PART 1

THANK YOU SO
MUCH FOR
DOWNLOADING THIS
EBOOK.

Let's get started....

 CHAPTER- 1
TURNING FORCE
• Moment of Force- The moment of force is equal to the product of the
magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance.

It is denoted by Ʈ (torque).

Ʈ=f * d

S.I unit is Newton- Metre (Nm)

C.G.S unit is Dynecentimetre (dyne cm)

• Factors on which moment of force depends-

1. Magnitude of force

2. Perpendicular distance

Clockwise Moment- If the effect of the body is to taken/turn it

clockwise the moment of force is clockwise and it is taking negative

 Anti-clockwise Moment- If the effect of the body is to taken/turn

anticlockwise the moment of force is anticlockwise and it is taking
positive.

 Couple: Two equal and parallel forces not act along a same line forms
a couple.

Ex: a steering wheel, dryer.

 EQUILIBRIUM: When a number of forces acting on a body produce no

change in its state of rest and state of motion the body said to be in
equilibrium.

 Types of EQUILIBRIUM:
CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM:

1. The algebraic sum of moment of all the force acting on the body about
the point of rotation should be zero.

2. The resultant of all the forces acting on the body should be equal to
zero.

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENT:

According to the principle of moment in equilibrium sum of anticlockwise =

sum of clockwise moment.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY:

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION:

When a particle moves with a constant speed in a circular path its motion is
used to be uniform circular motion.
 CHAPTER-2
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
 WORK: It is the product of force to the displacement.

// When the force applied on the object then

they displaced from their position said to be work done.TYPES OF WORK:
 1erg = 1 dyne x 1 cm

 POWER: It is defined as the rate at which work done.

 SI unit is Watt.

 EXPRESSION FOR KINETIC ENERGY

 Deriving Kinetic Energy Equation

 Kinetic energy equation can be obtained by the basic process of

computing the work (W) that is done by a force (F). If the body of mass
m was pushed for a distance of d on a surface by applying a force
that’s parallel to it, then the work done would be:

 W=F.d=m.a.d

 The acceleration in this equation can be substituted by the initial (vi)

and final (vf) velocity and the distance. This we get from the kinematic
equations of motion.

 W=m.a.d=m.d.v2f−v2i2d=m.v2f−v2i2d=12.m.v2f−12.m.v2i

 Simplifying the equation further, we get

 K.E=12mv2

 Alternately, one can say that the total work that is done on a system is
equivalent to the change in kinetic energy. This statement is equated
as follows:

 Wnet=ΔK

 This equation is known as the work-energy theorem and has large

applications even if the forces applied to vary in magnitude and
direction.

 ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS
 Energy transformation, also known as energy conversion, is the
process of changing energy from one form to another.
In physics, energy is a quantity that provides the capacity to
perform work (e.g. Lifting an object) or provides heat.
  CHAPTER-3
SIMPLE MACHINES
 MACHINE: A machine is a device that helps to make work easier.

TYPES OF MACHINES

1LEVER 4 INCLINED PLANE

2 WHEEL AND AXLE 5 SCREW

3 PULLEY 6 WEDGE

PULLEY:

 A Pulley is one of the original simple machines.

 The original primary use for pulleys was to make it easier to lift heavy
items. A pulley is a simple machine made with a wheel and a rope,
cord, or chain.

 Pulleys can be found everywhere, helping us in making our tasks

easier. In addition to lifting things, pulleys can be used singly or with
many pulleys working together in order to transport people or things.

 Examples: Elevators use multiple pulleys in order to function.

 A crane is a type of pulley that is used in construction.

 Single fixed pulley:

 A pulley which has its axis of rotation fixed in position is called a fixed
pulley

◦ M.A. = V.R. = 1
 ◦ Mass of the string and friction in the pulley bearing are ignored

 A single fixed pulley is used only to change the direction of the force
applied i.e., the effort can be applied in a more convenient direction

 The weight of the pulley itself does not affects its M.A

 Single movable pulley:

 · A pulley whose axis of rotation is not fixed in position, is called a

movable pulley
1. M.A. = 2 = V.R. →η=1→η=1 or 100 %
· A single movable pulley is used as a force multiplier
The weight of the pulley itself reduces its M.A.

