UNIT-3

INTRODUCTION:

The protocols used to determine who goes next on a multiaccess channel belong to
a sublayer of the data link layer called the MAC (Medium Access Control)
sublayer. The MAC sublayer is especially important in LANs, particularly wireless
ones because wireless is naturally a broadcast channel. WANs, in contrast, use
point-to-point links, except for satellite networks

THE CHANNEL ALLOCATION PROBLEM

Channel allocation is a process in which a single channel is divided and allotted

to multiple users in order to carry user specific tasks. There are user’s quantity
may vary every time the process takes place. If there are N numbers of users
and channel is divided into N equal-sized sub channels, Each user is assigned one
portion. If the number of users are small and don’t vary at times, than Frequency
Division Multiplexing can be used as it is a simple and efficient channel bandwidth
allocating technique. 

Channel allocation problem can be solved by two schemes: Static Channel

Allocation in LANs and MANs, and Dynamic Channel Allocation. 
 

1. Static Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs: 

It is the classical or traditional approach of allocating a single channel among

multiple competing users Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM). If there are
N users, the bandwidth is divided into N equal sized portions each user being
assigned one portion. Since each user has a private frequency band, there is
no interface between users. It is not efficient to divide into fixed number of
chunks. 
  T = 1/(U*C-L)

T (FDM) = N*T(1/U(C/N)-L/N)
Where, 
 
 T = mean time delay,
C = capacity of channel,
L = arrival rate of frames,
1/U = bits/frame,
N = number of sub channels,
T(FDM) = Frequency Division Multiplexing Time

2. Dynamic Channel Allocation: 

Possible assumptions include: 

 
1. Station Model: 

Assumes that each of N stations independently produce frames.The probability

of producing a packet in the interval delta Dt where delta is the constant
arrival rate of new frames. 
 
2. Single Channel Assumption: 
In this allocation all stations are equivalent and can send and receive on that
channel. 
 
3. Collision Assumption: 
If two frames overlap in time-wise, then that’s collision. Any collision is an
error, and both frames must re transmitted. Collisions are only possible error. 
 
4. Time can be divided into Slotted or Continuous. 
 
5. Stations can sense a channel is busy before they try it
 
Protocol Assumption: 
 
 N independent stations.
 A station is blocked until its generated frame is transmitted.
 probability of a frame being generated in a period of length Dt is IDt where I
is the arrival rate of frames.
 Only a single Channel available.
 Time can be either: Continuous or slotted.
 Carrier Sense: A station can sense if a channel is already busy before
transmission.
 No Carrier Sense: Time out used to sense loss data.

MULTIPLE ACCESS PROTOCOLS

When a sender and receiver have a dedicated link to transmit data packets, the
data link control is enough to handle the channel. Suppose there is no dedicated
path to communicate or transfer the data between two devices. In that case,
multiple stations access the channel and simultaneously transmits the data over the
channel. It may create collision and cross talk. Hence, the multiple access protocol
is required to reduce the collision and avoid crosstalk between the channels.

For example, suppose that there is a classroom full of students. When a teacher
asks a question, all the students (small channels) in the class start answering the
question at the same time (transferring the data simultaneously). All the students
respond at the same time due to which data is overlap or data lost. Therefore it is
the responsibility of a teacher (multiple access protocol) to manage the students
and make them one answer.

Following are the types of multiple access protocol that is subdivided into the
different process as:

A. Random Access Protocol

In this protocol, all the station has the equal priority to send the data over a
channel. In random access protocol, one or more stations cannot depend on
another station nor any station control another station. Depending on the channel's
state (idle or busy), each station transmits the data frame. However, if more than
one station sends the data over a channel, there may be a collision or data conflict.
Due to the collision, the data frame packets may be lost or changed. And hence, it
does not receive by the receiver end.

Following are the different methods of random-access protocols for broadcasting

frames on the channel.

o Aloha

o CSMA

o CSMA/CD
 o CSMA/CA

ALOHA Random Access Protocol

It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but can also be used in a
shared medium to transmit data. Using this method, any station can transmit data
across a network simultaneously when a data frameset is available for
transmission.

Aloha Rules

1. Any station can transmit data to a channel at any time.

2. It does not require any carrier sensing.

3. Collision and data frames may be lost during the transmission of data
through multiple stations.

4. Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha. Hence, there is no collision

detection.

5. It requires retransmission of data after some random amount of time.

Pure Aloha

Whenever data is available for sending over a channel at stations, we use Pure
Aloha. In pure Aloha, when each station transmits data to a channel without
checking whether the channel is idle or not, the chances of collision may occur, and
the data frame can be lost. When any station transmits the data frame to a
channel, the pure Aloha waits for the receiver's acknowledgment. If it does not
acknowledge the receiver end within the specified time, the station waits for a
random amount of time, called the backoff time (Tb). And the station may assume
the frame has been lost or destroyed. Therefore, it retransmits the frame until all
the data are successfully transmitted to the receiver.

