. Myriapoda e.g. centipedes and millipedes

Assignment

1. Make a well labelled diagram of:

a. An insect (cockroach)
b. A crab (crustacean)
c. A spider (arachnida)
d. A myricepod (millipede)
2. Write eight characteristics each of the following classes:
a. Insecta
b. Arachnida
c. Crustacean
d. Myriapoda

Structural differences between Crustaceans, Insects and Arachnids

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 Crustaceans Insects Arachnids
1 Body divided into cephalothorax Body divided into head, Body divided into
and abdomen thorax and abdomen prosoma and
opisthosoma
2 Wings are absent Presence of wings Wings are absent
3 There is a pair of stalked eyes A pair of compound eyes Presence of eight simple
eyes
4 Presence of two pairs of antenna A pair of antennae is present Do not have antennae
5 Have 5 pairs of walking legs Have 3 pairs of jointed legs Have four pairs of
jointed legs
6 Respire by means of gills Respire through the trachea Respire by means of
lung books or Book
lungs

8. Phylum Echinodermata
Characteristics
1. Presence of spines on the body
2. They are slow-moving marine animals living on the sea-shores and sea beds
3. They are triploblastic i.e body divided into three layers
4. They are radially symmetrical
5. They have internal skeleton made of calcarerous plates
6. They do not have head nor brain
7. They are unsegmented
8. They have a system of water canals for transporting materials inside their bodies
9. They have numerous tube-feet for locomotion
Examples of Echinoderms are star-fish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, sea horse, bristle star
etc.
Diagram of star fish

PHYLUM CHORDATA
The phylum chordate consists of all animals that have notochord. Notochord is an
embryonic flexible rod of tightly packed cells from which the backbone or vertebral column is
formed at the early stage of development of the animal.
There are two sub- phyla of the chordates. They are:
i. Sub-phylum: Protochordata
ii. Sub-phylum: Vertebrata
20
 Sub-phylum: Protochordata
The protochordates are in the borderline between the invertebrates and the vertebrates i.e
they form evolutionary link between the invertebrates and vertebrates because they share both
characteristics.

Sub-phylum: Vertebrata

Characteristics
1. They are bilaterally symmetrical and body divided into head, trunk and tail. In some
cases, the head and neck may join together to the trunk as in amphibians and fishes.
2. They have internal skeleton or endoskeleton comprising of bones and cartilage
3. They have backbones or vertebral column comprising series of small bones known as
Vertebrae
4. Their central nervous system is well developed consisting of brain and spinal cord
5. Well-developed sense organs for response to stimuli are present
6. They have closed blood circulatory system
7. Presence of two pairs of limbs i.e they are tetrapods
8. They have kidneys for removing metabolic wastes
9. They have exposed skin which may be covered with scales, feathers or hairs
The classes under sub-phylum vertebrata include:
a. Pisces
b. Amphibia
c. Reptilia
d. Aves
e. Mammalia

Class Pisces or Fish

Characteristics
1. All Pisces are aquatic
2. They are cold blooded or poikilothermic i.e body temperature varies with
environmental temperature
3. Body covered with scales, although absent in some species like jawless fish
4. Presence of paired and unpaired fins for movement in water
5. Gaseous exchange is by means of gills. Bony fishes have gill cover or operculum,
while cartilaginous fish have gill slits
6. They have well-developed sense of smell and inner ear
7. They have lateral line system for detecting vibrations in water
8. Some species like the bony fish have swim-bladder to make them float in water
9. They have two chambered heart.
10.Fertilization is usually external and they are oviparous
The class Pisces consist of two sub-classes:
i. Osteichythes- Bony fish e.g salmon, tilapia, carp fish, makarel etc
ii. Chondrochythes – these are cartilaginous fishes eg sharks, skates and rays
21
 Class Amphibia
Characteristics
1. They are cold-blooded
2. Possesses paired fore limbs and hind limbs in the adult stage
3. They have moist skin for respiration (cutaneous respiration)
4. Have sticky tongue which be can protruded and retracted quickly for catching prey like
a flying insect
5. They have inner and middle ears
6. Gaseous exchange takes place through the mouth (buccal respiration), skin (cutaneous
respiration) and lungs (pulmonary respiration)
7. Presence of three-chambered heart
8. Fertilization is external and they are oviparous i.e lay eggs in strands
Examples of Amphibians are frogs, toads, newts and salamanders

Assignment
1. Make an elaborate diagram 10 – 12cm long of the external features of a:
i. Bony fish (tilapia)
ii. A frog or toad
2. Write 5 differences in a table, between a fish and a tadpole