 Combination of pulleys:

 Using one fixed pulley and other movable pulleys

 n is the number of movable pulleys

 M.A. = 2n, V.R. = 2n, ηη = 1 or 100%

 Block and tackle system

 n is the total number of pulleys in both the blocks

 For negligible weight of the lower block along with pulleys

◦ M.A. = n, V.R = n, ηη = 1 or 100%

 Let w be the total weight of the lower block along with pulleys

◦ M.A = n – wEwE where E is the effort, V.R. = n

◦ ηη = 1 – wEwE

 For greater efficiency, the pulleys in the lower block should be as light
as possible

 TECHNICAL TERMS:

 A machine can be anything which can help us to do some work and

which can make our work easier, faster, and effortless.
  It is a device which helps us to lift heavy loads, speeds up the motion
or changes the direction of force in the desired direction.

 Load ,Effort, Mechanical Advantage, Velocity Ratio, Work Input, Work

Output, Efficiency are some of the technical terms used when we talk
about machines.

 A simple machine is a basic device that alters the magnitude and/or

direction of a force.

 Principle of a machine

 When energy is supplied to a machine by applying the effort, it does

some useful work.

 The point at which the energy is supplied to a machine by applying the

effort, is called effort point

 The point where the energy is obtained by overcoming the load, is

called load point

 Input energy = Work done at effort point = Effort × displacement of the

point of application of effort

 Output energy = Work done at load point = Load × displacement of the

point of application of load

 Ideal and actual machine

 An ideal machine is that in which there is no  In an actual machine, the output energy is
loss of energy in any manner. always less than the input energy.


 CHAPTER-4
REFRACTION OF LIGHT AT PLANE SURFACES.
 Refraction of light

 The change in direction of the path of light, when it passes from one
transparent medium to another transparent medium, is called
refraction. Refraction of light is essentially a surface phenomenon.

 Refraction is caused because of the change in speed of light from one

medium to another.

 Important points

 A medium is said to be optically denser if light slows down in it.

 A medium is said to be rarer if light speeds up in it.

 Change of medium causes partial reflection and refraction at the

boundary of two media.

 Important terms

 Incident ray – The ray which falls on the boundary of separation to

enter the other medium.

 Refracted ray -The ray in the second medium after deviation

 Normal – A perpendicular passing through the point at the boundary of

separation, where the incident ray falls.

 The angle of incidence (i) – The angle between the normal and incident
ray.

 The angle of refraction (r) – The angle between the normal and
refracted ray.

 Some salient points

 Whenever light travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it
bends towards the normal i.e. the angle of refraction is less than the
angle of incidence.

 Whenever light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it

bends away from the normal i.e. the angle of refraction is greater than
the angle of incidence.

 Conditions for no change in direction of light ray on refraction.

◦ Whenever a ray of light passes from one medium to another

medium at a right angle to the surface separating the two media,
it does not bend i.e. it goes in its original direction.

◦ When the refractive index of medium 2 is same as that of the

refractive index of medium 1.

 The two laws of refraction

 The incident ray, the normal and the refracted ray, all lie on the same
plane.

 For a given pair of media, the ratio of the sine angle of incidence to the
sine of angle of refraction is a constant.

 Sin i /sin r /sin I /sin r = constant μ21/μ21.

 The second law is also known as Snell's law.

 The constant μ21μ21 is known as the refractive index of the medium 2

with respect to the medium 1.

 Refractive index

 The refractive index of second medium with respect to the first

medium is defined as the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence in
the first medium to the sine of the angle of refraction in the second
medium. Refractive index has no unit.

 Factors affecting the refractive index of a medium (NTC)

 Nature of the medium – Its optical density.

 Physical condition – With the increase or decrease of temperature, the
refractive index increases or decreases.

 The colour or wavelength of light – Speed of light is different for

different colours.

