EC8551 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

UNIT I - Fundamentals and Link layer

Overview of Data Communications

1.DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Data communicationsare the exchange of data between two devices via some
form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.

For data communications to occur,the communicating devices must be part of a

communication system made up of a combinationofhardware (physical equipment) and
software (programs).

How Effective is data communication?

The effectivenessof a data communications system depends on four characteristics:

delivery,accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

1.Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received
by the Receiverdevice .

2.Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have beenaltered
(changed during transmission) in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.

3.Timeliness. The system must deliver data in exact time. Data delivered late are useless.

In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced,
in the same order that they are produced, and without (any delay) significant delay. This
kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.

4.Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.

It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets.

For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms.If some of the packets
arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video occurs.

2.Components Required

A data communications system has five components (Figure).

Fig: Five components for Communication [Source : Data Communications and Networking
by Behrouz A. Forouzan]

1.Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular

forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer,workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

3.Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer,workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which

a message travels from sender to receiver.

Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable, and radio waves.

5. Protocol.A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.

It representsan agreement between the communicating devices (Between sender and

Receiver).
Without a protocol, twodevices may be connected but not communicating, just as a person
speaking Frenchcannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

3.Data Representation:

Information today (available) comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images,
audio, and Video.

a. Text:

Text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or 1s).

What is bit pattern? All data inside a computer is transmitted as a series of electrical signals
that are either on or off. Therefore, in order for a computer to be able to process any kind of
data, including text, images and sound, they must be converted into binary form.

Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is
called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding.
b. Numbers:

Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. The number is directly converted to a binary
number to simplify mathematical operations.

ie: Conversion of decimal to binary

c. Images:

Images are also represented by bit patterns.

Representing image by bit pattern:Images also need to be converted into binary in order
for a computer to process them so that they can be seen on our screen.

Digital images are made up of pixels. Each pixel in an image is made up of binary numbers.

If we say that 1 is black (or on) and 0 is white (or off), then a simple black and white picture
can be created using binary.

d. Audio:

Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. It is continuous, not

discrete.

e. Video:

Video refers to the broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be produced as a
continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a
discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.

4.Data Flow:

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

Fig: Mode of communication [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.
Forouzan]

a. Simplex:

In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.

Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (see Figure
a). Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices.

b. Half-Duplex:

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.

When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa (see Figure b).
Walkie-talkies are both half-duplex systems.

c. Full-Duplex:

In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously(at the same time), (see Figure c).

Example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network.

When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at
thesame time.
 NETWORKS

What is Network?
A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of communication.

Here , a device can be a host (called as end system ) such as a large computer, desktop,
laptop, workstation, cellular phone, or security system.

Network Criteria

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of
these are performance, reliability, and security.

Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time.
Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device
toanother.

Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.

The performanceof a network depends on a number of factors.

1.the number of users 2.the type of transmission medium 3.the capabilities of the
connected hardware 4.the efficiency of the software.

Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay.

Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency
offailure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network’s robustness ina
catastrophe.

Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from data losses.

Physical Structures

Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links.
A link is a communicationspathway that transfers data from one device to another.
Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between
twodevices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices .

Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more thantwo
specific devices share a single link (see Figure below).

In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or

temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

Fig: Types of Connections [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.

Forouzan]

Physical Topology

The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.

Simple way- The layout of a network is called Topology.

Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.
The topologyof a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links
andlinking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.

There are four basic Topologies:mesh, star, bus, and ring.

Mesh: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every
otherdevice. A fully connected mesh network with n nodes has n(n -1) /2 physical
channels.
Fig: Mesh topology [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan]

Advantages:

1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data
load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared
by multiple devices.

2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the
entire system.

3. Privacy or security.

4. Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.

Disadvantages:

1. Every device must be connected to every other device, installation and reconnection
are difficult.

2. More number of wire connections make it greater than the available space (in walls,
ceilings, or floors) which can accommodate.

3. The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be expensive.

One practical example of a mesh topology is the connection of telephone regional offices
in which each regional office needs to be connected to every other regional office.

Star Topology: In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to
acentral controller, usually called a hub.
The devices are not directly connected to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, A star
topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange:
If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then
relays the data to the other connected device (see Figure ).

Fig: Star topology [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan]

Advantages:

1. Less expensive than a mesh topology.

2. Easy to install and reconfigure.

3. Less cables are required, and additions, and deletions involve only one connection:
between that device and the hub.

4. It is Robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain
active.

Disadvantages:

1. The topology depends on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole
system is dead.

2. A star requires far less cable than a mesh; each node must be linked to a central hub.
The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs). High-speed LANs also use use a
star topology with a central hub.

c. Bus Topology: A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link
allthe devices in a network (see Figure ).

Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.

A drop line is a connection between the device and the main cable.
A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a
cable to create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone,
some of its energy is transformed into heat.

Therefore, the signal becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this
reason there is a limit on the number of taps used in this topology.

Fig: Bus Topology [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan]

Advantages:

1. Ease of installation.

2. Less cabling

Disadvantages:

1. Difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation.

2. Difficult to add new devices.

3. Signal reflection at top can cause degradation in quality.

4. If any fault in backboneoccurs ,then it can stops all transmission.

Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but they are less popular now.