1. The total vulnerable time of pure Aloha is 2 * Tfr.

 2. Maximum throughput occurs when G = 1/ 2 that is 18.4%.

3. Successful transmission of data frame is S = G * e ^ - 2 G.

As we can see in the figure above, there are four stations for accessing a shared
channel and transmitting data frames. Some frames collide because most stations
send their frames at the same time. Only two frames, frame 1.1 and frame 2.2, are
successfully transmitted to the receiver end. At the same time, other frames are
lost or destroyed. Whenever two frames fall on a shared channel simultaneously,
collisions can occur, and both will suffer damage. If the new frame's first bit enters
the channel before finishing the last bit of the second frame. Both frames are
completely finished, and both stations must retransmit the data frame.

Slotted Aloha

The slotted Aloha is designed to overcome the pure Aloha's efficiency because pure
Aloha has a very high possibility of frame hitting. In slotted Aloha, the shared
channel is divided into a fixed time interval called slots. So that, if a station wants
to send a frame to a shared channel, the frame can only be sent at the beginning of
the slot, and only one frame is allowed to be sent to each slot. And if the stations
are unable to send data to the beginning of the slot, the station will have to wait
until the beginning of the slot for the next time. However, the possibility of a
collision remains when trying to send a frame at the beginning of two or more
station time slot.
 1. Maximum throughput occurs in the slotted Aloha when G = 1 that is 37%.

2. The probability of successfully transmitting the data frame in the slotted

Aloha is S = G * e ^ - 2 G.

3. The total vulnerable time required in slotted Aloha is Tfr.

CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to sense the

traffic on a channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data. It means that if the
channel is idle, the station can send data to the channel. Otherwise, it must wait
until the channel becomes idle. Hence, it reduces the chances of a collision on a
transmission medium.

CSMA Access Modes

1-Persistent: In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines each node, first sense
the shared channel and if the channel is idle, it immediately sends the data. Else it
must wait and keep track of the status of the channel to be idle and broadcast the
frame unconditionally as soon as the channel is idle.

Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that defines before transmitting

the data, each node must sense the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it
immediately sends the data. Otherwise, the station must wait for a random time
(not continuously), and when the channel is found to be idle, it transmits the
frames.

P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non-persistent modes. The

P-Persistent mode defines that each node senses the channel, and if the channel is
inactive, it sends a frame with a P probability. If the data is not transmitted, it
waits for a (q = 1-p probability) random time and resumes the frame with the
next time slot.

O- Persistent: It is an O-persistent method that defines the superiority of the

station before the transmission of the frame on the shared channel. If it is found
that the channel is inactive, each station waits for its turn to retransmit the data.

CSMA/ CD

It is carriers sense multiple access/ collision detection network protocol to

transmit data frames. The CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control
layer. Therefore, it first senses the shared channel before broadcasting the frames,
and if the channel is idle, it transmits a frame to check whether the transmission
was successful. If the frame is successfully received, the station sends another
frame. If any collision is detected in the CSMA/CD, the station sends a jam/ stop
signal to the shared channel to terminate data transmission. After that, it waits for
a random time before sending a frame to a channel.

CSMA/ CA

It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol for

carrier transmission of data frames. It is a protocol that works with a medium
access control layer. When a data frame is sent to a channel, it receives an
acknowledgment to check whether the channel is clear. If the station receives only
a single (own) acknowledgments, that means the data frame has been successfully
transmitted to the receiver. But if it gets two signals (its own and one more in
which the collision of frames), a collision of the frame occurs in the shared channel.
Detects the collision of the frame when a sender receives an acknowledgment
signal.

Following are the methods used in the CSMA/ CA to avoid the collision:

Interframe space: In this method, the station waits for the channel to become
idle, and if it gets the channel is idle, it does not immediately send the data.
Instead of this, it waits for some time, and this time period is called
the Interframe space or IFS. However, the IFS time is often used to define the
priority of the station.

Contention window: In the Contention window, the total time is divided into
different slots. When the station/ sender is ready to transmit the data frame, it
chooses a random slot number of slots as wait time. If the channel is still busy, it
does not restart the entire process, except that it restarts the timer only to send
data packets when the channel is inactive.

Acknowledgment: In the acknowledgment method, the sender station sends the

data frame to the shared channel if the acknowledgment is not received ahead of
time.

B. Controlled Access Protocol

It is a method of reducing data frame collision on a shared channel. In the

controlled access method, each station interacts and decides to send a data frame
by a particular station approved by all other stations. It means that a single station
cannot send the data frames unless all other stations are not approved. It has three
types of controlled access: Reservation, Polling, and Token Passing.

C. Channelization Protocols

It is a channelization protocol that allows the total usable bandwidth in a shared

channel to be shared across multiple stations based on their time, distance and
codes. It can access all the stations at the same time to send the data frames to
the channel.

Following are the various methods to access the channel based on their time,
distance and codes:

1. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

3. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

FDMA

It is a frequency division multiple access (FDMA) method used to divide the

available bandwidth into equal bands so that multiple users can send data through
a different frequency to the sub channel. Each station is reserved with a particular
band to prevent the crosstalk between the channels and interferences of stations.