Class Reptilia
Characteristics
1. Their skins are covered with dry horny scales that prevent loss of water from their bodies
2. They use their lungs for exchange of gases
3. Fertilization is internal and they are oviparous i.e lay numerous large fertilized eggs on
land
4. The male has a copulatory organ called penis for passing sperms to fertilize the eggs
inside the female’s body
5. It is cold blooded or poikilothermic
6. Possess protruded and retractile tongue for catching prey
7. They have the same type of teeth arranged in the upper and lower jaws
8. The paired fore and hind limbs have five toes that end in claws
9. They have inner and middle ears
10.They have partially developed four chambered heart
Examples of reptiles are lizards, snakes, crocodiles, tortoises, turtles etc

Assignment
Make a well labelled elaborate diagram 12 – 14 cm to show the external features of Agama
agama lizard
Class Aves
Aves include the flightless and flying birds.

Characteristics of birds
22
1. They are warm-blooded or homoeothermic i.e body temperature is kept constant inspite
of changes in environmental temperature
2. The hind leg has feet that is covered with scales, but the other parts of the body are
covered with feathers e.g head, neck and trunk
3. The fore-limbs are modified into wings for flight. The feet have digits or toes ending in
claws. The claws are often used for scratching the earth for food
4. The jaws of birds are drawn out to form toothless beak for feeding. They feed on grains,
insects etc
5. They have hollow, light and rigid bones with air sacs which adapt them for flight
6. The sense organs are well developed. For example, good eye sight, inner and middle ears
for hearing etc
7. They have four-chambered heart, hence carry out double circulation like mammals
8. Fertilization is internal and the female lay eggs i.e they are oviparous

Assignment

1. Make a labelled diagram of a bird 10-12cm long

2. State four adaptations of a bird to its habitat

Class Mammalia

The mammals are the most advanced animals. Their characteristic features include:
1. They are warm- bloodedor homoeothermic
2. The skin is covered with hairs
3. Presence of sebaceous glands and sweat glands
4. They have heterodont dentition (different sets of teeth in the upper and lower jaws). Each
type of teeth is used for a specific function e.g incisors for biting, molar and premolar for
grinding etc
5. They have external ear called Pinna
6. The body cavity is separated into two by a muscular membrane called Diaphragm
7. They have well-developed four chambered heart, hence carry out double circulation of
blood
8. They have well developed brain
9. Fertilization is internal. The developing embryo in the womb obtains nourishment from
the mother through the placenta
10.They do not lay eggs rather young ones are born alive. Hence, they are said to be
Viviparous
Mammals are divided into the following groups
i. Egg- laying mammals or monotremes eg primitive mammals like egg laying
platypus and spiny anteater (echidna)
ii. The pouched mammals or Marsupials eg Kangaroos and Koala. They lack
placenta. The young ones are not fully developed when born, but kept in a pouch in
the mother’s skin where they are fed with milk from the mother’s mammary gland.
iii. Placental mammals: this group comprises most mammals including human beings
23
 Assignment
1. Make a drawing of a small mammal, 12 – 14cm long and label fully
2. In a tabular form, write five differences between a bird and a mammals

WEEK FOUR
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants manufacture their food using
carbon(iv)oxide and water in the presence of sunlight, chlorophyll and enzymes to give glucose,
and releasing oxygen as a by-product
6CO2 + 6H2O chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2(g)
carbon(iv) water light Glucose Oxygen
oxide

Photosynthesis involves many reactions that occur in a stepwise manner. These reactions
may be divided into two phases or stages:
1. The light reaction/stage/phase
2. The dark reaction/stage/phase

LIGHT REACTION

This phase needs the presence of light to occur. In the light reaction, four steps are
involved:
1. Chlorophyll is energised: the chlorophyll molecules in the green parts of plants absorb
the kinetic energy from the sun. The kinetic energy then activates the electrons in the
chlorophyll molecules.
2. Photolysis of water: the energised chlorophyll supplies the energy (sunlight energy) that
splits the water molecules into hydrogen and hydroxyl ion. The splitting of water is
called Photolysis of water.
4H2O light 4H+ + 4OH-
chlorophyll
The hydroxyl ion (OH-) gives off its negative electron to the chlorophyll molecules
and forms water. Oxygen is given off as a by-product
4(OH-) 2H2O + O2
3. Reduction of NADP: the hydrogen ion released from the photolysis of water is picked
up by a co-enzyme NADP (Nicotinamide Adenine Di nucleotide Phosphate) which acts
as an electron acceptor. NADP is now reduced to NADPH2 having accepted two
hydrogen atoms (2H+) and it serves as an electron carrier of hydrogen ion.
N/B: the NADPH2 holds the hydrogen ions until it is used later in the dark reaction.