Ring Topology: In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point

connectionwith only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in
one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring
incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its
repeater regenerates the bits and passes along them (see Figure ).

Fig: Ring Topology [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.

Forouzan]

Advantages:

1. Easy to install.

2. Easy to reconfigure.

3. Fault identification is easy.

Disadvantages:

1. Unidirectional traffic.

2. Break in a single ring can break entire network.

Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses. Today high speed
LANs made this topology less popular.
 BUILDING NETWORK AND ITS TYPES

Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and connects some hosts in asingle
office, building, or campus. Depending on the needs of an organization, a LANcan be as
simple as two PCs and a printer in someone’s home office, or it can extendthroughout a
company and include audio and video devices.

Each host in a LAN has an identifier, an address, that uniquely defines the host in the
LAN.
A packet sent by a hostto another host carries both the source host’s and the destination
host’s addresses.

Today, most LANs use a smartconnecting switch, which is able to recognize the destination
address of the packet andguide the packet to its destination without sending it to all other
hosts.

The switch manage the traffic in the LAN and allows more than one pair to communicate
with eachother at the same time if there is no common source and destination among them.

Fig: LAN connections [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.

Forouzan]

Wide Area Network

A wide area network (WAN) is interconnection of devices capable of communication.
There are some differences between a LAN and a WAN.

1. A LAN is normally limited in size, spanning an office, a building, or a campus;

A WAN has a wider geographicalspan, spanning a town, a state, a country, or even the
world.
2. A LAN interconnects hosts; a WAN interconnects connecting devices such as
switches, routers, or modems.

3. A LAN is normally privately owned by the organization that uses it; a WAN is
normally created and run by communication companies and leased by an
organization that uses it.

Point-to-Point WAN
A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects two communicating devices through a
transmissionmedia (cable or air).

Fig: point-to-point WAN. [Source : Data Communications and Networking by

Behrouz A. Forouzan]

Switched WAN
A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.

We can say that aswitched WAN is a combination of several point-to-point WANs that are
connected byswitches.

Figure (below) shows an example of a switched WAN.

Fig: Switched WAN. [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan]

Internetwork

When two or more networks are connected, they make an internetwork, or

internet.

As an example, assume that an organization has two offices, one on the east
coast and the other on the west coast. Each office has a LAN that allows all employees inthe
office to communicate with each other.

Switching
An internet is a switched network in which a switch connects at least two links
together. A switch needs to forward data from a network to another network when
required.
The two most common types of switched networks are circuit-switched and
packet-switched networks.

Circuit-Switched Network

In a circuit-switched network, a dedicated connection, called a circuit, is always

available between the two end systems ( or between two computers) ; the switch can only
make it active or inactive.
Figure (below) shows a very simple switched network that connects four telephones toeach
end.

Fig: Circuit-switched network [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.

Forouzan]

The four telephones at each side are connected to a switch. The

switch connects a telephone set at one side to a telephone set at the other side.

The thick line connecting two switches is a high-capacity communication line that can
handle four voice communications at the same time; the capacity can be shared between all
pairs of telephone sets.

Packet-Switched Network

In a computer network, the communication between the two ends is done in blocks
ofdata called packets.

In other words, instead of the continuous communication between two telephone sets when
they are being used, we see the exchange of individualdata packets between the two
computers.
This allows us to make the switches functionfor both storing and forwarding because a
packet is an independent entity that canbe stored and sent later.

A router in a packet-switched network has a queue that can store and forward the
packet.

Fig: Packet-Switched Network [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.

Forouzan]

Overview of Internet

The Internet

An internet (note the lowercase i) is two or more networks thatcan communicate with each
other. The most notable internet is called the Internet(uppercase I ), and is composed of
thousands of interconnected networks. Figure shows a conceptual view of the Internet.
Fig: Internet [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan]

The figure shows the Internet as several backbones, provider networks, and customer
networks.

At the top level, the backbones are large networks owned by some
communication companies such as Sprint, Verizon (MCI), AT&T, and NTT.

The backbonenetworks are connected through some complex switching systems, called
peering points.

At the second level, there are smaller networks, called provider networks, that
use the services of the backbones for a fee.
The provider networks are connected tobackbones and sometimes to other provider
networks. The customer networksarenetworks at the edge of the Internet that actually use
the services provided by the Internet.

Accessing the Internet

The Internet today is an internetwork that allows any user to become part of it. The
user, however, needs to be physically connected to an ISP. The physical connection isdone
through a point-to-point WAN.

Using Telephone Networks

Since most telephone networks havealready connected themselves to the Internet, one
option for residences and smallbusinesses to connect to the Internet is to change the voice
line between the residenceor business and the telephone center to a point-to-point WAN.
This can be done intwo ways.

Dial-up service.The first solution is to add to the telephone line a modem that
converts data to voice. The software installed on the computer dials the ISP and
imitates making a telephone connection.

DSL Service.
The DSL service allows the line to be used simultaneouslyfor voice and data
communication.

Using Cable Networks

The cable companies have beenupgrading their cable networks and connecting to the
Internet.