 Principle of reversibility

 The path of a light ray is reversible according to the principle of

reversibility.

 Refraction through a glass slab

 The angle of emergence is equal to the angle of incidence

i.e. ∠∠e = ∠∠i.

 The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.

 The length AB is the lateral displacement.

 Factors affecting lateral displacement

 The thickness of the glass block – Length AB ∝ thickness of the

medium.

 The angle of incidence – Length AB ∝∝ angle of incidence.

 The refractive index of glass – Length AB ∝∝ refractive index of the

medium.

 Wavelength of light used – Length

AB ∝∝ 1Wavelengthoflightused1Wavelengthoflightused.

 The visible light or the white light which when passes through a prism
is segregated into its constituent colours namely violet, indigo, blue,
green, yellow, orange, and red. This phenomenon is known as the
dispersion of light. This dispersion occurs due to the varying refraction
angles of lights of different colours when passed through a transparent
medium. Red colour refracts the least while violet colour refracts the
most.


 In this topic, you will learn more about refraction through the prism
with the help of a diagram and also the concept of angle of deviation.

 Refraction through a prism

 ∠∠i + ∠∠e = ∠∠A + ∠∠d

◦ A is the angle of the prism

◦ d is the angle of deviation

 The angle of deviation depends on (AMAW)

 At the condition of minimum deviation dmdm

 i=e

 r1=r2r1=r2

 refracted ray PO || Base BC

 dmindmin = dmdm = 2i – A

 Factors affecting the angle of deviation δ (AMAW)

 Angle of prism – higher the angle, the greater the angle of deviation.

 Material of prism – higher refractive index produces a greater

deviation.

 Angle of incidence – dependence according to the graph.

 Wavelength of light used – higher the wavelength, the lesser the angle
of deviation.

 Real and apparent depth

 An object placed in a denser medium when seen from rarer medium,

appears to be at a depth less than real depth.

 OA = real depth

 Al = apparent depth

 Ol = shift
 The incident angle for which the refraction angle is above 90° is known
as the critical angle.

 Total internal reflection takes place when a wave strikes on the

boundary of a medium at an angle greater than the critical angle with
respect to the normal to the surface,

 Thus with respect to total internal reflection critical angle can be

defined as that incident angle above which total internal reflection
takes place.

 In this topic, you will study few more interesting facts about the
critical angle and total internal reflection.

 Transmission of light from a denser to a rarer medium at different

angles of incidence

 Critical angle (ICIC)

 Critical angle is the angle of incidence in the denser medium

corresponding to which the angle of refraction in the rarer medium
is 90∘90∘.

 For a glass to air refraction , we have

◦ aμgaμg = 1/sin ic 1sinic1sinic

 Factors affecting the critical angle (CT)

 The colour of light – Critical angle increases with increase in

wavelength of light.

 The temperature – Critical angle increases with increase in

temperature.

 Total internal reflection

 When a ray of light travelling in a denser medium, is incident on the

surface of a rarer medium such that the angle of incidence is greater
than the critical angle for the pair of media, the ray is totally reflected
back into the denser medium. This phenomenon is called the total
 internal reflection.

 Total internal reflection in other prisms

 A prism of each angle 60o can be used to deviate a light ray through
60o by total internal reflection.

 A 30o, 90o, 60o prism can be used to deviate a light ray (incident on the
side opposite to the 30o refracting angle) through an angle less than
60o by total internal reflection.

 The light ray incident on the hypotenuse or the side opposite to the
60o refracting angle does not suffer internal reflection but obeys the
laws of refractions.

 Exception: The light ray incident on the hypotenuse in the portion DC

suffers total internal reflection.


 CHAPTER-5
REFRACTION THROUGH LENSES
 Lens:

 A lens is a transparent refracting medium bounded by two curved

surfaces which are generally spherical.

 Convex lens or converging lens converges light rays as shown in figure

1.

 Concave lens or diverging lens diverges light rays as shown in figure 2.