4. Formation of ATP (Adenosine Tri phosphate): chloroplasts contain ADP (Adenosine

Di phosphate) which is a low energy carrier. The extra energy not used in the splitting of

24
 water molecules is released to ADP to form ATP (which is a high energy carrier) which
will be used in the dark reaction.
NOTE: All these events take place in the grana part of the chloroplast

DARK REACTION
Light is not necessary for the dark reaction. The steps in this phase occurs in the stroma
of the chloroplast. It however depends on materials generated during the light reaction.
In the dark reaction, carbon (iv) oxide is reduced by combining with two atoms of
hydrogen provided by NADPH2 to form sugar.
The major steps during the dark reactions are described as follows:
1. Carbon(iv)oxide which diffuses into green leaves combines with a carbon(iv)oxide
acceptor (Ribulose phosphate) to form an unstable 6- carbon sugar phosphate
2. The unstable 6-carbon sugar phosphate splits into the molecules of phosphoglyceric acid
(PGA)
3. Hydrogen ions held by reduced Nicotinamide Adenine Di nucleotide Phosphate
NADPH2, are released
4. Phosphate radicals are available in the chloroplast. The radiant energy absorbed by the
chlorophyll is used to convert Adenosine Di phosphate to Tri phosphate
5. Triose phosphate molecules combine in twos to form a 6- carbon sugar.
6. Phosphate is removed from the hexose phosphate to form a 6- carbon sugar, glucose
7. Some triose phosphate molecules pass through a series of change to become ribulose
diphosphate which acts as the carbon(iv)oxide acceptor.

Leave about 20 lines for a diagram

Importance of Photosynthesis
1. Production of food
2. Synthesis of proteins, fats and oils, vitamins etc
3. Release of energy necessary for aerobic respiration
4. Removal of carbon(iv)oxide from the atmosphere, thereby purifying the atmosphere.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

1. Chlorophyll: the presence of chlorophyll is very essential in photosynthesis. Chlorophyll

is the pigment found in the pallisode and mesophyll cell of leaves. Chlorophyll traps light
energy and makes it available for the photolysis of water.
Types of Chlorophyll
a. Chlorophyll A (blue green)
b. Chlorophyll B (yellow green)
c. Xantophyll (yellow)
d. Carotene (orange)
e. Phaephytrin (grey)
25
2. Light energy: this is the source of light for the photosynthetic process. It is primarily the
blue, violet and red region of the light spectrum that is used in photosynthesis
3. Water/ mineral salt: this is absorbed by root hairs from the soil solution and conducted
through the stem xylem to the leaf veins ending up in the chloroplast of the mesophyll
walls. Water is required to supply hydrogen ion.
4. CARBON[IV]OXIDE: Carbondioxide or Carbon[iv]oxide diffuse from the atmosphere
into the intercellular air spaces of the leaf through the stomata.
5. SUITABLE TEMPERATURE: The rate of photosynthesis is affected by temperature
change. A high temperature of about 440C retards photosynthesis by damaging the
chlorophyll proteins and other substances in the protoplasm. Experiments have shown
that the optimum temperature for photosynthesis is 300C.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT PHOTOSYNTHESIS

1. Light intensity
2. Carbon(iv)oxide
3. Water
4. Temperature
5. Chlorophyll
6. High concentration of oxygen (does increase the rate of photosynthesis)
7. Inhibition
8. Pollution
9. Low relative humidity

EVIDENCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. Remove or detach a healthy green leaf from a plant
2. Boil the leaf in water for about five minutes. This is to kill the protoplasm and render the
cell walls more permeable. It also burst the starch grains.
3. Transfer the leaf into 70% alcohol in a test tube placed in a water bath (i.e boil the leaf in
70% alcohol). This is done to decolourize the leaf.
4. Rinse the leaf by dipping it in hot water. This is to soften the leaf and remove excess
alcohol.
5. Immerse the leaf in iodine solution for about 3 minutes then wash with cold water.
Alternatively, place the decolourized leaf on a white tile and put drops of iodine solution
on it.
6. A blue-black colouration shows the presence of starch.

FATE OF GLUCOSE DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

26
 Glucose is the first product of photosynthesis. Some of the glucose immediately used to
provide energy the leaf needs. Excess glucose is converted into starch in the leaf’s cell.
Starch is therefore, the ‘visible’ product of photosynthesis is because its presence can be
detected by testing the leaf for starch.

