Oslabs
Uploaded by
Syed Hassan AminOslabs
Uploaded by
Syed Hassan Amincs206 Operating Systems
Lab Manual
ver 2.0
Omar Usman Khan, MS
National University of Computer & Emerging Sciences
Lect., Dept. of Computer Science
Operating Systems Lab Manual
Omar Usman Khan Lecturer, Dept. of Computer Science National University of Computer & Emerging Sciences 160 Industrial Estate, Peshawar, NWFP, Pakistan
Version History
1.0 Spring 2009: Installation, exercises spread over 11 lab sessions 1.1 Summer 2009: New set of exercises only spread over 11 lab sessions 2.0 Spring 2010: Compilation of all previous labs in book format with minor updates & corrections
This manual is customized for course cs206 Operating Systems taught at the National University of Computer & Emerging Sciences, Peshawar, Pakistan. The lab portion of this course provides cover for 1 credit hour out of total 4. Evaluation for this lab is at discretion of your instructor and/or teacher.
The manual can also be used as a learning tool for other operating system courses both at undergraduate or graduate level. Each chapter in this manual is intended to serve as a separate lab, although instructors should note that some chapter's require more than one lab sessions to complete. The manual is based on the Gentoo Linux Operating Systems version 2007.
Contents
I Installation & Introduction
1 Gentoo Installation
1.1 Operating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.2 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.2.6 1.2.7 1.2.8 1.2.9 Linux OS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gentoo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preparing Virtual Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Disk Partitioning 1.2.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Note on Linux Directory Structure & Partitions
7
9
9 9 10 10 10 11 11 13 13 14 14 14 15 15 15 17
Installation Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Partition Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preparing Gentoo Base System Network Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Getting the Linux Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Con guring the Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compiling the Kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . System Con guration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.10 Con guring Bootloader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.11 Finalizing
2 Getting To Know Linux
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 User Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Your Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Commands 2.3.1 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.5 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Syntax of Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Asterisk *
19
19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 21 21 21 22 22 22 23 23 23 23 23
More about Shell
Case sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Auto-Completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Redirection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Practicing Commands
Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NANO Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Text Editor
Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manuals More | Less
2.10 Searching
2.10.1 Using Find
2.10.2 Using Slocate
CONTENTS
2.11 GNU Compiler Collection 2.11.1 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 24 24 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.12 File Permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13 File Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
II System Calls
3 Processes
3.1 Understanding Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 3.2 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
29
29 30 30 30 31 31 32 32 32 33 33 33 33 34 34 34 34
Process Lifecycle 3.2.1
Creation States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1.1 3.2.1.2 Exercise 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exercise 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 3.2.3
Running States Waiting States 3.2.3.1
Sleep() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.4
Termination States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.4.1 3.2.4.2 3.2.4.3 3.2.4.4 Exit() Call Atexit() Call Abort Call . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kill Call . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3
Death of Parent or Child . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 3.3.2 Parent Dies Before Child . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Child Dies Before Parent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 Input/Output
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Open a File Close a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
37 38 38 39
Writing to a File
Reading from a File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 IPC: Signals
5.1 Signal Delivery Using Kill 5.1.1 Kill Command 5.1.1.1 5.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
41 41 41 41 42 42 42
Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kill() Call . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2.1 5.1.2.2 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2
Signal Handling Using Signal
6 IPC: Pipes
6.1 6.2 Pipe On the Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pipe System Call 6.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
43 44 45
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
III Threads
7 POSIX Threads
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 Thread Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thread Creation 7.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Passing Multiple Arguments to Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
49
49 49 50 50 51 51 52
Thread Termination 7.4.1
Data Sharing between Threads Exercise
Synchronization through Mutex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IV Synchronization & Deadlocks
8 Synchronization & Deadlocks
8.1 Busy Waiting 8.1.1 8.1.2 8.2 8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal Sleep Busy Wait . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
55
55 55 55 55 57
Banking Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exercise: Introducing Synchronization
V Memory Management
9 Memory
9.1 PROC File System 9.1.1 9.1.2 9.1.3 9.1.4 9.2 9.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exploring PROC Processes in PROC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Process Memory in PROC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overall Memory Usage in PROC Logical and Physical Addresses 9.2.1.1 9.2.1.2 9.3 9.3.1 9.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
61
61 61 61 62 62 62 62 63 63 63 63 64 64 64 64 65 65
Exploring Memory
Logical Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Physical Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
System Calls for Memory Handling
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Memory Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.2.1 9.3.2.2 9.3.2.3 9.3.2.4 Malloc() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Free() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Realloc()
Calloc() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3
Exercise
CONTENTS
Part I Installation & Introduction
Chapter 1 Gentoo Installation
We will start with a description about software. Software is a term that refers to the written instructions or programs that control the operation of operations of computer. Informally, software refers to the programs, application packages (Word processor, Spread Sheets, DBMS, etc.) written for a computer. Software may be classi ed into two major categories.
Processes Scheduling Inter-process Communication Synchronization Memory Management (physical memory allocation, virtual memory etc.) Resource Management Directory and File Management Communication
Application Software
lem. ci c.
Application software
is a generic term used for such types of software which are used to solve a probThe problem to solve is user speWord processors, computer games,
database managers etc. are speci c types of application of software.
1.1.1 Linux OS
Linux is an operating system which is a avor of Unix. It is a multi-user and multi-tasking operating system. It was developed by Linus Torvalds at the University of Helsinki in Finland. The interface between user interLinux and it's users is known
System Software
System Software are pro-
grams which are designed to operate, control, and extend the processing capabilities of the computer operating system itself, e.g. compilers, linkers etc.
1.1
Operating System
it.
as the shell, i.e.
acts with the Linux operating system through Operating System is a special type of System Software and is a collection (set) of programs, which performs two speci c functions. First, it provides a user interface so that human user can interact with the machine. Second, the operating system manages computer resources. Computer resources are physical devices, which an operating system accesses and manages. Printers, memory, CPU, input/output devices, les, etc., are examples of computer resources. Some of important tasks, which a typical modern operating system has to perform, are given below: This is equivalent to what you have read about the command interpreter in your lectures. There may be two tasks to be performed by a shell. First, accepts commands from a user and second, interprets those commands. The core of the Linux OS is the kernel. As long as the system is operational, the kernel is running. The kernel is the part of the Linux Operating system which consist of routines, which interact with underlying hardware, and routines which include system call handling for process management, tem, etc. memory management, process scheduling, communication, le sys-
10
CHAPTER 1. GENTOO INSTALLATION
follow the Gentoo x86 handbook
1.1.2 Gentoo
Linux operating systems are presented in dierent avours called distributions. One avour of Linux is the Gentoo Operating System. Other popular distributions are Red Hat, Suse, Fedora, Knoppix, Ubuntu, etc. Each distribution has it's own set of specialities and functions. The standing point of Gentoo is that it is a source based distribution. A source based distribution means that the complete OS is built & compiled from scratch from the provided source code. This provides remarkable customization power to the end-user. Gentoo users will use the following core steps to install their operating system via a LiveCD (Bootable CDROM). 1. Partition hard disk 2. Format partitions 3. Copy source code les to HD 4. Copy portage package management tree to HD 5. Con gure Gentoo Kernel 6. Compile Gentoo Kernel 7. Compile Important System Software such as Bootloader 8. Con gure Bootloader 9. Reboot. Note that installation of a graphical interface is not part of the core steps of Gentoo OS installation.
as a substi-
tute for installation portion in this manual. All software and les are shared on //192.168.1.10 or will be provided by your instructor.
1.2.1 Preparing Virtual Machine
Install VMWare Workstation on your machine. Once installed, create a new virtual machine with the following speci cations:
Virtual Machine Con guration: Custom Virtual Machine Format: New Workstation 5 Guest Operating System: Linux
(Version: Other Linux 2.6.x kernel) Virtual Machine Name: Gentoo
Linux (Location: E:\Gentoo) Number of Processors: One Memory: Use default selected (256
Mb would be more then su cient) Network Connection: NAT I/O Adapter Types: SCSI, BusLogic Disk: Create a New Virtual Disk Virtual Disk Type: SCSI Disk Capacity: 6~8 GB (Click on
Split Disk into 2GB Files) Disk File (E:\Gentoo)
Go to Edit Menu and select Preferences. Then click on the Hot Keys tab, where CTRL+ALT will be selected. Instead of this, select CTRL+SHIFT+ALT.
In the devices section of your Gentoo VM, double click on CD-ROM. Select Use ISO Image and give it the location of the
2007.livecd.ISO.
Start your VM by clicking on the Play button from the menu. This will start your VM machine. Click inside the window and your mouse will be locked inside the virtual machine. By pressing CTRL+SHIFT+ALT, you can release the mouse back to the physical machine.
1.2
Installation Steps
The following set of instructions/commands are customized according to facilities in Khyber lab. The installation will be carried out For installation at in a virtual environment.
1 http://www.gentoo.org/doc/en/handbook/handbookx86.xml
home or other locations, it is recommended to
1.2. INSTALLATION STEPS
You will be confronted by your VM boot up screen. When you receive the prompt boot:, type gentoo nox and press enter. Your livecd should now boot.
11
1.2.2 Disk Partitioning
We are going to require 3 disk partitions for Gentoo. Disk partitioning can be carried out using the
Figure 1.1: Partition Structure
type (L) to view the list of partition codes. Type (82) for choosing swap type
fdisk
tool
fdisk /dev/sda
The following options are useful for carrying out partitions: pprint partition structure ncreate new partition ddelete existing partition atoggle partition bootable tchange partition type lto view partition type hex codes wwrite partition table changes to disk
To create the 3rd partition:
press n select p for partition type (primary) give partition number (3) select partition start sector (press enter for default) select partition size (press enter for default)
To create the 1st partition:
Check against Figure-1.1 and make sure that your partition structure resembles it.
press n select p for partition type (primary) give partition number (1) select partition start sector (press enter for default) select partition size (type +32m for 32MB) press a select partition (1). it as bootable This will mark
Write down the partition table structure on paper and keep it as a reference. Speci cally note down what is the device name of each partition (1st column), it's type (last column) and it's size (which you have speci ed). mapping: We are eventually going to use these partitions for the following
To create the 2nd partition:
/dev/sda1/boot /dev/sda2swap memory /dev/sda3/ (root)
press n select p for partition type (primary) give partition number (2) select partition start sector (press enter for default) select partition size (give +512m for 512MB) press t select partition number (2)
Type w and press enter. This will commit the partition table changes to disc.