Using Wireless Networks

A household or asmall business can use a combination of wireless and wired connections to
access theInternet. Small business centrescanbe connected to the Internet through a
wireless WAN.
Direct Connection to the Internet
A large organization can become a local ISP and be connectedto the Internet. This can be
done if the organization or the corporation leases ahigh-speed WAN from a carrier provider
and connects itself to a regional ISP( Internet service provider).

For example, a large university with several campuses can create an internetwork and
thenconnect the internetwork to the Internet.

Protocol Layering

When communication is simple,we need only one simple protocol; when the
communication is complex, we mayneed to divide the task between different layers, in
which case we need a protocol ateach layer, or protocol layering.

Dividing the task between different layers is called Protocol layering.

Scenarios
Two simple scenarios are available to understand the need for protocol layering.

First Scenario
In the first scenario, communication is simple that it can occur in only one layer.

Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of common ideas.

Communicationbetween Maria and Ann takes place in one layer, face to face, in the same
language, asshown in Figure .

Fig: Single layer protocol [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan]

Set of rules followed in this scenario:

First, Maria and Ann know that they should greet each other when they meet. Second,they
know that they should confine their vocabulary to the level of their friendship.

Third, each party knows that she should refrain( not talking) from speaking when the other
partyis speaking.
Fourth, each party knows that the conversation should be a dialog.
Fifth, they shouldexchange some nice words when they leave.
Second Scenario

In the second scenario, we assume that Ann is offered a higher-level position in her
company, but needs to move to another branch located in a city very far from Maria.

The two friends still want to continue their communication and exchange ideas becausethey
have come up with an innovative project to start a new business when they bothretire.

They decide to continue their conversation using regular mail through the postoffice.

They do not want their ideas to be revealed by other people if the letters
are intercepted. They agree on an encryption/decryption technique.

The sender ofthe letter encrypts it to make it unreadable by an intruder; the receiver of the
letterdecrypts it to get the original letter.

Fig: Three layer protocol [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan]

Let us assume that Maria sends the first letter to Ann. Maria talks to the machine at
the third layer as though the machine is Ann and is listening to her.
The third layermachine listens to what Maria says and creates the plaintext (a letter in
English), whichis passed to the second layer machine.

The second layer machine takes the plaintext,encrypts it, and creates the ciphertext, which is
passed to the first layer machine.

Thefirst layer machine, takes the ciphertext, puts it in an envelope,adds the sender and
receiver addresses, and mails it.

Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several smaller and simpler
tasks.

For example, in the Figure (above), we could have used only one machine to do the
job of all three machines.
 However, if Maria and Ann decide that the encryption/decryption done by the machine is
not enough to protect their secrecy, they would haveto change the whole machine. In the
present situation, they need to change only the secondlayer machine; the other two can
remain the same. This is referred to as modularity.

Principles of Protocol Layering

First Principle
If we want bidirectional communication, we need tomake each layer so that it is able to
perform two opposite tasks, one in each direction.
For example, the third layer task is to listen (in one direction) and talk (in the other
direction). The second layer needs to be able to encrypt and decrypt. The first layer
needs to send and receive mail.

Second Principle

The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two
objects under each layer at both sites should be identical.
For example, the objectunder layer 3 at both sites should be a plaintext letter. The object
under layer 2 atboth sites should be a ciphertext letter. The object under layer 1 at both sites
shouldbe a piece of mail.

Logical Connections

Logical connectionbetween each layer is shown in Figure.

We have layer-to-layercommunication. Maria and Ann can think that there is a logical
(imaginary) connectionat each layer through which they can send the object created from
that layer.

Fig: the concept of logical connection between layers. [Source : Data Communications and Networking
by Behrouz A. Forouzan]
 THE OSI MODEL

An ISO standard that covers allaspects of network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI)model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to
communicateregardless of their underlying architecture.

The purpose of the OSI model isto show how to facilitate (carry out) communication
between different systems without requiringchanges to the logic of the underlying hardware
and software.

The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that
allows communication between all types of computer systems.
It consists of seven layers.

OSI versus TCP/IP

When we compare the two models, we find that two layers, session and presentation,
are missing from the TCP/IP protocol suite.

The application layer inthe suite is usually considered to be the combination of three layers
in the OSI model,as shown in the Figure .

Fig: TCP/IP protocol suite. [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.
Forouzan]
 PHYSICAL LAYER

Overview Of Data And Signals

Figure (below) shows a scenario in which a scientist working in a research company,

SkyResearch, needs to order a book related to her research from an online bookseller,
ScientificBooks.

Fig: Communication at physical layer [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.
Forouzan]
We can consider five different levels of communication between Alice, the computeron
which our scientist is working, and Bob, the computer that provides online service.

Communication at application, transport, network, or data-link is logical;

communication at the physical layer is physical.

For simplicity, we have shown onlyhost-to-router, router-to-router, and router-to-host, but

the switches are also involved inthe physical communication.

Although Alice and Bob need to exchange data, communication at the physical
layer means exchanging signals. Data need to be transmitted and received, but the
media have to change data to signals. Both data and the signals that represent them canbe
either analogor digital in form.

Analog and Digital Data

Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to information that is
continuous; digital data refers to information that has discrete states.

For example, ananalog clock that has hour, minute, and seconds gives information in a
continuousform; the movements of the hands are continuous.