Assignment
Describe an experiment to show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis

MINERAL NUTRITION IN PLANTS

In addition to glucose in which plant can manufacture, they also acquire some mineral
elements to remain healthy and grow well. These mineral elements are absorbed to the soil
solution by root hairs.
There are two types of mineral elements based on the quantity required by plants healthy
growth and development. They are:
1. Macro elements/ Macro nutrients/ Major elements
2. Micro elements/ Micro nutrients/ Minor elements/ Trace elements

MACRO ELEMENTS
These are indispensable or major elements required in relatively large amounts for tissue
formation, growth and development of the cell walls and protoplasm of cells. Examples of
macro nutrients are Nitrogen (N), Sulphur (S), Phosphorus(P), Calcium(Ca), Potassium(K),
Iron(Fe), Magnesium(Mg) etc.

MICRO ELEMENTS

These are needed in small quantities by plants. They are required mainly for the
formation of pigments and enzymes. Examples include Copper(Cu), Boron(B), Zinc(Zn),
Cobalt(Co), Molybdenum(Mo), Chlorine(Cl), Manganese(Mn), Silicon(Si) etc.
NOTE: the absence of any of the mineral elements in the soil leads to poor growth of the plants

Macro Functions Deficiency

elements
1 Nitrogen (N) - Protein synthesis - Stunted growth
- Nuclear synthesis - Chlorosis (yellow leaves)
2 Phosphorus - Formation of ATP, DNA and - Stunted growth particularly the roots
(P) RNA - Poor root development
27
 - Stem and root formation - Reddish and purple colour of leaves
- Co-enzyme and protein and thin stem
formation
3 Sulphur(S) Protein synthesis - Leaf margin turns yellow (chlorosis)
and brown (necrosis)
- Stunted growth
4 Potassium(K) - Cell membrane formation Premature death
- Activates respiration and
photosynthesis
5 Calcium (Ca) - Formation of chlorophyll - Stunted growth
- Activates some enzymes - Death of terminal buds
- Gives rigidity to plants - Poor root development

6
6+

Assignment
State at least 5 difference and 5 similarities between respiration and photosynthesis
NUTRITION
Nutrition is the process by which a living organism searches, obtains and utilises food materials
for metabolic activities such as growth, excretion and reproduction
IMPORTANCE OF FOOD
Living things require food to
1. Supply energy used for physical and metabolic activities.
2. For synthesis of substances such as hormones, enzymes and other essential chemicals.
3. Supply essential nutrients for healthy growth and development.

CLASSES OF FOOD
1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins
3. Fats and Oils (lipids)
4. Mineral salts
5. Vitamins
6. Water

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen
and oxygen atoms exist in a ratio of 2:1. Sources of carbohydrates includes cassava, yam, rice,
irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, millet, maize and so on.
USES OF CARBOHYDRATES
28
1. They provide warmth and energy.
2. They are used to build body parts in anthropods
3. Mucus, an important lubricant in our bodies is composed of carbohydrates.
4. They are useful in the synthesis of fats and oils.
5. They are important in the synthesis of nucleic acids e.g./DNA and RNA

TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. MONOSACCHARIDES: These are simple sugars which consist of one molecule each.
They have general formular (CH2O)n Examples include glucose (C6H12O6). Fructose
(C6H12O6), galactose (C6H12O6) ribose (C5H10O5).
N/B: Glucose or grapes sugars occur in grape seeds, nuts and in blood. Fructose is found
in tomatoes than in honey. All simple sugars are soluble in water except sucrose and they
contain a reducing group in their molecule. Hence, they are often called producing
sugars. They give a brick red colours with Fehlings’ solution.

Simple sugars found in organisms are the hexoses or 6-carbon sugars. They are the most
important energy storage molecules in an organism. Their chemical formula is
C6H12O6. Examples of glucose, fructose and galactose, ribose and deoxyribose and
pentose sugars. 5- carbon sugars used in the formation of nucleic acids.
2. DISACCHARIDES: These are formed by the condensation of two simple sugars
molecules to form a double sugar units (CHO). They are represented by maltose (malt
sugar), lactose (milk sugar) or sucrose (cane sugar).
Glucose + Glucose Maltose

Glucose + Glucose Lactose

Glucose + Glucose Sucrose
Condensation is a reaction in which two or more molecules join to form a large molecule
with the removal of a molecule of water or some other simple molecules.
3. POLYSACCHARIDES: These are complex carbohydrates consisting of many
monosaccharide units. Examples are starch, glycogen (animal starch), cellulose and
chitin found in some plants and animals.
4. CELLULOSE: Contains almost 3000 glucose units. It forms the walls of most plants
cells is formed in large amounts in vegetables. It constitutes the main part of the digestive
matter as Roughages.
5. STARCH: is made in green leaves. It is insoluble in cold water and can be broken down
in stages into simple sugars.