 Type of Lens:

 Action of lens as a set of prisms

 · A convex lens bends the ray of light towards its middle i.e. it
converges the light.
· A concave lens bends the ray of light towards its edges i.e. it
diverges the light.

 Important terms

 · The centre of curvature of a lens is usually represented by the letter

C.
o Since there are two centres of curvature, we may represent them as
C1 and C2.
· The radius of the sphere, of which the part is the lens surface is
called the radius of curvature of that surface of the lens.
· An imaginary straight line passing through the two centres of
curvature of the lens is called its principal axis.
· The central point of a lens is its optical centre.
o It is usually represented by the letter O.
o A ray of light through the optical centre of a lens passes without
suffering any deviation.

 · The effective diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens is

called its aperture.
 · A lens has two principal foci F1 and F2.
o F1 is the first focal point and F2 is the second focal point.
· The distance of the principal focus from the optical centre of a lens
is called its focal length.
o The letter f is used to represent the focal length.
o f1 is the first focal length (the distance of O from F1).
o f2 is the first focal length (the distance of O from F2).

 Difference between a convex and a concave lens

 FORMATION OF IMAGE BY LENS

 A lens is a transparent optical object comprising of one or two curved

surfaces that refract light. A lens might either diverge or converge rays
of light falling on it, thus forming an image. The concept of refraction of
light is used by the lens to form an image.

 Most common application of lens is in optical devices such as

telescopes and microscopes.

 In this topic, you will study about rules of refraction through lens,
difference between real and virtual images and image formation by
convex and concave lens.

 Image Formation in Lenses using Ray Diagrams

 Rule 1 – An incident ray of light, which is parallel to the principal axis

of a lens after refraction passes through the second focus F2 ( in a
convex lens ) or appears to come from the second focus F2 ( in a
concave lens).

 Rule 2
· A ray of light passing through the principal focus (first focal point),
after refraction from a convex lens, will emerge parallel to the principal
axis.
· A ray of light appearing to meet at the principal focus (first focal
point) of a concave lens, after refraction, will emerge parallel to the
principal axis.
 Rule 3
· A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a lens will
emerge without any deviation.

 Distinction between real and virtual image

 Image Formation by Convex Lenses

 Image Formation by Concave Lenses

 Power, Magnification and determination of focal length of a lens

 The capacity of a lens to bend light defines the lens power. The
refraction of light is increased with the increase in
lens power. Dioptres is the unit to measure lens power.

 The ratio of the height of an image to the height of an object is known

as the magnification of a lens. It can also be defined with respect to
image distance and object distance.

 The point on which all parallel rays of light converge is the focal point
of a convex lens.The distance between the centre of a convex lens and
the focal point of a lens is the focal length.The focal length of a convex
lens can be determined by the distant object method.

 The point where light rays parallel to the principal axis appear to
diverge from after passing through the concave lens is the focal point
of a concave lens. The distance between concave lens to the focal
point is the focal length of the concave lens. The focal point of a
concave lens is virtual as light does not actually pass through the
point.

 Power of a lens

 The power of a lens is a measure of deviation produced by it in the

path of rays refracted through it.
1. P = \ce1f\ce1f.
2. The SI unit of power of a lens is ‘dioptre’, denoted by the letter D.
 3. Power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is
negative.

 Ray diagram of simple microscope

 Magnifying power = m = 1 + \ceDf\ceDf.

 The magnifying power of the microscope can be increased by using the

lens of short focal length, but it cannot be increased indefinitely.

 Experiments for determination of focal length of a convex lens

 · Estimation of focal length by the distant object method

· Estimation of focal length by auxillary plane mirror method

 Application of lenses

 Uses of a convex lens

 · It is used in a number of optical instruments such as camera,

telescope, microscope and so on.
· It is used as a reading lens and as a magnifying glass.
· It is used in spectacles for the correction of long-sightedness of the
eyes.

 Uses of a concave lens

 · It is used in telescopes to see far off places.

· It is used in spectacles for the correction of the short-
sightedness of the eyes.
 Found this ebook helpful?

Then do get the full physics smart

notes ebook which consists of all the
chapters.