TDMA

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a channel access method. It allows the
same frequency bandwidth to be shared across multiple stations. And to avoid
collisions in the shared channel, it divides the channel into different frequency slots
that allocate stations to transmit the data frames. The same  frequency bandwidth
into the shared channel by dividing the signal into various time slots to transmit it.
However, TDMA has an overhead of synchronization that specifies each station's
time slot by adding synchronization bits to each slot.

CDMA

The code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method. In CDMA, all
stations can simultaneously send the data over the same channel. It means that it
allows each station to transmit the data frames with full frequency on the shared
channel at all times. It does not require the division of bandwidth on a shared
channel based on time slots. If multiple stations send data to a channel
simultaneously, their data frames are separated by a unique code sequence. Each
station has a different unique code for transmitting the data over a shared channel.
For example, there are multiple users in a room that are continuously speaking.
Data is received by the users if only two-person interact with each other using the
same language. Similarly, in the network, if different stations communicate with
each other simultaneously with different code language.

WIRELESS LAN PROTOCOLS

Classic Ethernet

Ethernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs. It
was first standardized in 1980s as IEEE 802.3 standard. Ethernet is classified into
two categories: classic Ethernet and switched Ethernet.
Classic Ethernet is the original form of Ethernet that provides data rates between 3
to 10 Mbps. The varieties are commonly referred as 10BASE-X. Here, 10 is the
maximum throughput, i.e. 10 Mbps, BASE denoted use of baseband transmission,
and X is the type of medium used. Most varieties of classic Ethernet have become
obsolete in present communication scenario.
Varieties of Classic Ethernet
The common varieties of classic Ethernet are -
 Thick coax (10BASE-5): This was the original version that used a single
coaxial cable into which a connection can be tapped by drilling into the cable
to the core. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length of 500m.
 Thin coax (10BASE-2): This is a thinner variety where segments of coaxial
cables are connected by BNC connectors. The 2 refers to the maximum
segment length of about 200m (185m to be precise).
 Twisted pair (10BASE-T): This uses unshielded twisted pair copper wires
as physical layer medium.
 Ethernet over Fiber (10BASE-F): This uses fiber optic cables as medium of
transmission.
Frame Format of Classic Ethernet
The main fields of a frame of classic Ethernet are -
 Preamble: It is a 8 bytes starting field that provides alert and timing pulse
for transmission.
 Destination Address: It is a 6 byte field containing physical address of
destination stations.
 Source Address: It is a 6 byte field containing the physical address of the
sending station.
 Length: It a 7 bytes field that stores the number of bytes in the data field.
 Data: This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers.
The maximum size of data field is 1500 bytes.
 Padding: This is added to the data to bring its length to the minimum
requirement of 46 bytes.
 CRC: CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains the error detection
information.
Architecture
Classic Ethernet is simplest form of Ethernet. It comprises of an Ethernet medium
composed of a long piece of coaxial cable. Stations can be connected to the coaxial
cable using a card called the network interface (NI). The NIs are responsible for
receiving and transmitting data through the network. Repeaters are used to make
end-to-end joins between cable segments as well as re-generate the signals if they
weaken. When a station is ready to transmit, it places its frame in the cable. This
arrangement is called the broadcast bus.
The configuration is illustrated as follows –
Frame Format of Classic Ethernet
The main fields of a frame of classic Ethernet are −

 Preamble: It is a 8 bytes starting field that provides alert and timing pulse
for transmission.
 Destination Address: It is a 6 byte field containing physical address of
destination stations.

 Source Address: It is a 6 byte field containing the physical address of the

sending station.
 Type: It a 2 bytes field that instructs the receiver which process to give the
frame to.
 Data: This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers.
The maximum size of data field is 1500 bytes.
 Padding: This is added to the data to bring its length to the minimum
requirement of 46 bytes.
  CRC: CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains the error detection
information.

Classic Ethernet MAC Sublayer Protocol?

Classic Ethernet is the original form of Ethernet used primarily in LANs. It provides
data rates between 3 to 10 Mbps.It operates both in the physical layer and in the
MAC sublayer of the OSI model. In the physical layer, the features of the cables
and networks are considered. In MAC sublayer, the frame formats for the Ethernet
data frame are laid down. Classic Ethernet was first standardized in 1980s as IEEE
802.3 standard.
Frame Format of Classic Ethernet
Classic Ethernet frames can be either of Ethernet (DIX) or of IEEE 802.3 standard.
The frames of the two standards are very similar except for one field. The main
fields of a frame of classic Ethernet are −
 Preamble − It is the starting field that provides alert and timing pulse for
transmission. In case of Ethernet (DIX) it is an 8 byte field and in case of
IEEE 802.3 it is of 7 bytes.
 Start of Frame Delimiter (SOF) − It is a 1 byte field in an IEEE 802.3
frame that contains an alternating pattern of ones and zeros ending with two
ones.
 Destination Address − It is a 6 byte field containing physical address of
destination stations.
 Source Address − It is a 6 byte field containing the physical address of the
sending station.
 Type/Length − This is a 2 byte field. In case of Ethernet (DIX), the field is
type that instructs the receiver which process to give the frame to. In case of
IEEE 802.3, the field is length that stores the number of bytes in the data
field.
 Data − This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers.
The maximum size of data field is 1500 bytes.
  Padding − This is added to the data to bring its length to the minimum
requirement of 46 bytes.
 CRC − CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains the error
detection information.