PROTEINS
Proteins are complex organic compounds made of a few or many amino acids. They
consist of Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and Nitrogen, but some proteins contain a little
amount of Phosphorus and sulphur.
Sources of protein include meat, milk, egg, fish, groundnut, beans etc.

IMPORTANCE OF PROTEINS
1. Proteins are needed for tissue growth and repair of worn out or damaged tissues.
29
 2. They are used to make white blood cells and antibodies.
3. They give energy.
4. They are used for building of protoplasma.
5. They are used to make enzymes and hormones for the optimal functioning of the body.

STRUCTURE
Protein can be simple in structure e.g. albumen globtilinse. When they combine with
other substances, they give rise to compound protein such as haemoglobin and leuco proteins.
All proteins are macro molecules made of smaller units called Amino acids but all proteins
conform to the same general formular.

DIAGRAM??????
The different amino acids can be united or joined together to form all the existing proteins.
When two amino acids combine, a condensation reaction takes place and a molecule of water is
lost tending to the formation of a peptide linkage or bond. Further peptide bonds are formed
leading to the formation of dipeptides, polypeptides and proteins.
All proteinshave large molecules which is soluble from alloidal solutions when boiled with an
acid. They become broken down in digestion into singular nitrogenous compounds known as
peptones and finally into Amino acids.

The breakdown of proteins takes place in steps as shown below:

Proteins Proteoses leptons polypeptides amino acids

FATS AND OILS

Fats and oil are referred to as lipids. Fats are solids at room temperature while oils are liquid at
room temperature.

Digestion
Fats and oil are broken down to fatty acids and glycerol which are directly absorbed into the
lymphatic system. They are energy producing substances and they provide more energy than
carbohydrates. They contain carbon, hydrogen and little of oxygen.
IMPORTANCE OF FATS AND OILS
1. They serve as the source of fat soluble vitamins (Vitamins A, D, E and K).
2. They provide the body with energy.
3. They are important components of the cell membrane.
4. In cold countries, fat layers under the skin of mammals (adipose tissue) act as insulations
and prevent loss of heat from their bodies.

VITAMINS
Vitamins are organic compounds required by the body in small amounts for normal healthy
growth functions. They are not produced in the body but taken through digestion. They do not
provide energy but act as bio-catalyst by promoting chemical reactions in the body cell.

Vitamins are classified into two:

Fat Soluble Vitamins (Vitamins A, D, E and K)
30
Water Soluble Vitamins (Vitamins B and C)

Fat soluble vitamins can be stored in the liver and need not be consumed regularly.
Accumulation of fat soluble vitamins at high level can become toxic to the body.

Water soluble vitamins are soluble in water and are absorbed into the blood. They are readily
excreted by the kidney and passed out in urine. Vitamins e and E are antioxidants which help to
limit the cell and tissue damage caused by pollutants and toxics in the body.

TABLE????
Assignment
Explain the following terms

1. Essential fatty acids

2. Essential amino acids

MINERAL SALTS
Mineral salts are essential inorganic substances needed for regulation of body metabolism.
They are usually compounds of enzymes, pigments and structural parts of the body. Some are
required in large quantities (calcium and phosphorus) while others are needed in small
quantities (iodine, iron). Lack of mineral salts in our diet may cause deficiency disease.

TABLE ???

WATER
Water constitutes about 70% of the body mass of human being. It is the main component of the
cell protoplasm.

Importance of Water as Food in Human

1. Water supplies us with some mineral salt.
2. It is essential for digestion of food as it makes it possible for enzymes to mix with the
hydrolysed food molecules.
3. It is necessary for absorption of digested food substances and serves as a solvent for
amino acids, sugars, some vitamins and mineral salts.
4. Chemical reactions in the body take place in the presence of a solvent such as water.
5. It is essential for the removal of excretory materials such as urea. It also forms a greater
part or proportion of sweat and urine.
6. Water makes up about 90% of the protoplasm and body plasma.
7. Evaporation of water from the body in the form of sweat produces a cooling effect in the
body. Hence, it helps in regulation of body temperature.
8. Enzymes and hormones circulated in the body in aqueous form in order to perform their
functions.

ROUGHAGES
31
A roughage is the indigestible fibrous material or compound derived from plants e.g. cellulose.
It consists mainly polysaccharides, food source of roughages include guava, vegetable and
fruits.