On the other hand, a digital clockthat reports the hours and the minutes will change
suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06.
Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous values.

When someone speaks, an analog wave is created in the air.

This can be captured by amicrophone and converted to an analog signal or sampled and
converted to a digitalsignal.

Digital data take on discrete values. For example, data are stored in computer
memory in the form of 0s and 1s. They can be converted to a digital signal or modulated
into an analog signal for transmission across a medium.

Analog and Digital Signals

Like the data they represent, signals can be either analog or digital. An analog signal
has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time. As the wave moves from
valueA to value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number of values along itspath.

A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited number of defined
values. Although each value can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.
The simplest way to show signals is by plotting them on a pair of perpendicular
axes. The vertical axis represents the value or strength of a signal. The horizontal axis
represents time.

Figure (below) illustrates an analog signal and a digital signal.

The curverepresenting the analog signal passes through an infinite number of points. The
verticallines of the digital signal, however, demonstrate the sudden jump that the signal
makesfrom value to value.

Fig: Comparison of analog and digital signal [Source : Data Communications and Networking
by Behrouz A. Forouzan]

Periodic and Nonperiodic

Both analog and digital signals can take one of two forms: periodic or nonperiodic
(sometimes referred to as aperiodic; the prefix a in Greek means “non”).

A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a

period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods. The completion of
one full pattern is called a cycle.
An example for periodic analog signal is Sine wave.

A nonperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats over time.
 Introduction to Data-Link Layer

The Internet is a combination of networks combined together by connecting devices

(routersor switches).

If a packet is to travel from a host to another host, it needs to pass

through these networks. Figure shows the same scenario.

Communication atthe data-link layer is made up of five separate logical connections

between the data-linklayers in the path.

Fig: Communication at the data-link layer. [Source : Data Communications and Networking
by Behrouz A. Forouzan]
The data-link layer at Alice’s computer communicates with the data-link layer at
routerR2.
The data-link layer at router R2 communicates with the data-link layer at router R4, and so
on. Finally, the data-link layer at router R7 communicates with the data-linklayer at Bob’s
computer.

Only one data-link layer is involved at the source or the destination,but two data-link
layers are involved at each router.

The reason is that Alice’sand Bob’s computers are each connected to a single network, but
each router takesinput from one network and sends output to another network.

Nodes and Links

Communication at the data-link layer is node-to-node.

A data unit from one point in theInternet needs to pass through many networks (LANs and
WANs) to reach anotherpoint.

Theses LANs and WANs are connected by routers. It is customary to refer to the
two end hosts and the routers as nodes and the networks in between as links.

Figure shows a simple representation of links and nodes when the path of the data unit is
only sixnodes.

Fig: Nodes and links. [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.
Forouzan]

The first node is the source host; the last node is the destination host. The other
four nodes are four routers. The first, the third, and the fifth links represent the three
LANs; the second and the fourth links represent the two WANs.

Services

The data-link layer is located between the physical and the network layers. The
datalinklayer provides services to the network layer; it receives services from the
physicallayer.
Services provided by the data-link layer.

The duty scope of the data-link layer is node-to-node.

When a packet is travellingin the Internet, the data-link layer of a node (host or router) is
responsible for deliveringa datagram to the next node in the path.

The data-link layer of the source host needs only toencapsulate, the data-link layer of the
destination host needs to decapsulate, but each intermediate node needs to both encapsulate
and decapsulate.

Assume a person needs to travel from her home to her friend’s home in
another city.

The traveller can use three transportation tools. She can take a taxi to go to
the train station in her own city, then travel on the train from her own city to the city
where her friend lives, and finally reach her friend’s home using another taxi. Here wehave
a source node, a destination node, and two intermediate nodes.

The traveller needsto get into the taxi at the source node, get out of the taxi and get into the
train at the firstintermediate node (train station in the city where she lives), get out of the
train and getinto another taxi at the second intermediate node (train station in the city where
herfriend lives), and finally get out of the taxi when she arrives at her destination.

A kindof encapsulation occurs at the source node, encapsulation and decapsulation occur
atthe intermediate nodes, and decapsulation occurs at the destination node.

Figure (below) shows the encapsulation and decapsulation at the data-link layer.

For simplicity, we have assumed that we have only one router between the source and
destination.

The datagram received by the data-link layer of the source host is encapsulated
in a frame.
The frame is logically transported from the source host to the router. The
frame is decapsulated at the data-link layer of the router and encapsulated at another
frame.
Fig: Communication with three nodes . [Source : Data Communications and Networking by
Behrouz A. Forouzan]

Framing
The first service provided by the data-link layer is framing. The data-link
layer at each node needs to encapsulate the datagram (packet received from the
networklayer) in a frame before sending it to the next node.

The node also needs to decapsulatethe datagram from the frame received on the logical
channel.

A packet at the data-link layer is normally called a frame.

Flow Control
Whenever we have a producer and a consumer, we need to think about flow control. Ifthe
producer produces items that cannot be consumed, accumulation of items occurs.
The sending data-link layer at the end of a link is a producer of frames; the receiving
data-link layer at the other end of a link is a consumer.