CSMA/CD with Binary Exponential Backoff

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) is a network

protocol for carrier transmission that operates in the Medium Access Control (MAC)
layer. It senses or listens whether the shared channel for transmission is busy or
not, and defers transmissions until the channel is free.
When more than one stations send their frames simultaneously, collision occurs.
Back-off algorithm is a collision resolution mechanism which is commonly used to
schedule retransmissions after collisions in Ethernet. The waiting time that a station
waits before attempting retransmission of the frame is called as back off time.
Algorithm of CSMA/CD
Step 1) When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel
is idle or busy.
Step 2) If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.
Step 3) If the channel is idle, the station starts transmitting and continually
monitors the channel to detect collision.
Step 4) If a collision is detected, the station starts the binary exponential backoff
algorithm.
Step 5) The station resets the retransmission counters and completes frame
transmission.
Binary Exponential Backoff Algorithm in case of Collision
Step 1) The station continues transmission of the current frame for a specified time
along with a jam signal, to ensure that all the other stations detect collision.
Step 2) The station increments the retransmission counter, c, that denote the
number of collisions.
Step 3) The station selects a random number of slot times in the range 0 and 2 c –
1. For example, after the first collision (i.e. c = 1), the station will wait for either 0
or 1 slot times. After the second collision (i.e. c = 2), the station will wait anything
between 0 to 3 slot times. After the third collision (i.e. c = 3), the station will wait
anything between 0 to 7 slot times, and so forth.
Step 4) If the station selects a number 𝑘 in the range 0 and 2c – 1, then
Back_off_time = k × Time slot,
where a time slot is equal to round trip time (RTT).
Step 5) And the end of the backoff time, the station attempts retransmission by
continuing with the CSMA/CD algorithm.
Step 6) If the maximum number of retransmission attempts is reached, then the
station aborts transmission.
The flowchart below summarizes the algorithms. CMSA/CD algorithm is shown in
green colour while the backoff algorithm is shown in maroon colour.

CSMA with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) is a network
protocol for carrier transmission that operates in the Medium Access Control (MAC)
layer. In contrast to CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection)
that deals with collisions after their occurrence, CSMA/CA prevents collisions prior
to their occurrence.
Algorithm
The algorithm of CSMA/CA is:
 When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel
is idle or busy.
 If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.
 If the channel is idle, the station waits for an Inter-frame gap (IFG) amount
of time and then sends the frame.
 After sending the frame, it sets a timer.
 The station then waits for acknowledgement from the receiver. If it receives
the acknowledgement before expiry of timer, it marks a successful
transmission.
 Otherwise, it waits for a back-off time period and restarts the algorithm.
The following flowchart summarizes the algorithms:

Advantages of CMSA/CD
 CMSA/CA prevents collision.
 Due to acknowledgements, data is not lost unnecessarily.
 It avoids wasteful transmission.
 It is very much suited for wireless transmissions.
Disadvantages of CSMA/CD
 The algorithm calls for long waiting times.
 It has high power consumption.

Ethernet Performance
Ethernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs. The
performance of Ethernet is analysed by computing the efficiency of the channel
under different load conditions.
Let us assume an Ethernet network has k stations and each station transmits with a
probability p during a contention slot. Let A be the probability that some station
acquires the channel. A is calculated as −
A = kp (1−p)kp
The value of A is maximized at p = 1/k. If there can be innumerable stations
connected to the Ethernet network, i.e. k → ∞, the maximum value of A will be 1/e.
Let Q be the probability that the contention period has exactly j slots. Q is
calculated as −
Q = A (1−A)j−1
Let M be the mean number of slots per contention. So, the value of M will be −

Given that τ is the propagation time, each slot has duration 2τ. Hence the mean
contention interval, 𝑤 will be 2τ/A.
Let P be the time is seconds for a frame to propagate.
The channel efficiency, when a number of stations want to send frame, can be
calculated as −

Let F be the length of frame, B be the cable length, L be the cable length, c be the
speed of signal propagation and e be the contention slots per frame. The channel
efficiency in terms of these parameters is −

Fast Ethernet
In computer networks, Fast Ethernet is a variation of Ethernet standards that carry
data traffic at 100 Mbps (Mega bits per second) in local area networks (LAN). It was
launched as the IEEE 802.3u standard in 1995, and stayed the fastest network till
the introduction of Gigabit Ethernet.
Fast Ethernet is popularly named as 100-BASE-X. Here, 100 is the maximum
throughput, i.e. 100 Mbps, BASE denoted use of baseband transmission, and X is
the type of medium used, which is TX or FX.
Varieties of Fast Ethernet
The common varieties of fast Ethernet are 100-Base-TX, 100-BASE-FX and 100-
Base-T4.

