Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 22, No.

2, 1993

The Satisfaction with Life Scale: Psychometrics

Properties in an Adolescent Sample
F61ix Neto 1
Received February 27, 1992; accepted June 26, 1992

The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) was developed in the United States"
as a multiitern scale for the overall assessment of life satisfaction as cognitive-
judgmental process, rather as a measurement of specific satisfaction areas (e.g.,
health, energy). The present study attempted to extend the applicability of the
S W L S by investigating specific aspects of reliability and validity bz a different
cultural context (Portugal) with adolescents. In line with previous American
findings, reliability figures were found to be favourable. SWLS scores" were af-
fected by sex and sociocultural level. In addition, SWLS scores showed to be
predictably associated with psychological measures: loneliness, social anxiety,
shyness, self-concept, and physical attractiveness. The variables that best pre-
dicted satisfaction were overall self-concept, loneliness, and physical attractive-
Hess.

INTRODUCTION

Well-being has received considerable attention last two decades from

researchers (see Argyle, 1987; Diener, 1984; Eysenck, 1990). In this field
of research three relatively independent components of subjective well-
being have been identified: positive affect, negative affect and life satis-
faction (Andrews and Withey, 1976). The first two components refer to

1Associate Professor from Faculty of Psychology, University of Porto, 4000 Porto, Portugal.
Received a Ph.D. in normal and abnormal anthropology from Ecole des Hautes l~tudes en
Sciences Sociales (Paris) in 1980 and a Ph.D. in Social Psychology from Faculty of Psychology
(Porto) and an "Aggregation" in Psychology from Faculty of Psychology (Coimbra) in 1990.
Research interests include migration and cross-cultural social migration.
The author wishes to thank the a n o n y m o u s reviewers for their helpful c o m m e n t s on an earlier
version of this paper.

125

0047-2891/93/0400-0125507.00/0 9 1993 Plenum Publishing Corporation

126 Neto

the affective, emotional aspects of the constructs; the latter to the cogni-
tive-judgmental aspects. This is somewhat different from happiness as a
positive emotional state and distress as a negative one.
Shin and Johnson (1978) have defined life satisfaction as an overall
assessment of an individual's quality of life according to his chosen criteria.
Judgments of how satisfied individuals are would be based on a comparison
with a standard that each subject sets for him/herself. The appropriate
standard should be not externally imposed. Diener (1984) has pointed out
that the hallmark of subjective well-being is that it centers on personal
judgments, not upon some criteria that is judged to be important by the
researcher(s). In addition, Diener (1984) has argued that the proper as-
sessment of life satisfaction requires the possibility that different values are
imposed by the researcher on the distinctive desirable factors determining
satisfaction (e.g., energy and health) across individuals should be counter-
acted by asking them to rate their satisfaction with life as a whole, rather
than summing across their satisfaction with specific areas, to obtain a meas-
ure of overall life satisfaction.
While several different scales for the assessment of affective compo-
nents exist (cf. Argyle, 1987), few attempts have been made to construct
psychometrically sound measures of general life satisfaction (see Diener,
1984).
Diener et al. (1985) developed the Satisfaction With Life Scale
(SWLS) to fulfill the need for a multiitem scale to measure life satisfaction
as a cognitive-judgmental process. The scale is concise, containing only five
items, and was designed around the idea that one must ask subjects for an
overall judgment of their life in order to measure the concept of life sat-
isfaction. The psychometric properties of the American-developed SWLS
were examined in two samples of undergraduates enrolled in introductory
psychology class and in a geriatric population sample. The SWLS has dem-
onstrated to have favorable psychometric characteristics. On these grounds,
Diener et al. (1985) note that the SWLS is suited for use with different
age groups. It should be noted however that the Diener et al. (1985) find-
ings were restricted to population samples comprising young adults and
the elderly.
The aim of the present investigation was to examine whether specific
psychometric findings reported by Diener et al. (1985) could be generalized
to a group of subjects differing in at least two important aspects: (1) cul-
tural/national background and (2) age. More specifically, this study sought
to examine reliability and validity aspects of the SWLS in a sample of,Por-
tuguese adolescents.
Satisfaction with Life Scale 127

METHOD

Subjects

Two hundred seventeen adolescents from the public schools of Porto,

Portugal (99 boys and 118 girls), ranging in age from 14 to 17 years (M =
14.7; SD = 1.2), were surveyed. One hundred four adolescents were from
families of low sociocultural level and 113 from families from middle/high
sociocultural level. The sociocultural level was assessed by the method re-
ported by Lautrey (1980; Neto, 1986) in which it is a joint function of parental
occupation and education. In cases where the educational/occupational lev-
els of the parents differed, the child was assigned on the basis of the higher
level.