If the rate of produced frames ishigher than the rate of consumed frames, frames at the
receiving end need to be bufferedwhile waiting to be consumed (processed).

Error Control

At the sending node, a frame in a data-link layer needs to be changed to bits, transformedto
electromagnetic signals, and transmitted through the transmission media.
Atthe receiving node, electromagnetic signals are received, transformed to bits, and
puttogether to create a frame. Since electromagnetic signals are affected by error, aframe is
also get affected by error.

The error should be detected. After detection, itneeds to be either corrected at the receiver
node or discarded and retransmitted by thesending node.
Congestion Control
A link may be congested with frames, which may result in frame loss, most
data-link-layer protocols do not directly use a congestion control to prevent
congestion,although some wide-area networks do.
In general, congestion control is considered anissue in the network layer or the transport
layer because of its end-to-end nature.

Two Categories of Links

1. point-to-point link 2.broadcast link.

In a point-to-point link, the link is dedicated to the two devices; in a broadcast link,
the link is shared between several pairs of devices.

For example, when two friends use the traditional home phones to chat, they are using a
point-to-point link; when the same two friends use their cellular phones, they are using a
broadcast link.

Two Sublayers

The data-link layer has twosublayers:

Data link control (DLC) and mediaaccess control (MAC).

The data link control sublayer deals with allissues common to both point-to-point and
broadcast links; the media access control sublayerdeals only with issues specific to
broadcast links.

LINK-LAYER ADDRESSING

A link-layer address is calleda link address, sometimes called a physical address, and
sometimes a MAC address.

Since a link is controlled at the data-link layer, the addresses need to belong to the
data-link layer.

When a datagram passes from the network layer to the data-link layer,the datagram will be
encapsulated in a frame and two data-link addresses are added to
the frame header.
These two addresses are changed every time the frame moves fromone link to another.

Figure (below) shows, IP addresses and link-layer addresses in a small internet.

This is easy to understand.

Fig: IP addresses and link-layer addresses in a small internet. [Source : Data
Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan]

Here we have three links and two routers. We have shown only two hosts: Alice (source)
and Bob (destination).

For each host, we haveshown two addresses, the IP addresses (N) and the link-layer
addresses (L).
Notethat a router has as many pairs of addresses as the number of links the router is
connectedto. We have shown three frames, one in each link.

Each frame carries thesame datagram with the same source and destination addresses (N1
and N8), but thelink-layer addresses of the frame change from link to link.

In link 1, the link-layeraddresses are L1 and L2. In link 2, they are L4 and L5. In link 3,
they are L7 and L8.

Note that the IP addresses and the link-layer addresses are not in the same order. For
IP addresses, the source address comes before the destination address; for link-layer
addresses, the destination address comes before the source.
Unicast Address

Each host or each interface of a router is assigned a unicast address. Unicasting means one-
to-one communication. A frame with a unicast address destination is destined onlyfor one
entity in the link.

Example
The unicast link-layer addresses in the most common LAN, Ethernet,
are 48 bits (six bytes) that are presented as 12 hexadecimal digits separated by colons;
forexample, the following is a link-layer address of a computer.

A3:34:45:11:92:F1

Multicast Address
Some link-layer protocols define multicast addresses. Multicasting means one-to-
manycommunication.

Example
The multicast link-layer addresses in the most common LAN,Ethernet, are 48 bits (six
bytes) that are presented as 12 hexadecimal digits separated by colons.

The second digit, however, needs to be an even number in hexadecimal.

The following shows amulticast address:A2:34:45:11:92:F1

Broadcast Address
Some link-layer protocols define a broadcast address. Broadcasting means one-to-all
communication.

A frame with a destination broadcast address is sent to all entities in

the link.

Example
The broadcast link-layer addresses in the most common LAN,Ethernet, are 48 bits, all 1s,
that are presented as 12 hexadecimal digits separated by colons.
Thefollowing shows a broadcast address:

FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

The ARP protocol is one of the protocols definedin the network layer, as shown in Figure .
It belongs to the network layer.
It maps an IP address to a logical-link address.
The main work of ARP :
ARP acceptsan IP address from the IP protocol, maps the address to the corresponding link-
layeraddress, and passes it to the data-link layer.

Fig: ARP [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan]

If a host or a router needs to find the link-layer address of another host or routerin its
network, it sends an ARP request packet.

The packet includes the link-layer and IP addresses of the sender and the IP address of the
receiver. Because the sender does not know the link-layer address of the receiver, the query
is broadcast over the link using thelink-layer broadcast address.

Fig: ARP operation. [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.

Forouzan]
Every host or router on the network receives and processes the ARP request
packet, but only the intended recipient recognizes its IP address and sends back an
ARPresponse packet.

The response packet contains the recipient’s IP and link-layeraddresses. The packet is
unicast directly to the node that sent the request packet.

In Figure, the system on the left (A) has a packet that needs to be delivered
to another system (B) with IP address N2. System A needs to pass the packet to its
data-link layer for the actual delivery, but it does not know the physical address of
the recipient.
It uses the services of ARP by asking the ARP protocol to send abroadcast ARP request
packet to ask for the physical address of a system with an IP
address of N2.
This packet is received by every system on the physical network, but only system B
will answer it, as shown in Figure b.