IMPORTANCE OF ROUGHAGES
1. It stimulates the movement of food through the alimentary canal.
2. It reduces blood cholesterol level.
3. It reduces risks of bowel cancer.
4. It reduces liver diseases such as gall stones.
NB: Lack of roughages in our diet result in constipation

BALANCE DIET
A balance diet is the food that combine adequate proportion of different classes of food such as
carbohydrates, proteins, mineral salts, vitamins, fats and oils, water and roughages.
A balanced diet must provide our body with enough energy for activities and enough
minerals for the growth and repair of its tissues. This diet must have the right amounts of
carbohydrates (50 – 60 %), proteins (10 – 50 %), fats and oils (20 – 50 %), vitamins, minerals
water and roughages.
An ideal balanced diet always varies greatly in different individuals depending on certain
factors like sex, age, activity, body mass and climate (temperature).

Assignment
Describe two deficiency diseases caused by lack of proteins and carbohydrates in the diet of a
child.

WEEK 6

MODES OF NUTRITION

NUTRITION

Nutrition is the process by which living organisms search, obtain and utilize food materials for
metabolic activities such as growth, excretion and reproduction.

MODES OF NUTRITION

Organisms can be classified into two major groups based on their mode of feeding.

They include:

1. Autotrophic nutrition
2. Heterotrophic nutrition
32
 AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
This is a method of feeding by which an organism builds up its own food from simple inorganic
substances. Organisms are able to manufacture their own food either utilizing light energy
(photosynthesis) or chemical energy (chemosynthesis). All organisms that feed autotrophically,

are called Autotrophs.

PHOTOSYNTHETIC NUTRITION

All green plants manufacture food in the presence of sunlight using water with the aid of some
enzymes. This process is called photosynthesis.

6CO2 + 6H2O chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2(g)

carbon(iv) water light Glucose Oxygen
oxide

CHEMOSYNTHETIC NUTRITION

Certain bacteria synthesise organic compounds from simple inorganic substances such as
Carbon (iv) oxide, ammonia (NH3), Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S), water (H2O) and Trioxonitrate
(V) (NO3) to obtain their food. The energy used for the synthesis comes from the oxidation of
these inorganic substances. Hence, the process is called Chemosynthesis. The bacteria do not
depend upon sunlight energy. They have enzyme system capable of trapping chemical energy.

The soil nitrifying bacteria, Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter are chemosynthetic. Nitrosomonas
oxidizes ammonia to nitrates

a. 2NH3 + 302 Nitrosomonas 2HNO2 + 2H2O + Chemical energy

b. 2HNO3 + 02 Nitrobacter 2HNO2 + Chemical energy

Sulphur bacteria in the soil can oxidize hydrogen sulphide around it to produce energy

2H2 S + 02 Sulphur bacteria 2S + 2H2O + Chemical energy

(hydrogen
sulphide)

Hydrogen bacteria
4H2 + CO2 2H2O + CH4 + Energy

Iron bacteria
4FeCO3 + O2 + 6H2O 4Fe(OH)3 + 4CO2 + Energy

33
 HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

This is a type of nutrition carried out in which organisms are unable to manufacture their own
food and therefore depend directly or indirectly on

Organisms that carry out hetertrophic nutrition e.g cell animals and plants that lack chlorophyll
(fungi, most bacteria, and few parasitic flowering plants) are Heterotrophs.

N/B Heterotrophs take food items into their guts in different forms

a. Some animals e.g. mammals take large food items which need the aid of teeth to
breakdown before entering the digestive gut. These are called Macrophagous feeders
b. Some heterotrophs take tiny food particles in their guts without being broken down with
teeth. They are called Microphages feeders. Examples are paramecium, mosquito larvae,
tilapia galilaea.
c. Some heterotrophs feed on fluid. These are Fluid feeders. Examples include: adult
mosquito, aphid, butterflies, sunbird etc

TYPES OF HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

There are four main types of heterotrophic nutrition. They include:

1. Holozoic Nutrition
2. Parasitic Nutrition
3. Symbolic Nutrition
4. Saprophytic Nutrition

HOLOZOIC NUTRITION

This type of nutrition involves the ingestion of solid organic food substances synthesized by
green plants. The organisms ingest, digest and assimilate these foods into their bodies with the
aid of enzymes. Holozoic animals have developed sensory, nervous and muscular structures to
enable them search and catch their food. Examples of organisms that exhibit holozoic nutrition
are:

a. Carnivorous e.g. cat, lions etc that feed on flesh.

b. Herbivorous e.g sheep, goat, rabbits etc that feed on plants
c. Omnivorous e.g. man, pig, etc that feed on both flesh,vegetables or plants.
d. Scarvengers like vulture that feed on dead animals.

34
 PARASITIC NUTRITION

This is the type of nutrition in which an organism (a parasite) depends on another organism
(host) for nourishment. During the feeding process, one organism is harmed and does not
benefit. The organism gaining food, protection and shelter is called Parasite while the other
organism being harmed and which is providing food is called The Host.