Instruments

The participants were presented with an omnibus questionnaire

whose various parts will be described in the following.
(a) As we have noted SWLS was first developed by Diener et al.
(1985), consisting of five items. Instructions for administering the scale were
as follows: "Below are five statements with which you may agree or dis-
agree. Using the 1-7 scale below, indicate your agreement with each item
by placing the appropriate number on the line preceding that item. Please
be open and honest in your responding. The 7-point scale is: 1 = strongly
disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = slightly disagree, 4 = neither agree nor dis-
agree, 5 = slightly agree, 6 = agree, 7 -- strongly agree."
In designing the Portuguese version of the SWLS, guidelines pro-
posed in literature on cross-cultural methodology (cf. Brislin, 1986) were
followed as closely as possible (e.g., independent/blind/back-translations,
small-scale pretests).
(b) The Portuguese version of the Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale
(Russel et al., 1980) has been described in Neto (1989a, 1989c). This version
consists of 18 items. The subject is asked to indicate how often she or he
feels that way (never/rarely/sornetimes/ofien). This scale has shown satisfac-
tory psychometric properties, seeming to be reliable (Cronbach's alpha =
.87) and valid.
(c) The Portuguese version of the Self-Consciousness Scale (SCS);
(Fenigstein et al., 1975) has also been described in Neto (1989b). This
measure includes three subscales: private self-consciousness, public self-
128 Neto

consciousness, and social anxiety. It was scaled from 0 (the statement does
not describe you at all) to 4 (it describes" you very well). In this study we used
the social anxiety subscale, which includes six items. The psychometric char-
acteristics of this subscale were found to be satisfactory and it had a test-
retest coefficient of .81 (Neto, 1989b).
(d) For measuring the self-concept we used the Clinical Self-Concept
Inventory (Vaz Serra, 1986). This scale evaluates four dimensions: social
acceptance, self-efficacy, psychological maturity, and impulsivity-activity.
The questionnaire comprises 20 statements each with 5 response alterna-
tives (1: very uncharacteristic; 5 very characteristic). The Spearman-Brown
coefficient of the total scale was .79 and the test-retest coefficient .84.
(e) Other self-report measures: After filling out the four questionnaires
mentioned above, the subjects were asked to answer some additional ques-
tions designed to provide data on various psychological attributes: self-as-
sessment of loneliness during the preceding two months (7-point rating
scale ranging from almost never lonely to almost always lonely); self-assess-
ment of physical attractiveness (7-point rating scale ranging from not at-
tractive at all to highly attractive); self-assessment shyness (7~point rating
scale ranging from not shy at all to highly shy); self-assessment of happiness
(7-point rating scale ranging from not happy at all to highly happy).

Administration

These questionnaires were collectively administered during the school

period. Teachers were recruited to administer in the classroom the ques-
tionnaires, which were completed anonymously.
The field work was conducted in the first semester of 1991.

RESULTS

Descriptive Statistics and Reliability Data

The mean score on the SWLS was 24.1 (SD = 5.9, range: 7-35) and
comparable to corresponding figures reported by Diener et al. (1985) for
American undergraduates (M = 23.5) and elderly persons (M = 25.8).
Prior to examining the internal consistency reliability of the SWLS,
the interitem correlation matrix was submitted to a principal-component
analysis. In line with the Diener et aL findings, a single factor emerged
(eigenvalue > 1), accounting for 53.3% of the variance (66% with Ameri-
Satisfaction with Life Scale 129

Table I. SWLS Items and Their Corresponding Loadings, and I t e m - R e m a i n d e r

Correlations for an Adolescent Sample a
Factor Item-total
Item loadings correlations
1. In most ways my life is close to my ideal. 0.71 0.52
2. T h e conditions of my life are excellent. 0.73 0.53
3. I am satisfied with my life. 0.81 0.65
4. So far I have gotten the important things I want in life. 0.69 0.52
5. If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing. 0.69 0.52

an = 217. SWLS = Satisfaction With Life Scale.

can undergraduates). Table I gives the SWLS items and their respective
component loadings on the first unrotated factor.
The internal consistency coefficient was satisfactory, 0.78. (American
undergraduates, 0.87.) As could be expected on the basis of the results of
the factor and internal consistency analysis, the corrected item total corre-
lation for each SWLS item was substantial, i.e., over +0.50 (see table 1).
Predictably also, the mean interitem r (homogeneity) for the SWLS item
set was very acceptable, 0.41.
Having demonstrated that the Portuguese version of the SWLS has
desirable psychometric properties with adolescents, the next step was to
examine the relationship between the scale and other psychological meas-
ures to which we might expect it to be related, and with background factors.