1.2.2.1
A Note on Linux Directory Structure & Partitions
and logical. A
Partitions are divided into three types; pri-
partition
mary,
extended
primary
stores its information in the MBR Maximum number
(MBR size - 512 bytes).
of primary partitions supported in a system
12
CHAPTER 1. GENTOO INSTALLATION
/ (The top most directory is called the root. Its name is simply /)
/home for user related data. logs into the linux.
Home
is the working directory when a user
/var for mail server related les /opt for game servers /bin and /sbin for system les /dev contains information about con gured i/o devices /lib contains library and API's /tmp is a location where les are located temporarily. These are deleted if not needed /etc for con guration les, all system administrator commands /root is the working directory for the root user (administrator is called root in linux) /usr contains most of the large applications, including portage /boot for storing the boot information for linux (and other os). Will store lilo and grub records as well.
Figure 1.2: Linux Directory Structure
is four. An
extended partition logical partition
has to be a
primary partition (but a special one). It is special because it serves as a container for other partitions. A resides inside an extended partition. Its declarations are not stored in the MBR but rather in the Extended Partition. A le is simply a storage mechanism for a type of information. It can be in text format or binary format. A directory is also a le but a special kind of it. It may contain information about les, as well as other directories. Along with the information stored inside a le, there is also some information about the le. For example, the date the le was created, the size of this le, its permissions, etc. These are called the attributes of the le. Some examples are given below: 1. File name 2. File type (text, binary, image, executable, etc.) 3. Creator/Owner 4. Date created, accessed, modi ed 5. Size of le 6. Permissions of le Unlike DOS or Windows, which permit you to organize your disks anyway you please, the Linux le system is organized into a standard directory structure. Anything which is not in the right place may result in a broken system. The directory tree is given in Figure-1.2. description of some of the folders is as such: A
When working through the directory structure, you will frequently come across the term
name.
path-
Path name is the reference to identify a
le within a directory structure. Consider the following le:
/home/omar/code/source
Here, the rst slash on the left indicates the root directory. Within the root directory, we can nd the home directory, then moving down to sub-directory omar, then code, and nally to the le called source. So the portion
/home/omar/code is the path, and the le is the source. Accessing a le this way is referred to as Absolute Path.
Each le has to be accessed in accordance with it's corresponding path location. If
you are currently in the working directory of
/home/omar/code le called runme,
the shell.
and you want to execute a you will enter
./runme
on
Here, the single dot indicates the
1.2. INSTALLATION STEPS
current working directory. If the executable is one directory above your current working directory, you will enter tory.
13
The stage archive usually does not appear in any Gentoo LiveCD's (unless you are using a liveDVD). It's size is roughly 130 MB so you cannot download it through FAST proxy servers. virtual environment. Press CTRL+SHIFT+ALT to exit from your Obtain the stage3x86-2007.0.tar.bz2 from //192.168.1.10 or your instructor and copy it onto your USB ash. ash. Once copied take out your USB
../runme
on the shell.
Here, the double dots indicate a parent direcAccessing a le or location this way is referred to as the
Relative Path.
1.2.3 Partition Formatting
We are going to format the /boot partition to ext2 lesystem and the root (/) partition to ext3 lesystem.
Enter your Virtual machine again by clicking inside it. Once inside, insert your USB ash again. rst. In order to access the contents of USB ash, we need to mount it
mke2fs /dev/sda1 mke2fs -j /dev/sda3
For the swap partition, we are simply going to make it active.
/mnt/usb.
For this, we can use the location
mkswap /dev/sda2 swapon /dev/sda2
mkdir /mnt/usb mount /mnt/sdb1 /mnt/usb
1.2.4 Preparing System
Gentoo
Base
Now that it is mounted, we can extract the contents of stage archive to location
nt/gentoo.
/m-
Enter the following command
(on a single line) with a space separating each parameter The process of
We are going to mount the partitions to it's relevant location. mounting simply takes a physical device and links it somewhere on the le system. In the following commands, we are using the
mount command to mount the sda3 device on location /mnt/gentoo, and the sda1 device on /mnt/gentoo/boot. But since /boot has not been created yet, we create it using the mkdir command.
mount /dev/sda3 /mnt/gentoo mkdir /mnt/gentoo/boot mount /dev/sda1 /mnt/gentoo/boot
tar xvjpf /mnt/usb/stage3-x86-2007.0.tar.bz2 -C /mnt/gentoo
Coming to the portage tree, that is available by default in the LiveCD image. We can extract it from there. Again note that following should be on a single line.
tar xvjpf /mnt/cdrom/snapshots/portage-2007.0.tar.bz2 -C /mnt/gentoo/usr
Now, all the required Gentoo base system les are in their relevant partitions, we can switch from the LiveCD environment to the actual Gentoo environment on disk.
Gentoo base system requires copying over of two main les. The rst is the archive and the second is the
stage portage
tree. The stage archive is simply a compressed le containing the basic skeleton of directories and les in the linux le system as shown in Figure-1.2. The portage tree is a feature of Gentoo through which you can install extra applications and tools (just like the equivalent of Add/Remove programs in Windows).
mount -t proc none /mnt/gentoo/proc mount -o bind /dev /mnt/gentoo/dev chroot /mnt/gentoo /bin/bash env-update source /etc/profile
14
CHAPTER 1. GENTOO INSTALLATION
Since we are going to compile the rest of our system, it would be wise to set some parameters for the compiler. tings are done in the nano text editor to open it: These set le. Use
1.2.6 Getting the Linux Kernel
The kernel that we are going to install is called the gentoo-sources. options. To obtain the gentoo-sources source code, you have two
make.conf
nano /etc/make.conf
Make the following changes and/or additions:
Option 1: Since you have already set-up your network settings, you can download it straight from the internet. Run the
emerge
command to install it from the
portage tree.
CFLAGS="-O2 -march=i686 -pipe" CXXFLAGS="${CFLAGS}" CHOST="i686-pc-linux-gnu" MAKEOPTS="-j2" PORTDIR_OVERLAY="/usr/portage"
Press CTRL+X to exit and save changes.
emerge gentoo-sources
Option 2: If you are already using your USB in virtual machine, unmount it using:
umount /mnt/usb
Press CTRL+ALT+SHIFT to exit from your virtual machine. Plug in your USB and copy over the gentoo-sources.tar.bz2 le from //192.168.1.10 or from your instructor into the USB.
1.2.5 Network Settings
In this installation you may be required to download some packages from the internet. For this, you have to con gure your network settings.
Now, enter your virtual machine again by clicking inside it. your USB again. Once inside, Plug in Mount it as you have
View your current settings using the following command
already done so far earlier on:
ifconfig eth0
If tify you are able to see and which idenlike will
mount /dev/sdb1 /mnt/usb
We are going to copy over our gentoosources le from USB to dist les directory. But we have to create this rst.
from
the
output
something
inet
addr:192.168.X.XX
be some IP address, then your device is recognised. If not, you have to specify it manually using the following command (all one one line).
mkdir /usr/portage/distfiles cp /mnt/usb/gentoo-sources.tar.bz2 /usr/portage/distfiles
Once we have the gentoo-sources le, we can simply install it using the mand.
ifconfig eth0 192.168.1.XXX broadcast 192.168.1.255 netmask 255.255.255.0 up
To use the http proxy, use the following command
emerge com-
emerge gentoo-sources
1.2.7 Con guring the Kernel
To con gure the kernel, to use the
export http_proxy="http://192.168.1.11:8080" rc/linux
menucon g
we are going
utility at
/usr/s-
1.2. INSTALLATION STEPS
cd /usr/src/linux make menuconfig
This will load a blue screen where you can navigate through many options in the list. Each entry that you see in the list will have any of the three identi ers:
15
Press CTRL+X to exit and save changes. Next step is to choose your root password. In Linux, the administrator account is called
root.
This should not be confused
with the root directory word fastnupwr.
/.
Assign the pass-
[ ] Feature not supported [ ] Feature supported & built
kernel
into the
passwd
Finally we are going to install some important system applications. Syslog is used for logging purpose, vixie-cron is the equivalent of windows-scheduler, and slocate is used for le searching. The command rc-update adds the program to the start-up list of processes to run when the OS boots.
[M ] Feature
supported but not built
into the kernel (supported as module) We will browse through the list one by
Warning: Don't touch the features that are already con gured. Instead, make the following additions). To go through the
to the following speci cation. ( list, please refer to Figure-1.3. Once nished with the settings, go back to the root menu and select
one and customize our kernel according
<exit>.
Do save the set-
tings when asked.
emerge syslog-ng rc-update add syslog-ng default emerge vixie-cron rc-update add vixie-cron default emerge slocate
1.2.8 Compiling the Kernel
After con guration, we need to compile the kernel and it's modules.
1.2.10 Con guring Bootloader
The purpose of the bootloader is to load the operating system image from disk. It resides in the master boot record (MBR) of the hard disk. The default bootloader program for linux is
make && make modules_install
Once the kernel is compiled, we need to copy the kernel boot image to the directory.