 100-Base-T4
o This has four pairs of UTP of Category 3, two of which are bi-
directional and the other two are unidirectional.
o In each direction, three pairs can be used simultaneously for data
transmission.
o Each twisted pair is capable of transmitting a maximum of 25Mbaud
data. Thus the three pairs can handle a maximum of 75Mbaud data.
o It uses the encoding scheme 8B/6T (eight binary/six ternary).
 100-Base-TX
o This has either two pairs of unshielded twisted pairs (UTP) category 5
wires or two shielded twisted pairs (STP) type 1 wires. One pair
transmits frames from hub to the device and the other from device to
hub.
o Maximum distance between hub and station is 100m.
o It has a data rate of 125 Mbps.
o It uses MLT-3 encoding scheme along with 4B/5B block coding.
 100-BASE-FX
o This has two pairs of optical fibers. One pair transmits frames from
hub to the device and the other from device to hub.
o Maximum distance between hub and station is 2000m.
 o It has a data rate of 125 Mbps.
o It uses NRZ-I encoding scheme along with 4B/5B block coding.

Frame Format of IEEE 802.3

The frame format of IEEE 802.3u is same as IEEE 802.3. The fields in the frame
are:
 Preamble − It is a 7 bytes starting field that provides alert and timing pulse
for transmission.
 Start of Frame Delimiter (SOF) − It is a 1 byte field that contains an
alternating pattern of ones and zeros ending with two ones.
 Destination Address − It is a 6 byte field containing physical address of
destination stations.
 Source Address − It is a 6 byte field containing the physical address of the
sending station.
 Length − It a 2 bytes field that stores the number of bytes in the data field.
 Data − This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers.
The maximum size of data field is 1500 bytes.
 Padding − This is added to the data to bring its length to the minimum
requirement of 46 bytes.
 CRC − CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains the error
detection information.

Switched Ethernet

Ethernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs. It
was first standardized in 1980s as IEEE 802.3 standard. Ethernet is classified into
two categories: classic Ethernet and switched Ethernet.
In switched Ethernet, the hub connecting the stations of the classic Ethernet is
replaced by a switch. The switch connects the high-speed backplane bus to all the
stations in the LAN. The switch-box contains a number of ports, typically within the
range of 4 – 48. A station can be connected in the network by simply plugging a
connector to any of the ports. Connections from a backbone Ethernet switch can go
to computers, peripherals or other Ethernet switches and Ethernet hubs.
The following diagram shows configuration of a switched Ethernet −

Working Principle
Unlike classic Ethernet in which the channel is shared by the stations, in switched
Ethernet, each station gets a dedicated connection. When a port of the switch
receives a frame, it checks the destination address in the frame and then sends the
frame to the corresponding port, for outgoing data.
In switched Ethernet, collisions do not occur in the channel due to the presence of
dedicated connection to each station. However, collisions may still occur in a
destination port if it receives frames from more than one ports simultaneously. In a
switch, each port has its own individual collision domain and resolves it individually.
Frame Format of Switched Ethernet
The frame format of switched Ethernet is same as that of classic Ethernet. The
fields are −

 Preamble: An 8 bytes starting field that provides alert and timing pulse for
transmission.
 Destination Address: A 6 byte field containing physical address of
destination stations.
 Source Address: A 6 byte field containing the physical address of the
sending station.
 Length: A 2 bytes field that stores the number of bytes in the data field.
 Data: A variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers. The
maximum size of data field is 1500 bytes.
  Padding: Extra bits added to the data to bring its length to the minimum
size of 46 bytes.
 CRC: A 4 byte field that contains the error detection information.

GIGABIT ETHERNET:

In computer networks, Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) is the family of Ethernet technologies

that achieve theoretical data rates of 1 gigabit per second (1 Gbps). It was
introduced in 1999 and was defined by the IEEE 802.3ab standard.

Varieties of Gigabit Ethernet

The popular varieties of fast Ethernet are 1000Base-SX, 1000Base-LX, 1000BASE-T
and 1000Base-CX.
1000BASE-CX

 Defined by IEEE 802.3z standard

 The initial standard for Gigabit Ethernet
 Uses shielded twisted pair cables with DE-9 or 8P8C connector
 Maximum segment length is 25 metres
 Uses NRZ line encoding and 8B/6B block encoding
1000BASE-SX

 Defined by IEEE 802.3z standard

 Uses a pair of fibre optic cables of a shorter wavelength having 770 – 860
nm diameter
 The maximum segment length varies from 220 – 550 metres depending upon
the fiber properties.
 Uses NRZ line encoding and 8B/10B block encoding
1000BASE-LX

 Defined by IEEE 802.3z standard

 Uses a pair of fibre optic cables of a longer wavelength having 1270 – 1355
nm diameter
 Maximum segment length is 500 metres
 Can cover distances up to 5 km
 Uses NRZ line encoding and 8B/10B block encoding
1000BASE-T

 Defined by IEEE 802.3ab standard

 Uses a pair four lanes of twisted-pair cables (Cat-5, Cat-5e, Cat-6, Cat-7)
 Maximum segment length is 100 metres
 Uses trellis code modulation technique