Validity

The analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed a significant main effect

of gender (F[1, 216] = 5.15) and of sociocultural level (F[1, 216] = 7.66).
The ANOVA did not reveal an interaction of gender with sociocultural
level (F[1, 216] = .02). Table II sets out the means (and SDs) for the re-
spective gender and sociocultural subgroups.
The male teenagers and the adolescents from families of middle/high
sociocultural level had higher means scores on SWLS than the female teen-
agers and the adolescents from families of low sociocultural level, respec-
tively.
The findings concerning sociocultural level were in accordance with
figures published in the international literature as reported by Diener
(1984) and Argyle (1987), which supported the construct validity.
The correlations between the SWLS and other psychological meas-
ures by gender and sociocultural level are shown in Table III.
130 Neto

T a b l e II. S W L S M e a n s ( a n d SDs) b y G e n d e r a n d S o c i o c u l t u r a l L e v e l

Group M SD n

Male 25.03 5.67 99

Female 23.24 5.93 118
L o w s o c i o c u l t u r a l level 22.92 5.59 104
M i d d l e / h i g h s o c i o c u l t u r a l level 25.10 5.95 113

T a b l e III. C o r r e l a t i o n s B e t w e e n S a t i s f a c t i o n with Life a n d O t h e r

Psychological Variables

Low Middle/
socio- h i g h socio-
cultural cultural
Variable Boys Girls level level Total

Loneliness -.51 c -.48 c -.34 c -.59 c -.49 c

Social a n x i e t y -.32 c -.18 a -.12 -.32 c -.23 c
Social a c c e p t a n c e .42 c .35 c .32 c .42 c .38 b
Self-efficacy .40 c .31 c .43 c .33 c .37 c
Psychological maturity .61 c .23 c .44 c .35 c .40 c
Impulsivity-activity .22 b .21 b .20a .230 .23 b
Total self-concept .58 c .43 c .52 c .48 c .51 c
Loneliness self-rating -.48 c -.39 ~ -.37 c -.48 c -.44 c
Physical attractiveness .35 c .28 c .35 c .26 b .32 c
Shyness -.42 c -.21 b -.13 -.41 c -.29 c
Happiness .71 c .66 c .64 c .71 c .69 c

< .05.
p< .01.
Cp < .001.

We have already noted that satisfaction is one of the main compo-

nents of perceived happiness. As overall current happiness correlated sig-
nificantly with satisfaction with life for male teenagers (r = .71), female
teenagers (r = .66), adolescents from families of low sociocultural level (r
= .64), and adolescents from families of middle/high sociocultural level (r
= .71), these correlations can be considered as evidence for the validity of
the scale with adolescents.
Significant negative correlations were found with loneliness, social
anxiety, self-assessed loneliness, and shyness for boys, girls, and adolescents
from families of middle/high sociocultural level. The same pattern of cor-
relations was also found for adolescents from families of low sociocultural
level involving the two measures of loneliness, but not for social anxiety
and shyness, which were not significantly associated with satisfaction.
Satisfaction with Life Scale 131

Table IV. Stepwise Regression of Psychological Measures on

Satisfaction with Life d
Step Variable R R2 [3 t

1 Total self-concept .51 .26 .51 8.67 c

2 Loneliness .58 .33 -.31 -4.88 c
3 Physical attractiveness .60 .36 .16 2.72 b
4 Social acceptance .61 .37 -.21 -2.19 a
5 Impulsivity-activity .62 .38 -.15 -2.11 a
6 Gender .63 .40 -.12 -2.11 a

ap < .05.
bp < .01.
~T < .001.
he !3 and t values are for the step at which the variables were
entered.

Significant positive correlations were found with total self-concept and

their dimensions, and self-rated physical attractiveness for all subgroups.
Because many of the psychological variables were also correlated with
one another, a regression analysis was performed. Stepwise multiple re-
gression was used to determine which psychological variables and back-
ground factors predicted satisfaction. The multiple regression analyses
reported in this study include two sets of predictor variables and two cor-
responding sets of results. The first set includes only the demographic
measures, and the second contains (in addition to the first set) the psy-
chological variables as predictor variables.
Two variables emerged as independent and significant predictors of
satisfaction with life in first equation: (1) sociocultural level (middle/high)
and (2) gender (male). These two factors accounted only 6% of the vari-
ance in satisfaction scores. When psychological variables are added (as can
be seen in Table IV), overall self-concept made the largest contribution to
the prediction of satisfaction with loneliness, physical attractiveness, social
acceptance, impulsivity-activity, and gender also yield significant predict-
ability. These six variables accounted for 40% of the variance in satisfaction
scores.