/boot
grub.
emerge grub
After it is installed, we need to manually con gure the list that will appear from which we can start our operating system. This list is con gured in the
cp arch/i386/boot/bzImage /boot/bzImage
1.2.9 System Con guration
The rst thing to do is to tell the OS what directory each partition is going to represent. This is done in the using
grub.conf
le.
nano /boot/grub/grub.conf
Make the le conform to the following. Once done, press CTRL+X to exit and save changes.
nano.
fstab
le. Edit it
nano /etc/fstab
The le should coform to the following
default 0 timeout 30
1 0 0 0 2 title Gentoo Linux 0 1root (hd0,0) 0kernel /boot/bzImage root=/dev/sda3
/dev/sda1 /dev/sda2 /dev/sda3 /dev/cdrom
/boot none / /mnt/cdrom
ext2 swap ext3 auto
defaults,noatime sw noatime noauto,user
16
CHAPTER 1. GENTOO INSTALLATION
Loadable Module Support ---> [*] Enable loadable module support [*] Module unloading [*] Automatic kernel module loading Bus Options (PCI, etc.) --> [*] PCI Support [*] ISA Support Device Drivers --> Fusion MPT device support ---> <*> Fusion MPT ScsiHost drivers for SPI SCSI device support ---> <*> SCSI device support <*> SCSI disk support SCSI low-level drivers ---> <*> SYM53C8XX Version 2 SCSI support x <*> BusLogic SCSI support ATA/ATAPI/MFM/RLL support ---> <*> Enhanced IDE/MFM/RLL disk/cdrom/tape/floppy support <*> Include IDE/ATAPI CDROM support [*] PCI IDE chipset support [*] Generic PCI bus-master DMA support <*> Intel PIIXn chipsets support Network Device support ---> [*] Network device support Ethernet (1000Mbit) ---> [*] Intel(R) PRO/1000 Gigabit Ethernet support Ethernet (10 or 100Mbit) ---> [*] Ethernet (10 or 100Mbit) [*] EISA, VLB, PCI and on board controllers <*> AMD PCnet32 PCI support Sound ---> <*> Sound card support Advanced Linux Sound Architecture ---> <*> Advanced Linux Sound Architecture <*> OSS Mixer API <*> OSS PCM (digital audio) API PCI devices ---> <*> (Creative) Ensoniq AudioPCI 1371/1373 File Systems --> CD-ROM/DVD Filesystems ---> <*> ISO 9660 CDROM file system support [*] Microsoft Joliet CDROM extensions Networking --> [*] Networking support Networking options ---> <*> Packet socket <*> Unix domain sockets [*] TCP/IP networking File Servers ---> Pseudo filesystems ---> <*> /proc file system support <*> Virtual memory file system support (former shm fs)
Figure 1.3: Kernel Con guration Settings
1.2. INSTALLATION STEPS
The list is prepared. We need to copy it over to the MBR. This is done by running the grub shell. Invoke it using the following:
17
grub --no-floppy
In the grub shell (once it starts) Use the following commands in sequence:
root (hd0,0) setup (hd0) quit
1.2.11 Finalizing
Exit everything to go back to the LiveCD environment. From there, we can give the reboot command to reboot the system.
exit reboot
When the Virtual Machine starts again, go into it's BIOS and change the boot device priority. The Hard Disk should be the rst device in the list.
When Gentoo starts, you can login with following details:
username: root password: fastnupwr
IMPORTANT:
In your windows operating system, go to your E: drive and right click on the Gentoo directory and select properties. This is the directory in which your virtual OS resides. Select the
rity
Secu-
tab. Add the everyone group and give
it full priviledges.
18
CHAPTER 1. GENTOO INSTALLATION
Chapter 2 Getting To Know Linux
There are 7 graphical terminals that you can use to interact with your operating system. Imagine these 7 terminals as 7 monitors in front of you. Pressing CTRL+ALT+F1 will take you to the 1st monitor, CTRL+ALT+F2 will take you to the 2nd monitor, and so on and so forth. Each monitor will ask you to enter a user name and password. So in essence you have to login to use each monitor. Of these 7 terminals, 6 are command-line based termiFigure 2.1: Linux Multiple Desktop Screens nals, whereas the 7th one is GUI based (provided it is installed). these terminals. Practice working with
2.1
User Accounts
1
. So we are going to follow
Another way to access your bash shell is through a remote login client. To login remotely, you need to install SSH Server on your operating system. This is as simple as giving the following commands:
Your mother has probably told you never to work as root user our mother's advice and create a new username and password for ourselves.
useradd -m <username> passwd <username> exit
Log back in with the details you just entered. When you log back in, you should see
emerge openssh /etc/init.d/sshd start rc-update add sshd default
Once setup, we can login from another linux machine by giving the ip address of the remote machine
<username>@localhost ~ $ as the prompt. The tilda ~ is the shortcut to your home directory (/home/<username>).
2.2 Your Shell
ssh 192.168.1.999
From windows, we can connect to a linux bash shell using
putty.
Putty can be downloaded To use, simply specify
from //192.168.1.10.
the IP address of the remote shell and other details like port number (22), username, and password. Whichever method you choose, Linux will automatically rectory (By place default you in your home diare home directories
The default shell that users get to use when they install linux is the and remotely.
bash
shell. Bash can be
accessed using a number of ways; both locally
/home/<username>. If root, then your home directory will be in directory /root).
1 Popular expression in the Linux community
19
20
CHAPTER 2. GETTING TO KNOW LINUX
Commands
It can be used to as a lter. ple, typing
2.3
A command is a request from a programmer, an operator, or a user to Linux operating system asking that a speci c function be performed. For e.g., a request to list all les in your current directory will be the command
ls ab*
For exam-
will print all le/folder
names that start with ab.
2.4.2 Case sensitivity
Linux commands are case-sensitivie. All standard linux commands are given in lower case letters only. As an example, typing ls will print the directory contents. Typing Ls, or LS, or lS will result in a command syntax error.
ls.
2.3.1 Syntax of Commands
The general way commands are entered in Linux is as such:
command -option(s) argument(s)
Here,
2.4.3 Auto-Completion
Auto-Completion is a short-cut feature for quickly entering commands that are long or you have forgotten their spelling of. To practice, just type in a keyletter f and press the TAB key. You will see the list of all commands starting with an f. Type d and press TAB, you will see a list of all commands starting with fd. Type i and press TAB, you will see a list of all commands starting with fdi. So on and so forth. You can also use the auto-completion to detect directories. For example, you want to access the home directory of a user who for some strange reason is called
A command tells the operating system what to do (what action to be performed, copy a le, display a date etc.)
Option(s) tells the way of action to be performed. For example, ls command displays directory contents, and r option tells the way in which the directory should be displayed. Here r displays directory contents in reverse (alphabetically) order.
Argument tells that on what objects ( le, directory, devices, etc.) the command and its arguments are applied. For example if we need to display all les starting with alphabet a, you will give ls a* and press enter.
vwxyz.
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuwill
From the root directory (/), you will
type cd /home/a and press TAB. The rest of the characters
bcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
be given automatically and you will be spared the time and eor of writing such a large name.
Note
Make sure you don't forget that there is
always a space between the command, the options, and the arguments.
2.4.4 Redirection
You can use the > and < symbols to redirect your output. such: The types of redirection are as
2.4
More about Shell
2.4.1 The Asterisk *
The asterisk * symbol is basically a wildcard. It can be used in a number of contexts. e.g., For
>Output 1 >Same 2 >Error
For will
redirection to a le as > output redirection to a le redirection from le to termi-
It can be used to denote
everything. example, in MS-DOS, typing delete *
<Output
nal
delete all les in a current directory. With Linux, you can use rm * to do the same thing.
Try it using the following set of commands
2.5. PRACTICING COMMANDS
cd ls touch newfile ls ls > newfile cat < newfile ls -lh ls -lh 1> newfile cat < newfile lsot lsot 2> newfile cat < newfile rm newfile
21
2.5
Practicing Commands
another# ls -a another# ls -l another# ls -lh another# cp newest newestest another# cat newestest another# another# cd .. temporary# mv newester another/newester temporary# ls temporary# ls another/n* temporary# cd .. # rm temporary # rm temporary/* # rm temporary # rm temporary -r -f
Easy? Okay try and attempt the following ex-
Some of the most commonly used commands are given below. Try and practice each one of them and see what they do.
ercise.
ls
2.5.1 Exercise 1
Implement the following directory tree.
Print the list of directory contents of the current directory (or any other directory if full path is speci ed)
cd
Change directory to another directory Create a new directory Remove a directory (if it is empty)
mkdir rmdir cat cp mv rm
View contents of a le, or write contents to a le. Copy a le from one location to another Move a le from one location to another Remove le(s) and/or directory(ies) The boxes in blue are directories. The boxes in gray are les. Each le should contain a random mark of your liking. Once done, delete all the les/directories that you have created.
To see them working, practice the following set of commands. The prompt.
sign represents the shell
Count the total number of commands you entered to do this job. I managed using 6 commands.
# mkdir temporary # cd temporary temporary# ls temporary# cat > newfile Type any text and press CTRL+D temporary# cat newfile temporary# mkdir another temporary# cp newfile another/newest temporary# cp newfile newester temporary# cd another another# ls
2.5.2 Exercise 2
Consider the following directory tree:
22
CHAPTER 2. GETTING TO KNOW LINUX
How are we going to change it using the mv command so that we get the directory tree as below:
Figure 2.2: Nano Text Editor
Change your directory so that your current directory is Physics. From here, change your directory in only one command such that your current directory becomes subject.
nano <myFile>
Near the end of your screen you will see a list of shortcuts. The ones which you should get yourself familiar with are as such:
From
subject,
issue
only
one
com-
CTRL+X CTRL+O CTRL+W CTRL+K CTRL+U CTRL+C
for exit for saving for searching for cutting for pasting for displaying cursor position
mand such that the directory physics is deleted.
2.6
Text Editor
A text editor is a software where you can enter text in its native format and save it to le. A word processor is a software where you can take text and process its appearance, format, spell-check, paragraph settings, etc. Linux has a number of text editors (both graphical and command-line based). The one which you will use most commonly is the nano text editor.
