CCNA:

Basics Network devices:

Computer Network is a connection between various nodes. Nodes are server and the clients and other
intermediaries like routers, switches and firewalls. Router establishes

connections between LANs while switches establish connections within a LAN. Firewall exists either
between a router and a LAN or between the router and the external

network so that it can block any unauthorized access to the LAN which it is set to protect. Any system
can be client or server at any point based on the job they do.

Interfaces and cables:

Net speed: 1kilobit (Kb) = 1000 bits 1 megabit (Mb) = 1,000,000 bits 1 gigabit = 1,000,000,000 bits
1 terabit = 1,000,000,000,000 bits

Ethernet Standards:

Ethernet is a collection of network protocols or standards.

Ethernet copper cable standards as per IEEE 802.3.

speed: 10 Mbps common name: Ethernet IEEE name: 802.3i informal name: 10 BASE-T (twisted
pair cable) maximum length : 100m

speed: 100 Mbps common name: Fast Ethernet IEEE name: 802.3u informal name: 100 BASE-T
maximum length : 100m

speed: 1 Gbps common name: Gigabit Ethernet IEEE name: 802.3ab informal name: 1000 BASE-T
maximum length : 100m

speed: 10Gbps common name: 10 Gig Ethernet IEEE name: 802.3an informal name: 10G BASE-T
maximum length : 100m

copper cables used in Ethernet are UTP cables. UTP refers to Unshielded Twisted Pair cables. 8 cables
twisted in pairs gives 4 pairs of twisted cables. In the RJ 45

(registered jack 45) connector at the tip of the UTP has 8 pins. 10 BASE-T and 100BASE-T uses 2 pairs (4
wires). 1000 BASE-T and 10G BASE-T uses 4 pairs of wires (8 wires)
the twist actually protects the wires from EMI (electromagnetic interference).
 A straight through cable is a ethernet cable where pins 1,2 are used to transmit data from a PC or a
router to switch and pins 3 and 6 are used to receive data from switch to PC or router. In a straight
through cable pin 1 in one end connects to pin 1 on the other end of the cable. Pins 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8
to connect with their counterparts on the other end of the UTP cable. Conflict arises if we need to
connect a PC to PC, router to router, router to PC or switch to switch as all these uses same wire to
transmit and receive. Eg: PC uses pins 1 and 2 to transmit data. So PC to PC connection creates conflict.

To avoid this we use a cross over cable.

 In present day Auto MDI X technology allows the networking devices to detect which pins their
counterpart is using to transmit data and automatically adjust accordingly. So while using modern
networking devices one doesn’t need to worry about straight through and crossover cables.
 Copper UTP can be used upto 100m. But new advanced cable is Fibre Optic. In below diagram fibre
optic ports are marked with orange box.
Fibre optic cable that is connected to SFP Transceiver. There are two cables in the fibre optic pair cable.
One is to transmit data and other is to receive data.

Fig: working of Fibre optic transmission and receiving of data.

Cable structure:

Fibre glass core. The data in form of light rays is transmitted in this core from one end of the fibre
optic cable to other end. Fibre glass core is encased by a cladding that reflects the light. The cladding is
encased by a protectivebuffer layer. All the above are finally encased by the outer jacket of the cable.
There are two types of Fibre Optics cable. Single mode and multi mode cables.
Single mode cable on the top. Bottom two are multi mode cables given for comparison.
 UTP cable Fibre Optic Cable
- Lower Cost than fibre Optic - higher cost than UTP
- Shorter maximum distance than fibre optic -longer maximum distance than UTP
- can be vulnerable to EMI. (electromag -No vulnerability to EMI
intereference) -SFP ports are more expensive than RJ45 ports
- RJ45 ports are cheaper than SFP ports -single mode Fibre optic is more expensive than
- Emit a faint signal leak outside the cable which multimode fibre optics.
can be copied. Means security risk. - Do not emit any signal leak outside the cable. So
no security risk.

Networking Model:

Networking model categorize and provide structure for networking protocols and standards.

OSI model:

Open Systems Interconnection OSI model is a conceptual model that categorizes and standardizes
different functions in a network.

It is created by international organisation for standardisation (ISO).

Functions are divided into 7 layers. The layers works togather to make the network work.

Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Datalink Layer
Physical Layer

Application Layer:

Closest to the end user. Eg: http and https like protocols that interacts with the software applications,
for eg: web browser like Brave, firefox, chrome etc. Application layer has two main functions. Identifying
communication partners and synchronizing the communication.

The original data sent from application layer of one end of the network goes down the OSI layers with
each layer adding addition data to encapsulate the original data. By the time it reaches the Physical layer
it is a electrical signal. This signal data is transmitted via cables to the receiver end. This is called
encapsulation. On the receiver end the opposite occurs. De encapsulation is done in the layers and by
the time the data reaches application layer of the receiver end the data returns to its original form. Both
encapsulation and decapsulation are adjacent layer interactions which is used to transmit data. Same
layer interaction is direct interaction between application layer of the sender and the application layer
of the receiver. This same layer interaction enables it to identify communication partners and
synchronize the communication.
Presentation Layer:

Data in the application layer is in the application format. It needs to be translated to different format
to be sent over network. Presentation layer’s job is to translate between application and network
formats. For example encryption of data as it is sent and decryption of data as it is received. Also this
layer translates different application layers transfers.

Session Layer:

Controls dialogues (session) between the communicating hosts. Establishes, manages and
terminates connections between local application (eg:web browser) and the remote application (eg:
YouTube).

Transport Layer:

Segments and reassembles the data for communication between end hosts.

Breaks large pieces of data into smaller segments which can be more easily sent over the network
and are less likely to cause transmission problems if errors occur. Provides Host to Host
communications. Also provides process to process communications for applications.

Crossing the 3 upper layers the data arrives at Transport layer where it is split into several segments and
a header is added to each segment.

Data segment coming from Transport layer is added with another header in the next layer known as
Network layer.
Network Layer:

Provides connectivity between end hosts on different networks (i.e. outside of the LAN).

Provides logical addressing (IP addresses)

Provides path selection between sources and destination. Routers operates in this layer.

The packet of data with the IP address from network layer is added with another header and a trailer in
the next layer Datalink layer.

Datalink Layer:

Provides Node to Node connectivity (eg: PC to switch, switch to router, router to router etc).

Also defines how the data is formatted for transmission over a physical medium (Eg: via copper UTP
cables).

Detects and possibly corrects the errors that occurs in the physical layer. Layer 2 uses its own
addressing which is different from Layer 3 addressing of Network layer. Switches operate on the Data
Link layer.

Data link layer adds its own trailer and header. The data packet from network layer is now known as a
data frame
Physical Layer:

Defines physical characteristics of the medium used to transfer data between devices. For eg:
voltage levels, maximum transmission distances. Physical connectors, cable specifications, etc. Digital
bits are converted into electrical (for wired connections) or radio or spectrum signals (for wireless
connections).

TCP/IP Suite:
 Conceptual Model and set of communications protocols used in the internet and other networks.
Known as TCP/IP because those are two of the foundational protocols in the suite.

Developed by US Department of Defense through DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency)

Similar structure to the OSI model, but with fewer layers.

This is the model actually in use in modern networks.

NOTE: The OSI model still influences how network engineers think and talk about networks.