WIRELESS LANS

Wireless LANs are increasingly popular, and homes, offices, cafes, libraries,
airports, zoos, and other public places are being outfitted with them to connect
computers, PDAs, and smart phones to the Internet. Wireless LANs can also be
used to let two or more nearby computers communicate without using the Internet.
The main wireless LAN standard is 802.11. Now it is time to take a closer
look at the technology.In the following sections, we will look at the protocol stack,
physical-layer radio transmission techniques, the MAC sublayer protocol, the frame
structure, and the services provided.
4.4.1 The 802.11 Architecture and Protocol Stack

802.11 networks can be used in two modes. The most popular mode is to connect
clients, such as laptops and smart phones, to another network, such as a company
intranet or the Internet. This mode is shown in Fig. 4-23(a). In infrastructure mode,
each client is associated with an AP (Access Point) that is in turn connected to the
other network. The client sends and receives its packets via the AP. Several access
points may be connected together, typically by a wired network called a
distribution system, to form an extended 802.11 network. In this case, clients
can send frames to other clients via their APs.
The other mode, shown in Fig. 4-23(b), is an ad hoc network. This mode is
a collection of computers that are associated so that they can directly send frames
to each other. There is no access point. Since Internet access is the killer
application for wireless, ad hoc networks are not very popular.

Now we will look at the protocols. All the 802 protocols, including 802.11 and
Ethernet, have a certain commonality of structure. A partial view of the 802.11
protocol stack is given in Fig. 4-24. The stack is the same for clients and APs.
The physical layer corresponds fairly well to the OSI physical layer, but the
data link layer in all the 802 protocols is split into two or more sublayers. In
802.11, the MAC (Medium Access Control) sublayer determines how the channel is
allocated, that is, who gets to transmit next.
Above it is the LLC (Logical Link Control) sublayer, whose job it is to hide the
differences between the different 802 variants and make them indistinguishable as
far as the network layer is concerned. This could have been a significant
responsibility, but these days the LLC is a glue layer that identifies the protocol
(e.g., IP) that is carried within an 802.11 frame.
The 802.11 Physical Layer

 Each of the transmission techniques makes it possible to send a MAC frame

over the air from one station to another. They differ, however, in the
technology used and speeds achievable.
 All of the 802.11 techniques use short-range radios to transmit signals in
either the 2.4-GHz or the 5-GHz ISM frequency bandsThe 2.4-GHz band
tends to be more crowded than the 5-GHz band, so 5 GHz can be better for
some applications even though it has shorter range due to the higher
frequency.
 All of the transmission methods also define multiple rates. The idea is that
different rates can be used depending on the current conditions. If the
wireless signal is weak, a low rate can be used. If the signal is clear, the
highest rate can be used. This adjustment is called rate adaptation.
 The first transmission method we shall look at is 802.11b. It is a spread-
spectrum method that supports rates of 1, 2, 5.5, and 11 Mbps, though in
practice the operating rate is nearly always 11 Mbps. It is similar to the
CDMA system we except that there is only one spreading code that is shared
by all users. The spreading sequence used by 201.11b is a Barker
sequence.
 To send at a rate of 1 Mbps, the Barker sequence is used with BPSK
modulation to send 1 bit per 11 chips. The chips are transmitted at a rate of
11 Mchips/sec. To send at 2 Mbps, it is used with QPSK modulation to send 2
bits per 11 chips. The higher rates are different. These rates use a technique
called CCK (Complementary Code Keying) to construct codes instead of
the Barker sequence.
 The 5.5-Mbps rate sends 4 bits in every 8-chip code, and the 11-Mbps rate
sends 8 bits in every 8-chip code.
 Next we come to 802.11a, which supports rates up to 54 Mbps in the 5-GHz
ISM band. The 802.11a method is based on OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing) because OFDM uses the spectrum efficiently and
 resists wireless signal degradations such as multipath. Bits are sent over 52
subcarriers in parallel, 48 carrying data and 4 used for synchronization.
 Not content to stop there, the IEEE committee began work on a high-
throughput physical layer called 802.11n. It was ratified in 2009. The goal
for 802.11n was throughput of at least 100 Mbps after all the wireless
overheads were removed. This goal called for a raw speed increase of at
least a factor of four. To make it happen, the committee doubled the
channels from 20 MHz to 40 MHz and reduced framing overheads by allowing
a group of frames to be sent together. The signals of the streams interfere at
the receiver, but they can be separated using MIMO (Multiple Input
Multiple Output) communications techniques. The use of multiple antennas
gives a large speed boost, or better range and reliability instead.