Other commands are listed at the bottom of the text-editor window.
2.6.1 NANO Editor
There Linux. to the are many text editors available for
2.7
Links
nano
At the moment you will have access editor. Nano is an advanced text
Links are the equivalent of Shortcuts in Windows. The syntax of creating a link to a le or directory is as such:
editor provided by GNU. Simply typing in Figure-2.2.
nano
on the shell will give you the editor as shown
ln existingfile linkname
To practice, try out the following commands:
nano
You may also start your nano by explicitly mentioning the le you want to work on. This le may be already existing or you may be creating a new one.
# # # # #
ls touch blankfile mkdir blankdir ls ln blankdir dirpointer
2.10. SEARCHING
# # # # # # # # # ln -s blankdir dirpointer ln blankfile filepointer cat < blankfile cat < filepointer echo "Hello dear" > filepointer cat < blankfile cat < filepointer ls ls -lh
23
ls /bin -lh | more
To quit, press
q.
ls /bin -lh | less
The syntax of both above commands are such that we are specifying two commands in one go. The rst command starts with ond command starts with these commands are bol . With more, you are able to browse With less, you are able to browse
Look carefully at the contents of both lepointer and dirpointer. Changing one will automatically change the other. Also look at how the directory pointers appear using ls -lh.
ls, the secmore or less. Both joined by the pipe symdown
and
the display 1-page at a time using spacebar.
down
2.8 Manuals
The most important thing to get yourself familiar with in linux is the
up
the display 1-line at a time using up
and down arrow keys. An alternative is using output redirection that you have covered in section-2.4.4. Usage would be as such:
manuals.
man
Usually a user has to specify a manual page. A manual page is usually listed by it's program name, command name, or system call name. For example:
ls /bin -lh > temp.txt nano temp.txt
2.10
Searching
By default, searching for les or directories is performed using the
man man man man
ls cp man fork
or
arrow keys.
nd
command.
An-
other powerful search program that we installed when installing gentoo was
slocate.
To navigate, use the
2.10.1 Using Find
The syntax of nd command is as such:
To search, type / (slash), followed by your search string, and enter To exit, type q
find <where> -name <what>
So, if I want to nd all pdf les in / directory, I will give:
2.9
More | Less
find / -name *.pdf
Sometimes a user may give a command which generates so much output that it scrolls very fast. As a result, the top information simply For example, use ows out of the screen whereas only the lowend information is visible. the following command
2.10.2 Using Slocate
The slocate program uses a database to search for les. The program gives results much more quickly than nd command. The downside to updating the database. Updating is done using updatedb command. The format of command is also simple as compared to nd.
ls /bin -lh
We can view the lost information using the more or less commands. Try both of them rst.
updatedb locate *.pdf
24
CHAPTER 2. GETTING TO KNOW LINUX
GNU Compiler Collection
Owner Group Others Read 1 1 0
22
2.11
Write 1 1 0
21
Execute 1 0 1
20
Prorams written in C on linux are compiled using the gcc compiler. Programs written in C++ are compiled using the g++ compiler. Both these compilers are provided by GNU under the label GCC. Any C program written for linux should have the extension of .c (e.g., hello.c), whereas a C++ program should have an extension of .cpp (e.g., hello.cpp). When compiling, the general syntax of command is as follows:
Table 2.1: Representation of File Permissions
2.11.1 Exercise
Write your very rst C program for linux. Name it as
myFirst.c.
Your program
should prompt the user for his name, and then should display the name on the shell. Tip: Use the printf() and the scanf() calls for this purpose & remember to check their respective man pages as well (man printf & man scanf )
gcc first.c [-o first] g++ first.cpp [-o first]
A breakdown is as such:
gcc|g++
is the compiler itself will be the lename with ex-
To run a linux command from your program, we can use the system() function. Use the following inside your myFirst.c program and see it's output.
rst.c| rst.cpp []
tension of your source code. Anything inside this square brackets is an optional arguments. mand. Do not write the square brackets themselves in your com-
system("ls");
Using the system() function, do the following:
-o
is the output lename. the name you specify. cutable le named
It is the arguWithout this, the
ment for making an executable le with source code will be compiled into an exe-
2.12
Create a directory with the name test in your current directory. Then display the contents of that directory Finally erase the test directory
a.out
rst
is the name of executable le which you
pass to -o argument. So considering that we have a source code with the name rst.c, and compile it with the above command, we can execute it using:
File Permissions
All les and directories in Linux have an associated set of owner permissions that are used by the operating system to determine access. These permissions are grouped into
./first
Where ./ speci es the current directory, and rst is the name of executable le which you passed as an argument to the compiler. Try it out using the following code:
sets of three bits.
three
The sets represent {owner,
group, everyone else} whereas the bits represent {read, write, execute}. So overall, we have 9 permissions (See Table 2.1). If we look at the rst row for Owner, we see three 1's. Which specify that the Owner Since all of the bits are in has read, write, and execute permissions on a le or directory. allow mode, we can add them up together to
01 #include <stdio.h> 02 03 main() { 04 printf("hello, world\n"); 05 }
2.13. FILE OWNERSHIP
get
25
22 + 21 + 20 = 4 + 2 + 1 = 7.
Similarly,
the second row for Group, i.e., users within the same group as that of the le owner, have read and write, but no execute permissions. This 2 1 will be translated only as 2 + 2 = 4 + 2 = 6. And lastly, every other user can only execute les and have no permission to read or write 0 to them. This will be translated as 2 = 1. So the le permissions would be command:
761.
To give the
permission of 761 to a le, we would use the
chmod 761 <filename>
You can view the le permissions using the command:
ls -lh
2.13
mand:
File Ownership
A le's owner can be changed using the com-
chown <username> <filename>
Where,
<username>
would be the username
of any user on your system, and apply to.
< lename>
is the target to which this setting is going to
26
CHAPTER 2. GETTING TO KNOW LINUX
Part II System Calls
27
Chapter 3 Processes
A system call is an interface between your program and the kernel. The linux kernel's job is to provide a variety of services to application programs and this is done using the provision of system calls.
TTY: Controlling Terminal
STAT:
The process states (D) Uninter-
ruptible sleep (R) Running or ready (S) Interruptible sleep (T) Stopped (Z) Zombie (<) High Priority (N) Low Priority (s) Session leader, i.e., has child processes (l) multi-threaded (+) foreground
3.1
Understanding cesses
Pro
START: When process has started
The fundamental building block of each program is the process. A process is the name
TIME: Time running since
given to a program when it is loaded for the purpose of execution on the operating system. For a full description of what is comprised inside a process, please refer to your class-notes or slides. To view a list of current processes in the system for a user, you may use the ps command. The basic attribute of a process is it's ID (PID), and it's Parent ID (PPID). The system calls that can nd the process ID, and the Parent Process ID are the getpid() and getppid() calls respectively. To use both of them, you will be required to include the and
COMMAND:
The program/command
used in this process.
ps
To view the complete list, you can adapt it to:
unistd.h
sys/types.h
C libraries.
ps au
You will see plenty of columns as output. The columns you should be familiar with at this moment are underlined below:
The mere presence of the PPID means that there is a hierarchy of processes inside our operating system. Each process has a track of who are it's children, and each child process has a record of who is it's parent. The original process that is the grand-father of all processes The owner of that process The integer identi er Percent utilization of CPU Percent utilization of Memory This command will show a list of all processes currently in the system in the form of a tree. is the
User: PID: CPU:
Init
Process. You can view this hierar-
chy using the pstree command.
pstree
MEM:
space
VSZ: Virtual Memory Size RSS: Non-swapped physical memory size
29
30
CHAPTER 3. PROCESSES
Q2
Increase the value in for loop from i<1 to i<2 (i.e., 2 iterations in the loop). Compile and run your program. How many processes does it show this time? Draw a tree hierarchy of processes that you just created as given in Figure-3.1.
3.1.1 Exercise
With respect to the my rst.c le that you created in last labs, write a code that is able to nd out the following:
The PID value for my rst.c The PPID value for my rst.c The process name from the PPID value. (Note: You can use the system() call for this purpose. To nd a process name from PPID, you would normally enter the following command on the shell, where 12345 is the ID of any process)
Q3
Increase the value again to i<3 (i.e., 3 iterations). Compile and run your program. How many processes does it show? Draw a tree again. Why is it that we have called fork() 3 times in our code, yet we are seen ing 2 1 processes listed on screen?
Q4
For fun, increase the value yet again to 100. Compile and run. What is going to happen? Does your OS Crash? Does your Program Crash? Can you modify your code to count the total number of fork()s made?
pstree -p | grep 12345
3.2
Process Lifecycle
Each process has to go through the following states during it's existence: 1. Creation 2. Running 3. Non-Running (a) Ready (b) Waiting 4. Termination
Try and run the following code:
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09
#include <stdio.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <unistd.h> int main(void) { fork(); printf("He\n"); fork(); printf("Ha\n"); fork(); printf("Ho\n"); }
Note that we are calling each He, Ha, and Ho only once. Yet that does not appear when the program is run.
3.2.1 Creation States
About process creation concepts, understand and run the following code:
Q5
Can a Ho be output before a He? Why?
Explanation
The Fork() system call simply creates a new process which is exact replica of parent process. It requires the as such:
#include <stdio.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <unistd.h> int main(void) { int i; printf("Process PID %6d \t PPID %6d \n", getpid(), getppid()); for (i = 0; i<1; ++i) { if (fork()==0) printf("Process PID %6d \t PPID %6d \n", getpid(), getppid()); } return 0; }
unistd.h
C library. It's usage is
Q1
How many processes are created?
// Fork code 1 #include <unistd.h> #include <???> // See Question 2 int main() { int p; p = fork(); printf("Job Done\n"); }
3.2. PROCESS LIFECYCLE
To understand this code, try to answer the following questions:
31
Question1
answer.