System B sends an ARP reply packet thatincludes its physical address. Now system A can
send all the packets it has for this destinationusing the physical address it received.

Packet Format
Figure (below) shows the format of an ARP packet.

The hardware type field defines the type of the link-layer protocol; Ethernet
is given the type 1. The protocol type field defines the network-layer protocol: IPv4
protocolis (0800)16.
The source hardware and source protocol addresses are variable-length
fields defining the link-layer and network-layer addresses of the sender. The
destinationhardware address and destination protocol address fields define the receiver link-
layerand network-layer addresses.

An ARP packet is encapsulated directly into a data-linkframe. The frame needs to have a
field to show that the payload belongs to the ARP andnot to the network-layer datagram.

Fig: ARP packet [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan]
 Error Detection and Correction

Types of Errors

Whenever bits flow from one point to another, they are subject to unpredictable
changes because of interference. This interference can change the shape of the signal.
The term single-bit error means that only 1 bit of a given data unit (such as a byte,
character, or packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

The term burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed from 1 to 0 or
from 0 to 1.

Fig: Effect of a single-bit and a burst error on a data unit. [Source : Data Communications
and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan]

Redundancy
The central concept in detecting or correcting errors is redundancy. To
detect or correct errors, we need to send some extra bits with our data. These redundantbits
are added by the sender and removed by the receiver. Their presence allows thereceiver to
detect or correct corrupted bits.

Detection versus Correction

The correction of errors is more difficult than the detection.

In error detection, we can see if any error has occurred. The answer is a simple yes or no.
We are noteven interested in the number of corrupted bits. A single-bit error is the same for
us as aburst error.

In error correction, we need to know the exact number of bits that are corrupted
and, their location in the message.

Coding
Redundancy is achieved through various coding schemes. The sender adds redundant
bits through a process that creates a relationship between the redundant bits and the
actual data bits.
The receiver checks the relationships between the two sets of bits todetect errors.

The ratio of redundant bits to data bits and the robustness of the process
are important factors in any coding scheme.

Linear Block Codes

Almost all block codes used today belong to a subset of block codes called linear
blockcodes.

Minimum Distance for Linear Block Codes

It is simple to find the minimum Hamming distance for a linear block code. The
minimumHamming distance is the number of 1s in the nonzero valid codeword with
thesmallest number of 1s.

Parity-Check Code

The most familiar error-detecting code is the parity-check code. This code is
a linear block code. In this code, a k-bit dataword is changed to an n-bit codeword
wheren = k + 1.

The extra bit, called the parity bit, is selected to make the totalnumber of 1s in the
codeword even. Some implementations specify an oddnumber of 1s.

The minimum Hamming distance for this category is dmin = 2, which means that the code
is a single-bit error-detecting code.

The code in Table is a parity-check code with k = 4 and n = 5.

Fig: possible structure of an encoder (at the sender) and a decoder
(at the receiver). [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan]

The calculation is done in modular arithmetic . The encoder uses a generator that takes a
copy of a 4-bit dataword (a0, a1, a2, and a3) and generatesa parity bit r0. The dataword
bits and the parity bit create the 5-bit codeword.

The paritybit that is added makes the number of 1s in the codeword even. This is normally
doneby adding the 4 bits of the dataword (modulo-2); the result is the parity bit. In
otherwords, r0 =a3+a2+a1+a0 (modulo-2)

If the number of 1s is even, the result is 0; if the number of 1s is odd, the result is 1.

In both cases, the total number of 1s in the codeword is even.

The sender sends the codeword, which may be corrupted during transmission. The
receiver receives a 5-bit word.
The checker at the receiver does the same thing as the generatorin the sender with one
exception: The addition is done over all 5 bits.

The resultwhich is called the syndrome, is just 1 bit. The syndrome is 0 when the number
of 1s inthe received codeword is even; otherwise, it is 1.

s0 = b3 + b2 + b1+ b0 + q0 (modulo-2)

The syndrome is passed to the decision logic analyzer.

If the syndrome is 0, thereis no detectable error in the received codeword; the data portion
of the received codewordis accepted as the dataword; if the syndrome is 1, the data portion
of the receivedcodeword is discarded. The dataword is not created.
 CYCLIC CODES

Cyclic codes are special linear block codes with one extra property.

In a cyclic code, if a codeword is cyclically shifted (rotated), the result is another

codeword.

For example,if 1011000 is a codeword and we cyclically left-shift, then 0110001 is also a
codeword.

In this case, if we call the bits in the first word a0 to a6, and the bits in the second wordb0
to b6, we can shift the bits by using the following:

b1=a0b2=a1b3 =a2b4=a3b5=a4b6=a5b0=a6

Cyclic Redundancy Check

Cyclic codes to correct errors.

The cyclic redundancy check (CRC), is used in networkssuch as LANs and WANs.

Fig: CRC code with C7,4). [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.
Forouzan]

In the encoder, the dataword has k bits (4 here); the codeword has n bits (7 here).
Fig: CRC encoder and decoder. [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz
A. Forouzan]

The size of the dataword is augmented by adding n -k (3 here) 0s to the right-hand sideof
the word.
The n-bit result is fed into the generator. The generator uses a divisor of size
n -k 1 (4 here), predefined and agreed upon.