The 802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol

The 802.11 MAC sublayer protocol is quite different from that of Ethernet,
due to two factors that are fundamental to wireless communication. First, radios are
nearly always half duplex, meaning that they cannot transmit and listen for noise
bursts at the same time on a single frequency. The received signal can easily be a
million times weaker than the transmitted signal, so it cannot be heard at the same
time. Instead, 802.11 tries to avoid collisions with a protocol called CSMA/CA
(CSMA with Collision Avoidance).
This protocol is conceptually similar to Ethernet’s CSMA/CD, with channel
sensing before sending and exponential back off after collisions. However, a station
that has a frame to send starts with a random backoff (except in the case that it
has not used the channel recently and the channel is idle). It does not wait for a
collision.
An example timeline is shown in Fig. 4-25. Station A is the first to send a
frame. While A is sending, stations B and C become ready to send. They see that
the channel is busy and wait for it to become idle. Shortly after A receives an
acknowledgement, the channel goes idle. However, rather than sending a frame
right away and colliding, B and C both perform a backoff. C picks a short backoff,
and thus sends first. B pauses its countdown while it senses that C is using the
channel, and resumes after C has received an acknowledgement. B soon completes
its backoff and sends its frame.
Compared to Ethernet, there are two main differences. First, starting backoffs early
helps to avoid collisions. This avoidance is worthwhile because collisions are
expensive, as the entire frame is transmitted even if one occurs. Second,
acknowledgements are used to infer collisions because collisions cannot be
detected. This mode of operation is called DCF (Distributed Coordination
Function) because each station acts independently, without any kind of central
control. The standard also includes an optional mode of operation called PCF (Point
Coordination Function) in which the access point controls all activity in its cell,
just like a cellular base station.
The second problem is that the transmission ranges of different stations may
be different. With a wire, the system is engineered so that all stations can hear
each other. With the complexities of RF propagation this situation does not hold for
wireless stations. Consequently, situations such as the hidden terminal problem
mentioned earlier can arise.
In this example, station C is transmitting to station B. If A senses the
channel, it will not hear anything and will falsely conclude that it may now start
transmitting to B. This decision leads to a collision. The inverse situation is the
exposed terminal problem, illustrated in Fig. 4- 26(b). Here, B wants to send to C,
so it listens to the channel. When it hears a transmission, it falsely concludes that it
may not send to C, even though A may in fact be transmitting to D (not shown).

To reduce ambiguities about which station is sending, 802.11 defines channel

sensing to consist of both physical sensing and virtual sensing.
Physical sensing simply checks the medium to see if there is a valid signal.
With virtual sensing, each station keeps a logical record of when the channel is in
use by tracking the NAV (Network Allocation Vector). Each frame carries a NAV
field that says how long the sequence of which this frame is part will take to
complete
An optional RTS/CTS mechanism uses the NAV to prevent terminals from
sending frames at the same time as hidden terminals. It is shown in Fig. 4-27.
In this example, A wants to send to B. C is a station within range of A (and
possibly within range of B, but that does not matter). D is a station within range of
B but not within range of A. The protocol starts when A decides it wants to send
data to B. A begins by sending an RTS frame to B to request permission to send it a
frame. If B receives this request, it answers with a CTS frame to indicate that the
channel is clear to send. Upon receipt of the CTS, A sends its frame and starts an
ACK timer. Upon correct receipt of the data frame, B responds with an ACK frame,
completing the exchange. If A’s ACK timer expires before the ACK gets back to it, it
is treated as a collision and the whole protocol is run again after a backoff.

Now let us consider this exchange from the viewpoints of C and D. C is within
range of A, so it may receive the RTS frame. If it does, it realizes that someone is
going to send data soon. From the information provided in the RTS request, it can
estimate how long the sequence will take, including the final ACK. CSMA/CA with
physical and virtual sensing is the core of the 802.11 protocol.
However, there are several other mechanisms that have been developed to
go with it. Each of these mechanisms was driven by the needs of real operation, so
we will look at them briefly.
The first need we will look at is reliability. In contrast to wired networks,
wireless networks are noisy and unreliable, in no small part due to interference
from other kinds of devices, Another strategy to improve the chance of the frame
getting through undamaged is to send shorter frames. If the probability of any bit
being in error is p, the probability of an n-bit frame being received entirely correctly
is (1 − p)n.
The second need we will discuss is saving power. Battery life is always
an issue with mobile wireless devices The basic mechanism for saving power builds
on beacon frames. Beacons are periodic broadcasts by the AP, Clients can set a
power-management bit in frames that they send to the AP to tell it that they are
entering power-save mode. Another power-saving mechanism, called APSD
(Automatic Power Save Delivery), was also added to 802.11 in 2005.
The third and last need we will examine is quality of service Five
intervals are depicted in Fig. 4-28. The interval between regular data frames is
called the DIFS (DCF InterFrame Spacing).
Any station may attempt to acquire the channel to send a new frame after
the medium has been idle for DIFS. The usual contention rules apply, and binary
exponential backoff may be needed if a collision occurs.
The shortest interval is SIFS (Short InterFrame Spacing). It is used to
allow the parties in a single dialog the chance to go first. Examples include letting
the receiver send an ACK, other control frame sequences like RTS and CTS, or
letting a sender transmit a burst of fragments. Sending the next fragment after
waiting only SIFS is what prevents another station from jumping in with a frame in
the middle of the exchange.

The two AIFS (Arbitration InterFrame Space) intervals show examples of two
different priority levels. The short interval, AIFS1, is smaller than DIFS but longer
than SIFS. It can be used by the AP to move voice or other high-prioritytraffic to
the head of the line, The long interval, AIFS4, is larger than DIFS. It is used for
background traffic that can be deferred until after regular traffic. The last time
interval, EIFS (Extended InterFrame Spacing), is used only by a station that
has just received a bad or unknown frame, to report the problem.