We have used p = fork(). Check
not simply fork()?
man fork
Why for
Question2 Question3
screen.
Check man page for printf. What
library is used for this call? Run your program. Why is it that
if (p == 0) { printf("Child PID = %d, PPID = %d\n", getpid(), getppid() ); } else { printf("Parent PID = %d, Child ID = %d\n", getpid(), p); }
printf() is used only once, yet we see the output Job Done displaying twice on our What would happen if we don't use the If/Else conditions Add the following statement to and immediately write the two printf() statements? Make sure you understand the structure of the Code, as well as what are the ways of knowing the following:
Question4
the end of your code and run it again. What output would you see?
printf("Value of P is %d\n", p);
So, the fork() system call will always return dierent kinds of values (As you should know from Question4). zero value. The process that receives the 0 value is the child process. The process that receives the positive nonzero value is the parent process. Based on these values, we can then program our code in such a manner that both parent and child can do their own jobs and not appear to be doing the same things. Why 0? Why Non-Zero? The reason for this is that the child can always nd out who it's parent is via the getppid() function call. However, it is di cult for the parent to know who it's children are. This can only be done if the value of the child's PID is returned to it at the time of the fork(). Look at the following code structure and implement it: One of the values returned would be 0, the other will be a positive non-
1. The PID
2. The Parent PID
3. The Child PID
3.2.1.1
Exercise 1
call code 2
above and add a
Modify the fork()
system call for sleep() after both the printf() statements. Give a time of 120 seconds to the sleep call. While both the parent and child are sleeping, open a new terminal and check out the outcome of the
ps
pstree
command as well as
command.
Study the output for your
parent and child process in both commands, especially noting the STAT column.
3.2.1.2
Exercise 2
// Fork code 2 #include <unistd.h> #include <???> // For printf() int main() { int p; printf("Original Process, pid = %d\n", getpid() ); p = fork();
Model a fork() call in C/C++ so that your program can create a total of EXACTLY 6 processes (including the parent). (Note: You may check the number of processes created using the method from Exercise 1 (Section-3.2.1.1 by using a sleep of 60 seconds or more and entering eithe ps, or pstree in another terminal). Your process hierarchy should be as follows:
32
CHAPTER 3. PROCESSES
printf("Child Process\n"); } else { printf("Parent Process\n"); }
}
Figure 3.1: Exercise 2 Model
Again look at the code.
We have referred to
Exec() system call but in code we see Execv(). Read man pages for this and nd out. To help
3.2.2 Running States
The job of the exec() call is to replace the current process with a new process/program. Once the exec() call is made, the current process is gone and a new process starts. The Exec() call is actually a family of 6 system calls. Dierence between all 6 can be seen from
you understand, try nding answers to the following:
Question1 Question2 Question3 Question4
What is the 1st argument to the
execv() call? What is it's contents? What is the 2nd argument to it?
What is it's contents? What is arg? Look at the code of the child proHow many times does the
man 3 exec
int execl(const char *path, *arg, ...);
const char
int execlp(const char * le, const char *arg, ...); int execle(const char *path, const char *arg, char *const envp[]); int execv(const char *path, char *const argv[]); int execve(const char *path, const char *argv[], char *const envp[]); int execvp(const char * le, char *const argv[]);
cess (p==0).
statement Child Process appear? Why? Diagrammatically, the functioning of the
exec() system calls would be represented in Figure 3.2, where the dotted line mark the execution and transfer of control whereas the straight lines mark the waiting time.
fork() wait() % command ------\_____________/-----> % (Prompt Returns) \ / \ / \-------/ execve() exit()
Following is usage of one avor of Exec, the execv() system call:
Figure 3.2: Fork() Exec() representation
#include <unistd.h> 3.2.3 Waiting States #include <stdio.h> int main() 3.2.3.1 Sleep() { int p; The sleep() call can be used to cause delay in char *arg[] = {"/usr/bin/ls", 0}; execution of a program. The delay can be prop = fork(); vided as an integer number (representing number of seconds). Usage is simply sleep(int), if (p == 0) { which will delay the process execution for int printf("Child Process\n"); seconds. To use sleep(), you will require the execv(arg[0], arg); unistd.h C library.
3.2. PROCESS LIFECYCLE
Exercise
Write a C program that can display a count from 10 to 0 (reverse order) using a for or a while loop. Each number should be displayed after delay of 1 second.
33
{ }
printf("Exit 2\n"); exit(1);
3.2.4.2
The
Atexit() Call
below provides two functions;
3.2.4 Termination States
A process can terminate in one of the following ways: 1. Main function calls return 2. Exit function called 3. Aborted by higher priority process (e.g., parent or kernel) 4. Terminated by a signal Regardless of any of these reasons, the same kernel code is invoked which performs the following: 1. Close open les 2. Noti es Parent and Children 3. Release memory resources
code
atexit() and exit(). Note the structure of code and the behaviour of execution and then attempt the questions in the end.
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
#include<stdio.h> #include<stdlib.h> int main(void) { void f1(void), f2(void), f3(void); atexit(f1); atexit(f2); atexit(f3); printf("Getting ready to exit\n"); exit(0); } void f1(void) { printf("In f1\n"); } void f2(void) { printf("In f2\n"); } void f3(void) { printf(In f3\n); }
Q1
What is the dierence between exit() and atexit()? What do they do? (Check
atexit
and
man 3 exit ).
man
3.2.4.1
Exit() Call
Q2
What does the 0 provided in the exit() call mean? What will happen if we change it to 1? (Check manual page for exit)
The exit() system call causes a normal program to terminate and return status to the parent process. Study the behaviour of the following program. You will see that there may be a Can number of exit points from a program. time a program exits??
Q3
If we add an exit call to function f1, f2, or f3. What will happen to execution of our program?
you identify which exit() call is being used each
Q4
Why do you think we are getting reverse order of execution of atexit calls?
#include <stdio.h> 3.2.4.3 Abort Call int main() { Type, run and execute the code below. Then int num; answer the questions in the end. void anotherExit(); // Function Prototype printf("Enter a Number: "); 01 #include <stdio.h> scanf("%i", num); 02 #include <stdlib.h> if (num>25) 03 int main() { 04 abort(); { 05 exit(0); printf("exit 1\n"); 06 } exit(1); } Q1 Check the man pages for abort. How else does the abort call terminate the proanotherExit(); gram? What is the name of the particular } void anotherExit() signal?
34
CHAPTER 3. PROCESSES
Execute your program. What is the output of our program?
Q2 Q3
Include the abort call in function f3 in our code provided for Atexit() call. How does our program terminate using this?
3.2.4.4
Kill Call
But as a demonstration, you
Full description of this call will appear in Section-5.1.2. call works. may run the following code to see how the kill()
#include <stdio.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <signal.h> int main() { printf("Hello"); kill(getpid(), 9); printf("Goodbye"); }
You are already familiar with getpid() system call. To nd out what 9 is, rst look at the output of the command:
#include <unistd.h> #include <stdio.h> int main() { int i, pid; pid = fork(); if (pid > 0) // Parent { sleep(2); exit(0); } else if (pid == 0) // Child { for (i=0; i < 5; i++) { printf("My parent is %d\n", getppid()); sleep(1); } } }
Run the code. 1. What are the PPID values you are receiving from the for loop? 2. What has happened when the numbers of the PPID change? 3. What is now PID of the init process?
kill -l
Find out the word mentioned next to 9. Search on the internet for this.
3.3.2 Child Dies Before Parent
Parent or
Following code is complete opposite of what we have seen so far.
3.3
Death Child
of
We covered the process termination using the exit() system call and that a program may have more than one exit points. In a relationwhip where a process has spawned children, what would be the eect if either the parent dies or the child dies on the other processes linked to it? This section will look and study such a development.
3.3.1 Parent Dies Before Child
If a parent process dies before it's children, the children will be orphaned. They will be assigned to another process in the system and as such the children should be informed about who their new parent is going to be. This new parent process is the parent of all processes in the system, i.e., the init process.
#include <unistd.h> #include <stdio.h> int main() { int i, pid; pid = fork(); if (pid > 0) { sleep(120); } else if (pid == 0) { exit(0); } }
// Parent
// Child
Run the code. In another window (terminal), check the status of your parent and child processes using the ps command. You should be able to see a Z, or <defunct> next to the child process which has been created. Such a process is usually termed a Zombie process.
3.3. DEATH OF PARENT OR CHILD
Wait for 60 seconds, then check the status of your process again. now gone. You will note that both the parent, as well as the Zombie process are
35
36
CHAPTER 3. PROCESSES
Chapter 4 Input/Output
Probably the rst thing you covered in I/O when you were doing your C/C++ programming courses was
echo "Hello"
We are going to use the echo command to write a string
cin, cout or cerr.
Of these,
cout displays something on the standard output (display screen), whereas cin is used for obtaining input from keyboard input device. In linux, there are three types of les that are open all the time for input and output purposes for each process. These are: 1. Standard Input Stream 2. Standard Output Stream 3. Standard Error Stream Each of these streams are represented by a unique integer number called a
Hello
to a le
hello.txt
using the output redirection method that has been covered in Section-2.4.4. You can view the contents of this le to ensure that the string has indeed been written to it.
echo "Hello" > hello.txt nano hello.txt
In previous bullet,
hello.txt
was a le. We
are going to use the same mechanism but a little dierently. Replace X with the PID value that you noted down earlier. in later sections. You will see what /proc directory is used for We are specifying that we want to write to le descriptor = 1 of process ID marked by X.
tor.
File Descrip-
In this case, standard input is 0, standard
output is 1, and standard error is 2. Other les that are in use by a process will be assigned le descriptor numbers of 3, 4,
. . ..