The generator divides the augmented dataword by the divisor (modulo-2 division).

The quotient of the division is discarded;the remainder (r2r1r0) is appended to the data
word to create the codeword.

The decoder receives the codeword (possibly corrupted in transition). A copy of all
nbits is fed to the checker, which is a replica of the generator.

The remainder produced by the checker is a syndrome ofn-k (3 here) bits, which is fed to
the decision logicanalyzer.

The analyzer has a simple function. If the syndrome bits are all 0s, the 4 leftmost
bits of the codeword are accepted as the dataword (interpreted as no error); otherwise,the 4
bits are discarded (error).

Encoder
Let us take a closer look at the encoder. The encoder takes a dataword and augments it with
n-k number of 0s.
It then divides the augmented dataword by the divisor.
Fig: Division in CRC encoder. [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz
A. Forouzan]

As in decimal division, the process is done step by step. In each step, a copy of the
divisor is XORed with the 4 bits of the dividend.

The result of the XOR operation(remainder) is 3 bits (in this case), which is used for the
next step after 1 extra bit ispulled down to make it 4 bits long. There is one important point
we need to rememberin this type of division.

If the leftmost bit of the dividend (or the part used in each step)is 0, the step cannot use the
regular divisor; we need to use an all-0s divisor.

When there are no bits left to pull down, we have a result. The 3-bit remainder
forms the check bits (r2, r1, and r0). They are appended to the dataword to create the
codeword.

Decoder
The codeword can change during transmission. The decoder does the same division
process as the encoder. The remainder of the division is the syndrome.
Ifthe syndrome is all 0s, there is no error with a high probability; the dataword is separated
from the received codeword and accepted. Otherwise, everything is discarded.

Figure shows two cases: The left-hand figure shows the value of the syndrome
when no error has occurred; the syndrome is 000. The right-hand figure
shows the case in which there is a single error. The syndrome is not all 0s (it is 011).

Fig: Division in decoder, [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.

Forouzan]

CHECKSUM

Checksum is an error-detecting technique that can be applied to a message of any

length.

In the Internet, the checksum technique is mostly used at the network and transportlayer
rather than the data-link layer.

At the source, the message is first divided into m-bit units. The generator then creates
an extra m-bit unit called the checksum, which is sent with the message.

At thedestination, the checker creates a new checksum from the combination of the
messageand sent checksum. If the new checksum is all 0s, the message is accepted;
otherwise,the message is discarded.

In the real implementation, the checksum unit is not necessarily added at the end of the
message; it can be inserted inthe middle of the message.
Fig: Checksum [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan]

Concept

The idea of the traditional checksum is simple.

Example
Suppose the message is a list of five 4-bit numbers that we want to send to a destination.
Inaddition to sending these numbers, we send the sum of the numbers. For example, if the
set ofnumbers is (7, 11, 12, 0, 6), we send (7, 11, 12, 0, 6, 36), where 36 is the sum of the
original numbers.
The receiver adds the five numbers and compares the result with the sum. If the two are
thesame, the receiver assumes no error, accepts the five numbers, and discards the sum.
Otherwise,there is an error somewhere and the message is not accepted.

One’s Complement Addition

The previous example has one major drawback. Each number can be written as a 4-bitword
(each is less than 15) except for the sum.

One solution is to use one’s complementarithmetic. In this arithmetic, we can represent

unsigned numbers between 0and 2m -1 using only m bits. If the number has more than m
bits, the extra leftmostbits need to be added to the m rightmost bits (wrapping).

Example
In the previous example, the decimal number 36 in binary is (100100)2. To change it to a 4-
bitnumber we add the extra leftmost bit to the right four bits as shown below.
Instead of sending 36 as the sum, we can send 6 as the sum (7, 11, 12, 0, 6, 6).

The receivercan add the first five numbers in one’s complement arithmetic. If the result is 6,
the numbers areaccepted; otherwise, they are rejected.

Checksum
We can make the job of the receiver easier if we send the complement of the sum, the
checksum. In one’s complement arithmetic, the complement of a number is found by
completing all bits (changing all 1s to 0s and all 0s to 1s). This is the same as subtractingthe
number from 2m -1.

In one’s complement arithmetic, we have two 0s: one positiveand one negative, which are
complements of each other. The positive zero has allm bits set to 0; the negative zero has all
bits set to 1 (it is 2m -1).

If we add a numberwith its complement, we get a negative zero (a number with all bits set
to 1). When thereceiver adds all five numbers (including the checksum), it gets a negative
zero. Thereceiver can complement the result again to get a positive zero.

Example
The sender adds all five numbers in one’scomplement to get the sum 6. The sender then
complements the result to get the checksum 9,which is 15 -6.

Note that 6 (0110)2 and 9 (1001)2; they are complements of each other.

Thesender sends the five data numbers and the checksum (7, 11, 12, 0, 6, 9). If there is no
corruption intransmission, the receiver receives (7, 11, 12, 0, 6, 9) and adds them in one’s
complement to get 15.

The sender complements 15 to get 0. This shows that data have not been corrupted.

Figure shows the process.