N/B: The association between a host and a parasite is called Parasitism. Example of parasites
are:

a. Plant Parasites e.g Dodders (Cassyllia Filiformia) and Mistletoe

b. Animal Parasite e.g. Tapeworm (Taerua Solium), plasmodium, roundworms, liver flukes,
ticks, fleas, bugs, leeches, aphids, guinea worm, hook worm etc.
Animal parasites can be classified as ectoparasites and endoparasites.
1. ECTOPARASITES: These are parasites which live on the body of their hosts. They
live outside the body of their host where they derive food and shelter. Examples
include flea, body louse, bed bug, aphid, tick etc. Ticks are usually found in cattle and
sheep while aphids and cotton strainers are ecto-parasites of plants. Ticks and fleas
may also be found on dogs, chicken and rats.
2. ENDOPARASITES: These are parasites which live inside the body of their hosts such
as man and other animals. Examples include
--- Tape worm (Taenia solium): Associated with pigs (secondary host) and man
(primary host)
--- Liver Fluke (Fasciola hepatica) : Associated with the liver of a sheep.
--- Filaria worm (Wucheraria bancrofti) Found in the alimentary canal of man and
pigs
---Guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis)

SYMBIOTIC NUTRITION

This is the type of nutrition in which two organisms of different species called symbionts, live
in close association with each other and derive nutrients or food from each other. In this
association, both organisms gain and none is harmed. This kind of relationship is called
symbiosis.

Apart from nutritional benefits, the symbionts can derive other benefits like protection,
shelter and reproduction during such association.

Examples of organisms that exhibit symbiotic nutrition are:

---- Nitrogen fixing a bacteria e.g. Rhizobium spp and root nodules.

---- Sea anemones and hermit crabs

35
---- Herbivores and cellulose-digesting bacteria

----- Carnivorous or Insectivorous Plant: These are plants equipped with devices for trapping,
digesting and absorbing nutritive compounds from the bodies of insects and other small
organisms. They grow in nitrogen deficient soils and have developed structures to enable them
trap small animals from which they obtain nitrogen on digesting their bodies.

Examples of these plants include

--- Sundew (Drosera spp)

--- Bladderwort (Utricularia)

--- Butterwort (Pinguicula) etc.

SAPROPHYTIC NUTRITION
This is a type of nutrition in which non-green plants feed on dead and decaying organic matter
Enzymes are secreted from the cells to the dead organic matter and the digestion of the dead
organic matter takes place outside the cells of the saprophytic plant. Organisms which feed
saprophytically are known as Saprophytes. Examples include most fungi (Mucus, mushroom,
yeast), bacteria.

NOTE: Commensialism is a relationship between two organisms where one organism benefits
from the other without affecting or harming it. Example: The cattle egrets and large herbivores
grazing together. The herbivores flush insects from the vegetation as they move and the egrets
eat the insects.

Mutualism is a type of symbiotic relationship that occur in nature in which two organisms of
different species exist in a relationship in which the individuals both benefit from the activity of
the other

Assignment

1. Explain the mode of feeding in the following organisms

a. Tilapia fish
b. Mosquito larvae

2. By means of diagram, explain the adaptation of the mouth parts of the following insects
to their mode of feeding;
a. Cockroach or grasshopper
b. Housefly
c. Mosquito
d. Butterfly

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RELEVANCE OF BIOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE

In agriculture, the knowledge of Biology has been found to be very relevant especially in the
areas of:

1. Plants (agricultural classification)

2. Farming Practices
3. Pests and diseases of plants
4. Genetics

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

The knowledge of Biology helps in classifying plants based on:

1. Their use in Agriculture (Agricultural classification)

2. Their morphology (Morphological classification)
3. Their life cycle

Agricultural classification
Crops are classified according to the main food substances existing in them. They
include:
1. Legumes eg cowpea, soyabean, groundnut etc
2. Cereals eg millet, wheat, barley oat etc
3. Roots and tubers eg carrot, yams, potatoes etc
4. Vegetables eg tomatoes, onion, pumpkin etc
5. Fruit crops eg pineapple, pawpaw, banana etc
6. Beverages eg cocoa, coffee, tea etc
7. Oil crops eg oil palm, cotton, coconut etc
8. Latex crops eg rubber
9. Fibre crops eg cotton, jute
10.Spice crops eg ginger, onion, thyme, pepper etc
11.Stimulants eg cocaine plants, kola, indian hemp etc
12.Forage crops eg guinea grass, elephant grass, gamba grass etc
13.Nut eg groundnut, cashew, oil palm, coconut etc