These le de-
scriptors refer to each and every instance of an open le for a process. So, if we want to open a le, close a le, read from a le, or write to a le, it has to be done through it's corresponding le descriptor. To visualise how this works, we are going to perform a simple exercise. For this, we would require two shells.
echo "Hello" > /proc/X/fd/1
Now go back to the previous terminal by pressing CTRL+ALT+F1. Surprise! The string Hello has been written there.
4.1
Open a File
It's
Type the following command and note down the current bash shell PID. Let this be
We use the open() call to open a le. Open() can also be used for creating a new le. syntax is as such:
X.
ps
Press CTRL+ALT+F2 to open a new terminal window and login with your details. The echo command is used to display a line of text.
int open(pathname, flags, modes);
This would work by including the
sys/stat.h
and
fcntl.h
sys/types.h,
C libraries. As parame-
ters, it takes the following:
37
38
CHAPTER 4. INPUT/OUTPUT
4.2 Close a File
So we saw that the open() call returns an integer number (the le descriptor) which has been stored in
1. Path name of the le to open 2. Flag specifying how to open it (i.e., for read only, write only, etc.) 3. Access permissions for a le (Provided the le is newly created) Some of the ags are listed below:
fd
variable. Once we are nished with When a process terminates, linux
what we are doing with the le, the le should be closed. by default closes all le descriptors so you may not close a le by yourself if you don't want to. But if you do, then read on. Linux uses a total of 1,024 le descriptors per process by default. So it's a good idea that you close your le descriptor's if they are not used. To close a le descriptor, just use the following in your code:
O_RDONLY for marking a le as read only O_WRONLY for marking a le as write only O_RDWR for marking a le as read and write O_CREAT for creating the new le O_EXCL for giving an error when creating a new le and that le already exists
close(fd);
Look at the following code and see what it is the output?
As an example, run the following code for creating a new le:
#include #include #include #include #include
<fcntl.h> <stdio.h> <sys/stat.h> <sys/types.h> <unistd.h>
#include #include #include #include #include
<fcntl.h> <stdio.h> <sys/stat.h> <sys/types.h> <unistd.h>
int main(int argc, char* argv[]) { char *path = argv[1]; int fd = open(path, O_WRONLY | O_EXCL | O_CREAT); if (fd == -1) { printf("Error: File not Created\n"); return 1; } return 0; }
Compile this, but when running specify the command as such:
int main(int argc, char* argv[]) { if (argc != 2) { printf("Error: Run like this: "); printf("%6s name-of-new-file\n", argv[0]); return 1; } char *path = argv[1]; int i = 0; while(i<2) { int fd = open(path, O_WRONLY | O_CREAT); printf("Created! Descriptor is %d\n", fd); close(fd); i++; } return 0; }
Comment out the line pile and run again. ferent values?
gcc demo.c -o demo ./demo createThisFile
Then run ls and check if the le has been created.
close(fd); and then com-
What is the output this
time? Why do you think you are getting dif-
ls
Give the same command again and check out the output.
4.3
Writing to a File
Question
Writing to a le is done using the write call. What is the size of the le? Why To write, we should obviously open a le rst. The syntax of the write() call is as such:
is it this size?
4.4. READING FROM A FILE
write(fd, buffer, size);
This would require the
39
4.4
Reading from a File
unistd.h
C library. The
Read() system call is going to be used for this purpose. It's syntax is as such:
following are the paremeters used by the call:
The le descriptor (must be open ... otherwise how are you going to write to a notopen le?)
read(fd, buffer, size);
This would require the
unistd.h
C library. the
Buer or place where data is located Length to write
parameters for read() are somewhat the same as that for write(). I.e.,
So let's see the write call in action. Type, compile and run the following code. Then answer the questions at the end.
The le descriptor (must be open ... otherwise how can you read from a not-open le?)
#include #include #include #include #include #include #include
<fcntl.h> <stdio.h> <string.h> <sys/stat.h> <sys/types.h> <time.h> <unistd.h>
Buer or place where data is to be saved after reading Length to read
So let's see the read in action. Type, compile, and run the following code:
char* get_timeStamp() { time_t now = time(NULL); return asctime(localtime(&now)); } int main(int argc, char* argv[]) { char *filename = argv[1]; char *timeStamp = get_timeStamp(); int fd = open(filename, O_WRONLY | O_APPEND | O_CREAT, 0666); size_t length = strlen(timeStamp); write(fd, timeStamp, length); close(fd); return 0; }
#include #include #include #include #include
<fcntl.h> <stdio.h> <sys/stat.h> <sys/types.h> <unistd.h>
Q1 Q2
What is 0666 that is speci ed in the open() call? What does it mean? What is O_APPEND doing in the same call? Run the program again and check it's output.
Q3
Modify the following line in the code and then compile and run the program and check it's output. What has happened?
int main(int argc, char* argv[]) { if (argc != 2) { printf("Error: Run like this: "); printf("%6s name-of-existing-file\n", argv[0]); return 1; } char *path = argv[1]; int fd = open(path, O_RDONLY); if (fd == -1) { printf("File does not exist\n"); return 1; } char buffer[200]; read(fd, buffer, sizeof(buffer)-1); printf("Contents of File are:\n"); printf("%s\n", buffer); close(fd); return 0; }
From: size_t length = strlen(timeStamp); To: size_t length = strlen(timeStamp)-5;
40
CHAPTER 4. INPUT/OUTPUT
Chapter 5 IPC: Signals
Signals are an inter-process communicato which a signal is going to be delivered. The list of signals for -s argument can be seen from the following: tion mechanism provided by operating systems which facilitate communication between processes. It is usually used for notifying a process regarding a certain event. So, we can say that signals are an event-noti cation system provided by the operating system.
kill -l
Hence, supposing that we want to terminate a process, we may enter
5.1
Signal Kill
Delivery
Using
kill -9 12345
Where 12345 will be a process id of any active process in the system.
Kill is the delivery mechanism for sending a signal to a process. Unlike the name, a kill() call is used only to send a signal to a process. It does not necessarily mean that a process is going to be killed (although it can do exactly that as well). As mentioned earlier, the signal facility is just an event noti cation facility provided by the operating system. For e.g., a shutdown signal (SIGHUP) can be sent to all processes currently active in the system in order to notify them about a shutdown process event. Upon receipt of this signal, all processes will prepare to terminate. Once the processes terminate, the system can shutdown. The Kill facility can be used in two ways; as a command from your command prompt, or via the kill() call from your program.
5.1.1.1
Exercise
Let us kill our bash shell using the TERM signal. Find out:
The
integer
representation
for
the
SIGTERM signal The PID of your current active bash shell using the ps command Then, use the kill command to send over this signal.
5.1.2 Kill() Call
Usage of the Kill() system call is as such:
5.1.1 Kill Command
The syntax of the kill command is as such:
kill(int, int);
For this to work, we will require the &
signal.h
sys/types.h
C libraries. Here, the 1st parameter
kill -s PID
Here, kill is the command itself, -s is an argument which speci es the type of signal to send, and PID is the integer identi er of the process
is the integer number of signal type (again, can be checkable from eter is the PID of the process to which signal is
kill -l ), and the 2nd param-
to be delivered. As an example, if we want to send the Terminate signal to the current process, we will use
41
42
CHAPTER 5. IPC: SIGNALS
kill(SIGTERM, getpid())
Any function name (for programmerde ned signal handling purposes)
or As an example, we are going to send a process
kill(9, getpid())
the SIGINT signal and count the total number of times that it is received. See the code below for this purpose:
5.1.2.1
Exercise
Write code which does the following: Parent process creates a child process using
fork()
#include <signal.h> #include <stdio.h> #include <unistd.h> int sigCounter = 0; void sigHandler(int sigNum) { printf("Signal received is %d\n", sigNum); ++sigCounter; printf("Signals received %d\n", sigCounter); } int main() { signal(SIGINT, sigHandler); while(1) { printf("Hello Dears\n"); sleep(1); } return 0; }
Here, signal is the signal handler call and accepts as input the signal number, and the name of function which is going to behave as signal handler. (If we want it to behave the default way, we specify SIG_DFL, or if we want it to ignore a certain signal, we specify SIG_IGN). When we run the program, we are instructing our program that if in case the SIGINT signal is detected, we will perform the steps provided in the
call (using proper if/else state-
ment blocks).
Parent sends the terminate signal via kill() call to child and then waits for 120 seconds
While parent is waiting, the user should check the outcome of ps command.
5.1.2.2
Exercise
and then
Modify the code in Exercise-5.1.2.1 such that signal is sent from child to parent. have your child wait for 120 seconds. Again, while child is waiting, the user should check the outcome of ps command.
5.2
Signal Handling Using Signal
Signal delivery is handled by the kill command or the kill() call. The process receiving the signal can behave in a number of ways, which is de ned by the signal() call. The syntax of the call is as such:
signal(int, conditions)
The signal will require the to work.
signal.h
C library
From the syntax above, signal() is
the system call, the 1st parameter
int
sigHandler
function. As long The event can be
is the
as there is no event, the program will keep on executing the while loop. delivered by pressing
integer identi er of the respective signal which is sent, and the last parameter is either of the following:
CTRL+C.
Try pressing CTRL+C with, and without the signal() call and you will understand the dierence yourselves.
SIG_DFL which will perform the default mechanism provided by the operating system for that particular signal
SIG_IGN which will ignore that particular signal if it is delivered
Chapter 6 IPC: Pipes
Pipes are another IPC technique for processes to communicate with one another. same process to communicate. In the description of le descriptors from Chapter-4, you will recall that there are three les that are open all the time for input and output purposes. These are: 1. The standard input 2. The standard output 3. The standard error And that they have a le-descriptor of 0, 1, and 2 respectively. Whenever a program needs to display some output (via cout or printf ), it will write that output to the standard output le descriptor. This will in return be displayed on the monitor. Whenever a program needs to take some input from the keyboard, it will take it's input from the standard input le descriptor. Similarly, whenever an error needs to be displayed, that error will be sent to the standard error le descriptor. These les are linked-up internally to peripheral devices such as keyboard, monitor, etc. However, these linkages can be changed to point to something else. Pipes work by doing exactly that! So a pipe will:: It can also be used by two threads within the
One process will read from the buer while the other will write to it. One process cannot read from the buer unless and untill the other has written to it.