DISCUSSION

The SWLS developed by Diener et al. (1985) contains items measur-

ing a person's overall satisfaction with his/her lives. Factor analysis of the
132 Neto

Portuguese version of the scale showed that all items had high factor load-
ings on a single common factor and that the scale had high reliability.
Although female teenagers reported more negative affects, they also
seem to have experienced greater joys, so that little difference in global
happiness or satisfaction was usually found between the genders. Diener
(1984) reported only two studies where a modest interaction with age was
found. It appears that younger women are happier than young men, and
older women are less happy than older men (Medley, 1980; Spreitzer and
Snyder, 1974). The results presented in this paper showed differences in
global satisfaction between the sexes, male gender having a higher life sat-
isfaction than the female gender. We must note that Diener's reported re-
sults were collected among young people, a different group from that
studied in this paper. Whether these results are specific for the adolescents
in Portugal or if they can be generalized to other countries is a subject for
future research.
American studies have considered the separate effects of income,
education, and occupation, whereas British studies have usually studied the
effects of social class (which is highly correlated with income, but is mainly
based on occupation [Argyle, 1987]). Studies have demonstrated a positive
relationship between income and well-being within countries (Diener,
1984). However, this is a surprisingly weak relationship, corresponding to
a correlation of .15 or .20, or less in different studies (Campbell et al.,
1976; Liang and Fairchild, 1979; Michalos, 1980). British studies found class
differences in self-assessment of satisfaction. For example Warr and Payne
(1982) found that the two lowest classes did not feel very satisfied, though
the differences were quite small. Similar results are found in other countries
including India, Cuba, Israel, Brazil, and others (Cantril, 1965). Education
is another component of social status. Campbell's (1981) data suggested
that education had an influence on the experience of well-being in the
United States during 1957-1978. However, the effects of education on well-
being do not appear to be strong (Palmore, 1979). To sum up, income,
class, and education seem to have a definitive, quite small effect on hap-
piness. In this study of Portuguese adolescents the sociocultural level was
assessed as a joint function of parental occupation and education. As ex-
pected, based on American and British studies, the sociocultural level
showed an influence on the satisfaction with life, the adolescents from fami-
lies of middle/high sociocultural levels were more satisfied with their lives
than those from families of lower sociocultural levels. The findings con-
cerning sociocultural level were in accordance with figures published in the
international literature as covered by Diener (1984) and Argyle (1987),
which further supports the construct validity.
Satisfaction with Life Scale 133

In line with the study's predictions, the SWLS was associated with
psychological variables. The study's findings confirmed overall that "the in-
dividuals who are satisfied with their lives are in general well adapted and
free from pathology" (Diener et al., 1985, p. 73). Satisfaction with life was
associated negatively with loneliness, social anxiety, and shyness; and posi-
tively with self-concept and physical attractiveness.
The first strongest predictor of satisfaction with life was self-concept.
As Diener (1984) pointed out, high self-esteem is one of the strongest pre-
dictor of well-being, and many studies have found a relationship between
self-esteem and well-being (e.g., Kozma and Stones, 1978; Reid & Ziegler,
1980). Campbell et al. (1976) found that self-satisfaction showed the highest
correlation with life satisfaction of any variable examined.
Social skills and interpersonal competence are another important re-
source. Those who are effective in this sphere are likely to have more
friends, while those who are not are likely to become isolated and lonely.
Loneliness is an example of the effects of poor social skills (Neto, 1992).
In this study loneliness was strongly associated with unhappiness and was
the second predictor of life satisfaction.
The third predictor of life satisfaction was physical attractiveness.
Physical attractiveness had a weak effect for the population as a whole,
but had a greater effect on happiness, especially for young people (Argyle,
1987). This is to be expected, in view of the findings that attractive people
are believed to have many other desirable properties, and are liked more,
especially by opposite sex (Berscheid and Walster, 1974).
The two background factors considered, sex and sociocultural level,
were weak predictors of satisfaction. In fact, individual demographic vari-
ables rarely account for more than a few of the variance in well-being (Diener,
1984).
The present study reinforces the viewpoint of Diener et al. (1985)
that the SWLS can be used with different age groups, and in this case,
with adolescents. Moreover, it supports the cross-national validity of the
SWLS.

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