Classification of crops according to life cycle

Crops are classified based on life cycle or life span. They include:
1. Annual crops e.g maize, yam, rice etc
2. Biennal crops e.g pineapple, cocoyam, cassava etc
3. Perennial crops e.g mango, oil palm, cocoa etc

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 Classification of crops according to tillage
1. Arable crops: these are called food crops. They are grown and harvested within a
year. They require total tillage of the land eg maize, guinea corn, yam etc
2. Non-arable crops: these are crops whose cultivation do not require the total tillage of
the land before propagation e.g oil palm, cashew, rubber etc

Classification based on numbers of cotyledons

1. Monocotyledonous crops e.g maize, oil palm, guinea corn
2. Dicotyledenous crops e.g groundnut

EFFECTS OF AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON THE ECOSYSTEM

The following agricultural or farming practices carried out by farmers have some effects or
consequences on the ecological system. These agricultural practices and their effects include:

I. Bush burning: Bush burning involves the setting of fire on the bush to clear out the
vegetation.
EFFECTS
1. Burning of bush destroys the organic matter on the soil.
2. The atmosphere is polluted with smoke.
3. It results in the death of many micro-organisms.
4. It exposes the soil to erosion and leeching.
5. It reduces the water holding capacity of the soil.
6. Bush burning leads to the extinction of some animals.

II. Over-grazing: Overgrazing is a situation where more animals tan can be supported in
a particular pasture are put there to graze. It is a way of exceeding the carrying
capacity of the soil.
EFFECTS
1. Overgrazing removes the vegetation cover of the soil.
2. It exposes the soil to erosion
3. It destroys the soil structure
4. More feces are dropped which could improve the fertility of the soil.
5. Weeds can easily be eradicated form the land.
6. It causes poor growth and regenerative capacity of vegetation.

III. Fertilizer application: This involves the application of certain chemicals or substances
into the soil to improve its fertility.

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 EFFECTS
1. It brings about loss of organic matter or humus.
2. It supplements the nutrient content of the soil, thereby enhancing the productive capacity
of the soil.
3. Excessive application of fertilizer can cause soil acidity.
4. It stimulates vegetative growth, hence reducing soil erosion.
5. Fertilizer application deteriorates the structure of the soil and increases its porosity.
6. It can affect the life of plant and animals.

IV. Application of Pesticides/Herbicides: Pesticides are chemical substances which are

used to destroy or kill pests while herbicides are also chemical substances in form of
solution or gases capable of destroying herbaceous plants.

EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES APPLICATION

1. It affects and destroys other useful plantsand animals.
2. It reduces the population of the targeted insects or plants.
3. Excessive use of pesticides may destroy the crop plants.
4. Pesticides application can cause pollution of the environment.
5. When such chemicals are washed into rivers or lakes, they can cause the death of
aquatic animals.
V. Tillage: Tillage can be defined as the working, digging or breaking up of the soil in
preparation for the planting of crops.
EFFECTS
1. Tillage encourages leeching.
2. It helps to loosen the soil.
3. It exposes the soil to erosion.
4. It can lead to poor vegetation.
5. Intensive tillage can lead to loss of soil fertility.
6. It enhances the proper aeration of the soil
7. Tillage leads to changes in the ecology of the land.
VI. Deforestation: Deforestation is the continuous removal of forest stands (trees) either
by bush burning or indiscriminate felling without replacing them.\
Effects
1. Deforestation results in the loss of soil nutrients through leeching and erosion.
2. It reduces wild life population in the area concerned
3. It reduces the humus content of the soil.
4. It reduces microbial activities of the soil
5. It may lead to desertification as sand particles are more likely to be dropped in
areas without trees.
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VII. Bush clearing: this can also be called clean clearing. It is a practice whereby the
whole vegetation is cleared and removed leaving the land clean.

EFFECTS
1. Bush clearing results in the disturbance or removal of rich top soil.
2. It gets rid of weeds on the land thereby leaving the land free of all obstacles.
3. It exposes the soil to erosion and increases leeching
4. It exposes the soil to direct sunshine thereby increasing the temperature of the soil.
5. It leads to reduction of organic matter

EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF FARMING ON THE ECOLOGICAL

SYSTEM
I. Monocropping: Monocropping is a system of farming in which one crop is cultivated
every year.
EFFECTS
1. It provides abundant food for pests of the cultivated crop
2. It depletes the soil of its nutrients.
3. It increases the population of pests.
4. The pests in turn reduce the food and population of the other animals.

ASSIGNMENT
Write on the effects of the following types of farming:
i. Shifting cultivation
ii. Crop rotation
iii. Mixed farming

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