6.1
Pipe On the Shell
Run the following command:
pstree
As you will notice, the output is too long to t in the screen. Now run the command with:
pstree | less
Using the up and down arrows you will notice that you can browse through the output which was otherwise not visible in the rst command which we gave. To exit, press The
q. | is the symbol for pipe and as you would
have guessed, pstree and less are two processes. In this usage, the become the
standard output of pstree has standard input of the less program.
Try the following command:
pstree | grep bash
Again, you will see that the output of above command is much dierent from just pstree command. What the above command should print is only those lines of text from the pstree output in which the keyword bash appears. Hence, pstree and grep are two separate processes. But the standard output of the pstree command has become the standard input of the grep program. The pstree command writes out its output to the grep process. The grep process receives it, searches for keyword, formats output, and then displays the result.
Redirect the standard output of one process to become the standard input of another
The rest of communication is done using the following rules:
The pipe will be a buer region in main memory which will be accessible by only two processes.
43
44
CHAPTER 6. IPC: PIPES
Pipe System Call
6.2
Type, compile, and run the following code:
(a) In Child
#include <unistd.h> int main() { int pfd[2]; pipe(pfd); }
(b) In Parent
The above code creates a pipe using the pipe() system call. We have passed it the name of the integer array on.
Figure 6.2: After Fork() is made
pfd
that we have declared earlier
Task:
Rewrite this code so that you can view Continuing with rest of code: You should see two numbers.
the contents of the array using printf arguments. What are these numbers?
Let us extend our code. run the following:
Type, compile, and
01 #include <unistd.h> 02 int main() 03 { 04 int pid; 05 int pfd[2]; 06 char aString[20]; 07 pipe(pfd);
09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 }
if (pid == 0) { write(pfd[1], "Hello", 5); } else { read(pfd[0], aString, 5); }
// For child // Write onto pipe // For parent // Read from pipe
// // // //
for storing fork() return for pipe file descriptors Temporary storage Just like we open a le, we read from a le, create our pipe
we write to a le, and we close a le, we will perform the same operations of open(), close(),
When line number 07 completes, we will have the following in our process:
read() and write() on the pipe.
Task:
Rewrite this code so that you can see What are
the contents of aString in the parent before and after the read() call. the contents? You will notice that Hello has been mentioned in the chid process. Then how is it possible that we are able to see the term Hello in the parent process? Figure 6.1: Before Fork() The answer is through the pipe mechanism which we just used.
In the code we just saw, since the child is only going to write to a pipe and the parent will only read from the pipe, it makes sense to close the read capabilities for the child and write capabilities for the parent for that particular pipe. When line number 08 completes, we will have the following in our two processes: Diagramatically, we want to achieve something like the following:
08
pid = fork();
// create child process
6.2. PIPE SYSTEM CALL
}
45
close(pfd[1]); execlp("ls", "ls", (char *) 0);
}
(a) In Child
(b) In Parent
Figure 6.3: Closing un-necessary ends of the Pipe
For that, we have to add the following before line 11:
close(pfd[0]);
and the following before line 15:
close(pfd[1]);
6.2.1 Example
Type, run and execute the code below. It should give output which is equivalent to the command ls | wc (Wc is used for printing three numbers; the number of newlines, the number of words, and the byte count for a le). Note the usage of pipes.
#include <unistd.h> #include <string.h> #include <stdio.h> int main() { int pfd[2]; pipe(pfd); if (fork() == 0) { close(pfd[1]); dup2(pfd[0], 0); close(pfd[0]); execlp("wc", "wc", (char *) 0); } else { close(pfd[0]); dup2(pfd[1], 1);
46
CHAPTER 6. IPC: PIPES
Part III Threads
47
Chapter 7 POSIX Threads
POSIX thread library is a standard thread library for C/C++. Using the POSIX thread library, we can create a new concurrent process execution ow such that our program can then handle multiple execution paths. As a result, our program would appear to do many things at the same time. ger numbers upon successfull completion of the call. Study the format of the code below especially the usage of the bold text.
7.1
Thread Basics
A thread can be de ned as a separate stream of instructions within a process. From developer point of view, a thread is simply a function or procedure, that has its own existence and runs independently from the program's main() procedure/function. To visualize, imagine a program C program with a number of functions. This program can be run by entering the executable a.out on the command interface. Then imagine each function being scheduled by the operating system. This would be a multi-threaded program. Unlike child processes, a thread doesn't know which thread is responsible for it's creation, neither does it maintain a list of current active threads inside a process. Within the same process, a thread may share the process instructions (text section), global data (data section) and open les ( le descriptors). Each thread has a unique thread ID, set of registers and stack. These will be individual to a thread itself.
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
#include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <XXXXX> // Check Man void *print_message(char *ptr) { char *message; message = *ptr; printf("%s \n", message); } int main() { pthread_t thread1, thread2; char *message1 = "Thread 1"; char *message2 = "Thread 2"; int return_value1, return_value2; return_value1 = pthread_create(&thread1, NULL, print_message, *message1); return_value2 = pthread_create(&thread2, NULL, print_message, *message2); pthread_join( thread1, NULL ); pthread_join( thread2, NULL ); exit(0); }
Compile the above code. Compilation of multithreaded programs are dierently from the normal method. For threads, the -lpthread argument is provided as an addition. When this program runs, there will be a total of 3 threads running in this process; main, thread1, and thread2. Three additional kernel level threads will be required for servicing these three user-level threads. uses 1:1 thread model). When the thread is created using pthread_create(), the main thread proceeds executing with the remainder of instructions. Meanwhile, the newly created thread will complete executing as well. If in case the (Remember, Linux
7.2
Thread Creation
main() thread nishes executing before any of the other threads, the process will exit. Any thread which had not nished will be interrupted before its termination. this, To avoid the pthread_join() call can be used.
A thread is created using the pthread_create() call. Just like process creation using fork(), a pthread_create() call will return certain inte-
49
50
CHAPTER 7. POSIX THREADS
the main() thread wil wait for
With this,
successfull completion of any thread speci ed in the join call. Actually, pthread_join() is the opposite of pthread_create(). Pthread_create() will split our single threaded process into two-threaded process. Pthread_join() will join back the twothreaded process into a single threaded process. Read the manual pages and nd out the answers to the following:
void *print(void *threadArg) { struct thread_data *my_data; my_data = (struct thread_data *) threadArg; printf("X: %d, Y: %d, Z: &d", my_data->x, my_data->y, my_data->z); }
Is our thread function. Here, we have declared a pointer called my_data and assign it location of argument passed to thread as input. Since this is a pointer to a structure, we will be using the arrow operator (->) instead of the dot (.) operator to access it's members.
Q1 Q2 Q3
What is the pthread_create() and the pthread_join() calls doing? In the pthread_create() call, what are the 4 parameters? In pthread_create() call, the 4th parameter is used for passing a pointer to argument of a function. What will we need to do if we want to pass multiple arguments to that function?
int main() { thread_t tid; omar.x = 1; omar.y = 2; omar.z = omar.x + omar.y; pthread_create(&tid, NULL, print, (void *) &Omar); }
Here, we assign the members x, y, and z some values. Instead of sending these individual members over to the thread, we send the address of the instance Omar.
Q4 Q5
In the pthread_join() call, what are the 2 paramters? What is the purpose of the return_value1 and return_value2 variables? Find out the contents of both these variables using a printf function. What do they contain?
7.3
Thread Termination
There are several ways of terminating threads. Summarised as follows:
7.2.1 Passing Multiple ments to Thread
Argu-
The thread returns from its starting routine Thread makes a call to pthread_exit() call The entire process is terminated due to call to exec() or exit()
Multiple arguments can be passed to a thread through declaring a structure. For example,
struct thread_data { int x; int y; int z; }
Would be our thread_data structure containing members x, y, and z.
If the main() thread nishes executing before any other thread in the process, all threads will terminate (Bullet 4). However, if main() exits using a pthread_exit() call, all other threads in the process will continue to execute. Thus the pthread_exit() call will terminate the main thread but keep on clinging to resources such as process memory space and open le descriptors. The following code will show both thread creation and thread termination.
struct thread_data Omar;
Will create an instance of thread_data structure. It's name is given as Omar.