The 802.11 Frame Structure

The 802.11 standard defines three different classes of frames in the air:
data, control, and management. Each of these has a header with a variety of fields
used within the MAC sublayer.
In addition, there are some headers used by the physical layer, but these
mostly deal with the modulation techniques used, so we will not discuss them here.
We will look at the format of the data frame as an example. It is shown in
Fig. 4-29. First comes the Frame control field, which is made up of 11 subfields.
The first of these is the Protocol version, set to 00. It is there to allow
future versions of 802.11 to operate at the same time in the same cell.
Then come the Type(data, control, or management) and Subtype fields
(e.g., RTS or CTS). For a regular data frame (without quality of service), they are
set to 10 and 0000 in binary.
The To DS and From DS bits are set to indicate whether the frame is going
to or coming from the network connected to the APs, which is called the distribution
system. The More fragments bit means that more fragments will follow. The Retry
bit marks a retransmission of a frame sent earlier.
The Power management bit indicates that the sender is going into power-
save mode. The More data bit indicates that the sender has additional frames for
the receiver.
The Protected Frame bit indicates that the frame body has been encrypted
for security. We will discuss security briefly in the next section. Finally, the Order
bit tells the receiver that the higher layer expects the sequence of frames to arrive
strictly in order.

The second field of the data frame, the Duration field, tells how long the
frame and its acknowledgement will occupy the channel, measured in
microseconds. It is present in all types of frames, including control frames, and is
what stations use to manage the NAV mechanism.
Next come addresses. Data frames sent to or from an AP have three
addresses, all in standard IEEE 802 format. The first address is the receiver,
and the second address is the transmitter. They are obviously needed, but
what is the third address for? Remember that the AP is simply a relay point for
frames as they travel between a client and another point on the network, perhaps a
distant client or a portal to the Internet. The third address gives this distant
endpoint .
The Sequence field numbers frames so that duplicates can be detected. Of
the16 bits available, 4 identify the fragment and 12 carry a number that is
advanced with each new transmission.
The Data field contains the payload, up to 2312bytes. The first bytes of this
payload are in a format known as LLC (Logical Link Control). This layer is the
glue that identifies the higher-layer protocol(e.g., IP) to which the payloads should
be passed.
Last comes the Frame check sequence, which is the same 32-bit CRC we
saw in Sec. 3.2.2 and elsewhere. Management frames have the same format as
data frames, plus a format for the data portion that varies with the subtype (e.g.,
parameters in beacon frames).
Control frames are short. Like all frames, they have the Frame control,
Duration, and Frame check sequence fields. However, they may have only one
address and no data portion. Most of the key information is conveyed with the
Subtype field (e.g., ACK, RTS and CTS).

Services

The 802.11 standard defines the services that the clients, the access points,
and the network connecting them must be a conformant wireless LAN. These
services cluster into several groups.
 The association service is used by mobile stations to connect themselves to
APs. Typically, it is used just after a station moves within radio range of the AP.
Upon arrival, the station learns the identity and capabilities of the AP, either from
beacon frames or by directly asking the AP.
The capabilities include the data rates supported, security arrangements,
power-saving capabilities, quality of service support, and more. The station sends a
request to associate with the AP. The AP may accept or reject the request.
Re-association lets a station change its preferred AP. This facility is useful
for mobile stations moving from one AP to another AP in the same extended 802.11
LAN, like a handover in the cellular network. If it is used correctly, no data will be
lost as a consequence of the handover. Either the station or the AP may also
disassociate, breaking their relationship. A station should use this service before
shutting down or leaving the network. The AP may use it before going down for
maintenance.
Stations must also authenticate before they can send frames via the AP,
but authentication is handled in different ways depending on the choice of security
scheme. The recommended scheme, called WPA2 (WiFi Protected Access 2),
implements security as defined in the 802.11i standard.
The scheme that was used before WPA is called WEP (Wired Equivalent
Privacy). For this scheme, authentication with a preshared key happens before
association. Data transmission is what it is all about, so 802.11 naturally provide a
data delivery service. This service lets stations transmit and receive data using
the protocols Since 802.11 is modeled on Ethernet and transmission over Ethernet
is not guaranteed to be 100% reliable, transmission over 802.11 is not guaranteed
to be reliable either.
Higher layers must deal with detecting and correcting errors. Wireless is a
broadcast signal. For information sent over a wireless LAN to be kept confidential, it
must be encrypted.
This goal is accomplished with a privacy service that manages the details of
encryption and decryption. The encryption algorithm for WPA2 is based on AES
(Advanced Encryption Standard), a U.S. government standard approved in
2002. To handle traffic with different priorities, there is a QOS traffic scheduling
service.
It uses the protocols we described to give voice and video traffic preferential
treatment compared to best-effort and background traffic.
Finally, there are two services that help stations manage their use of the
spectrum. The transmit power control service gives stations the information they
need to meet regulatory limits on transmit power that vary from region to region.
The dynamic frequency selection service give stations the information they need
to avoid transmitting on frequencies in the 5-GHz band that are being used for
radar in the proximity.
With these services, 802.11 provide a rich set of functionality for connecting
nearby mobile clients to the Internet. It has been a huge success, and the standard
has repeatedly been amended to add more functionality