Fig: Checksum Process. [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.

Forouzan]

_________________________________________________________________
 OSI MODEL

OSI model is developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO).

This model is called ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference model because it
deals with connecting open systems (systems that are open for communication with other
systems)

Seven layers of the OSI model

Physical Layer

Fig: Physical layer . [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.

Forouzan]

It is the bottom layer of OSI Model.

It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.

Such physical connection may be made by using twisted pair cable.

It is concerned with transmitting bits over a communication channel.

Physical Layer Functions

Transforming bits into signals

Provides synchronization of bits by a clock.
Physical layer manages the way a device connects to network media.
It defines the transmission rate.
It defines the way in which the devices are connected to the medium.
It provides physical topologies
It can use different techniques of multiplexing.

Data Link Layer

Fig: Datalink layer . [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.

Forouzan]

It is responsible for node-to-node delivery of data.

It receives the data from network layer and creates Frames , add physical address to these
frames & pass them to physical layer
It consist of 2 layers:

Logical Link Layer (LLC) :Defines the methods and provides addressing information for
communication between network devices.

Medium Access Control (MAC): Establishes and maintains links between communicating
devices.

Functions of Data Link Layer

Framing :DLL divides the bits received from N/W layer into frames. (Frame contains all
the addressing information necessary to travel from S to D).

Physical addressing: After creating frames, DLL adds physical address of sender/receiver
(MAC address) in the header of each frame.

Flow Control: DLL prevents the fast sender from drowning the slow receiver.

Error Control: It provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects & retransmits
damaged or lost frames.

Access Control: A single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, MAC

layer of DLL provides help to determine which device has control over the channel.

Network Layer

It is responsible for the source to destination delivery of a packet across multiple

networks.

If two systems are attached to different networks with devices like routers, then N/W layer
is used.

Thus DLL overseas the delivery of the packet between the two systems on same network
and the network layer ensures that the packet gets its point of origin to its final destination.

Fig: Network layer . [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.

Forouzan]
Functions of Network Layer

Internetworking: It provides Internetworking.

Logical Addressing: When packet is sent outside the network, N/W layer adds Logical
(network) address of the sender & receiver to each packet.
Network addresses are assigned to local devices by network administrator and assigned
dynamically by special server called DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol).

Routing: When independent network are connected to create internetwork several routes
are available to send the data from Source to Destination.

These n/w are interconnected by routers & gateways that route the packet to final
destination.

Transport Layer
Fig: Transport layer . [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.
Forouzan]

It is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message.

Transport Layer looks after the delivery of entire message considering all its packets &
make sure that all packets are in order. On the other hand n/w layer treated each packet
independently.

At the receiver side, TL provides services to application layer & takes services form n/w
layer.

At the source side, TL receives message from upper layer into packets and reassembles
these packets again into message at the destination.

Transport Layer provides two types of services:

Connection Oriented Transmission: In this type of transmission the receiving devices

sends an acknowledge back to the source after a packet or group of packet is received. It is
slower transmission method.
Connectionless Transmission: In this type of transmission the receiving devices does not
sends an acknowledge back to the source. It is faster transmission method.

Segmentation of message into packet & reassembly of packets into

message.

Port addressing: Computers run several processes. TL header include a port

address with each process.

Flow Control: Flow control facility prevents the source form sending data
packets faster than the destination can handle.

Error control: TL ensures that the entire message arrives at the receiving TL
without error.

Session Layer
Fig: Session layer . [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan]

It has the responsibility of beginning, maintaining and ending the communication

between two devices, called session.

It also provides for orderly communication between devices by regulating the flow
of data.

Functions of Session Layer

Establishing, Maintaining and ending a session: When sending device first contact with
receiving device, it sends syn(synchronization) packet to establish a connection &
determines the order in which information will be sent.

Receiver sends ack (acknowledgement). So the session can be set & end.

Dialog Control: This function determines that which device will communicate first and the
amount of data that will be sent.

Dialog separation: Process of adding checkpoints & markers to the stream of data is called
dialog separation.

Presentation Layer
Fig: Presentation layer . [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.
Forouzan]

It is concerned with the syntax & semantics of the information exchanged between the
two devices.

It was designed for data encryption, decryption and compression.

Functions of Presentation Layer

Data Presentation or Translation: Because different computers use different encoding

systems. It ensures that the data being sent is in the format that the recipient can process.

Data Encryption: PL provides this facility by which hides the information from everyone
except the person who originally sent the information & the intended recipient. When
encrypted data arrives at destination, PL decrypts the message.

Data Compression: PL shrinks large amount of data into smaller pieces i.e. it reduces the
size of data.

Application Layer
Fig: Application layer . [Source : Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A.
Forouzan]

It enables the user to access the network.

It provides user interface & supports for services such as e-mail, file transfer, access to
the world wide web.

So it provides services to different user applications.

Functions of Application Layer

Mail Services: This application provides various e-mail services.

File transfer & Access: It allows users to access files in a remote host, to retrieve files
from remote computer for use etc.

Remote log-in: A user can log into a remote computer and access the resources of that
computer.

Accessing the World Wide Web: Most common application today is the access of the
World Wide Web.

_____________________________________________________________