7.4. DATA SHARING BETWEEN THREADS
01 #include <pthread.h> 02 #include <stdio.h> 03 void *PrintHello() 05 { 06 printf("Hello World! It's me\n"); 07 pthread_exit(NULL); 08 } 09 int main() 10 { 11 pthread_t threads[3]; 12 int rc; 13 int t; 14 for(t=0; t<3; t++) 17 { 18 printf("In main: creating thread\n", t); 19 rc = pthread_create(&threads[t], NULL, PrintHello, (void *)t); 20 if (rc) 21 { 22 printf("ERROR; return code from pthread_create() is %d\n", rc); 23 exit(-1); 24 } 25 } 26 pthread_exit(NULL); 27 }
51
29 myGlobal = myGlobal + 1; 30 printf("o"); 31 fflush(stdout); 32 sleep(1); 33 } 34 pthread_join(myThread, NULL); 35 printf("\nMy Global Is: %d\n", myGlobal); 36 exit(0); 37 }
F ush() is used to force a write of all user-space buered data. Since we have speci ed stdout, therefore it will write it to standard output. We have two threads here again as well. The main thread has a for loop which is printing the character o. The threadFunction thread also has a for loop which is printing the character .. You will notice thread-scheduling in action when you see an output of:
7.4
Data
Sharing
between
localhost codes # ./thread02 o.o.o.o.o. My Global Is: 6
Is everything ne with this output? Think
Threads
Compile and run the following code:
about the myGlobal value ... Should it be 6? Or should it be 10 (2 For loops each running for 5 iterations)? Now comment the sleep line (both or just one) and check the output. It should be 10. How come a sleep(1) can make such a dierence? Here is a little explanation: We are using the sleep() call to impose a rudimentary form of synchronization between both threads. With sleep, CPU alternates between both threads a total number of 5 times. Each time the myGlobal variable is overwritten by the threadFunction thread. sleep, there is just one alternation. Without The my-
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
#include #include #include #include
<pthread.h> <stdlib.h> <unistd.h> <stdio.h>
int myGlobal = 0; void *threadFunction() { int i, j; for (i = 0; i<5; i++) { j = myGlobal; j = j+1; printf("."); fflush(stdout); sleep(1); myGlobal = j; } }
Global variable rst counts upto 5, and then it counts upto 5 again, totalling 10. But there is no synchronization between threads in this way. If we want to impose synchronization and at the same time preserve data integrity, we would be needing something more accurate
int main() than a simple sleep() call. { pthread_t myThread; int i; pthread_create(&myThread, NULL, threadFunction, NULL); Every process has a certain portion of code 27 for (i = 0; i < 5; i++) 28 { which is called the critical section of a pro-
7.4.1 Synchronization Mutex
through
52
CHAPTER 7. POSIX THREADS
21 pthread_mutex_unlock(&myMutex); 22 } 23 } 24 25 int main() 26 { 27 pthread_t myThread; 28 int i; 29 pthread_create(&myThread, NULL, threadFunction, NULL); 30 for (i = 0; i < 5; i++) 31 { 32 pthread_mutex_lock(&myMutex); 33 myGlobal = myGlobal + 1; 34 pthread_mutex_unlock(&myMutex); 35 printf("o"); 36 fflush(stdout); 37 sleep(1); 38 } 39 pthread_join(myThread, NULL); 40 printf("\nMy Global Is: %d\n", myGlobal); 41 exit(0); 41 }
cess. As an example, this is the area where a process may: 1. Change shared variables 2. Write to a File 3. Use a shared resource It would be desirable that if one process is working in this region, then another process should not be allowed to modify the contents of any shared variable within it. If, and only if, that process leaves the critical section, then another process may be allowed access to that shared region. In other words, such a region is mutually exclusive to one-and-only-one process at a time. Ideally, if a process enters this region, it should lock it. Any process trying to access Once the process leaves it in the meanwhile will not gain any access because it is locked. for anybody else. We will take this concept of critical-section and mutual exclusion and apply it to our problem in Section 7.4. Here, we apply our lock If a and unlock mechanism with the help of Mutexes (taken from Mutually Exclusives). thread is currently locked into it's critical section, another thread trying to access it will go into sleep mode. Compile and run the code given. Here, the lock is our entry section and the unlock is our exit section. this region, it will un-lock it, rendering it open
7.5
Exercise
A bonacci series is a set of numbers where th th every n number is the sum of the n 1 and th n 2 numbers. The only exception to this st nd rule is the 1 and 2 numbers which are 0 and 1 respectively. The following code can nd the nth number in the bonacci sequence:
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
#include #include #include #include
<pthread.h> <stdlib.h> <unistd.h> <stdio.h>
int myGlobal = 0; pthread_mutex_t myMutex; void *threadFunction() { int i, j; for (i = 0; i<5; i++) { pthread_mutex_lock(&myMutex); j = myGlobal; j = j+1; printf("."); fflush(stdout); sleep(1); myGlobal = j;
int fib(int n) { if (n<=0) return 0; else if (n==1) return 1; else return fib(n-1)+fib(n-2); } int main() { int find = 40; printf("Element No. %d in series is: %d", find, fib(find) ); exit(0); }
Note that the call to b() function is recursive. Modify the above code so that each b() call is implemented in a separate thread.
Part IV Synchronization & Deadlocks
53
Chapter 8 Synchronization & Deadlocks
8.1 Busy Waiting
8.1.2 Busy Wait
#include <do yourself> int counter = 60; void *sleepy() { while(counter > 0) { } printf("Hello"); } int main() { pthread_t tid; pthread_create(&tid, NULL, sleepy, NULL); while (counter > 0) { counter--; sleep(1); } pthread_join(tid, NULL); }
The following sections will help you explain the dierence between normal waiting (using sleep()) and busy waiting. Run both the codes. Both codes are ALMOST the same. The only dierence is the contents of the sleepy() function. Make sure you are not doing ANYTHING ELSE besides staring at your screen while executing these programs.
8.1.1 Normal Sleep
#include <do yourself> int counter = 60; void *sleepy() { sleep(60); printf("Hello"); } int main() Compile the above code, and for running, enter { the following command: pthread_t tid; pthread_create(&tid, NULL, sleepy, NULL); while (counter > 0) { # uptime && ./programName && uptime counter--; sleep(1); The above command bundle is going to run the } uptime tool, followed by your compiled propthread_join(tid, NULL); } gram, and followed by the uptime tool again
in quick succession. Note down the load averCompile the above code, and for running, enter the following command: age for the rst 1 minute. What is the dierence?
# uptime && ./programName && uptime 8.2
The above command bundle is going to run the uptime tool, followed by your compiled program, and followed by the uptime tool again in quick succession. Note down the load average for the rst 1 minute.
Banking Example
Since it will be too much work (for me) to have a separate problem set for each synchronization algorithm, I will put forward a simple case of an account debit and account credit in a banking software.
55
56
CHAPTER 8. SYNCHRONIZATION & DEADLOCKS
Consider a software for a bank which has a
shared global variable called dling one customer.
balance.
At the
moment, this bank only has support for hanWhenever the customer visits the bank, the bank manager will note down his time of arrival. If the customer visit is in regard of adding money to his account, the bank manage will note down the amount deposited. If the customer wants to withdraw money from the bank, the bank manager will note down the amount deducted. Later on before closing hours, the bank manager will take his daily log book and start making entries for the numer of times the customer visited the bank and what kind of transaction was the customer interested in. If at any time the transaction was only credit, the bank manager will select option 1. If the transaction was only debit, the bank manager will select option 2. If the transaction was both debit and credit, then the manager will choose option 3. A sample code (not run, not tested, may have errors) for this bank software is given below:
#include <pthread.h> #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> double balance = 0; double temp1 = 0; double temp2 = 0; int times = 0; void *credit(void * arg) { int a = *(int *) arg; balance = balance + a; } void *debit(void * arg) { int a = *(int *) arg; balance = balance - a; } int main() { int choice; pthread_t credit_thread, debit_thread; while(1) { system("clear"); printf("Name: Alif Noon\nAcc No.: 420\n"); printf("Available Balance: Rs. %f/-\n", balance); printf("\nChoose Transaction Type:\n"); printf("------------------------\n"); printf("1. Account Credit\n2. Account Debit\n 3. One Credit + One Debit\n 4. Multiple Credits\n
5. Multiple Debits\n"); printf("6. Multiple Credit and Debit\n 7. Exit\n"); scanf("%d", &choice); if (choice == 1) { printf("Enter amount to credit\n"); scanf("%d", &temp1); printf("main. balance = %d\n", balance); pthread_create(&credit_thread, NULL, credit, &temp1); } else if (choice == 2) { printf("Enter amount to debit\n"); scanf("%d", &temp2); pthread_create(&debit_thread, NULL, debit, &temp2); } else if (choice == 3) { printf("Enter amount to credit\n"); scanf("%d", &temp1); printf("Enter amount to Debit\n"); scanf("%d", &temp2); pthread_create(&credit_thread, NULL, credit, &temp1); pthread_create(&debit_thread, NULL, debit, &temp2); } else if (choice == 4) { printf("\nHow many times to make credit transaction?"); scanf("%d", ×); printf("Enter amount to credit\n"); scanf("%d", &temp1); int loop; for (loop = 0; loop < times; loop++) { pthread_create(&credit_thread, NULL, credit, &temp1); } } else if (choice == 5) { printf("\nHow many times to make debit transaction?"); scanf("%d", ×); printf("Enter amount to debit\n"); scanf("%d", &temp2); int loop; for (loop = 0; loop < times; loop++) { pthread_create(&debit_thread, NULL, debit, &temp2); } } else if (choice == 6) { printf("Enter amount to credit\n"); scanf("%d", &temp1); printf("Enter amount to Debit\n"); scanf("%d", &temp2); printf("Enter number of times to Credit and Debit\n"); scanf("%d", ×); pthread_create(&credit_thread, NULL, credit, &temp1); int loop; for (loop = 0; loop < times; loop++) { pthread_create(&credit_thread, NULL, credit, &temp1); } for (loop = 0; loop < times; loop++) { pthread_create(&debit_thread, NULL, debit, &temp2); } } else if (choice == 7) { break; } else { printf("Wrong Choice");
8.3. EXERCISE: INTRODUCING SYNCHRONIZATION
57
continue; Now run your code. What is the behaviour } you are getting now? } pthread_join(credit_thread, NULL); Try adding a sleep(1) at the end of the funcpthread_join(debit_thread, NULL); tion and study the behaviour now. printf("Account Summary:\n----------------\n"); printf("Available Balance: Rs. %f/-\n", balance); Now move the sleep(1) call from the end exit(0);
of the function to the middle of the function (in between the instructions). haviour now. Presto!!! The software has gone nuts. Welcome race condition. The dierence we have seen is that initially we had multiple threads but they were executing sequentially. When we place sleep(1) in the middle, we are imposing some kind of rudimentary synchronization so that the threads execute parallely rather than sequentially. Parallel execution of threads mean that multiple threads are trying to enter to access/modify the shared resource (balance variable) at the same time. It is this simultaneous usage that leads to race conditions. Check the be-
The code is also given on http://lectures for you to copy paste. Run and compile the code and play around with it. Most of the code is self explanatory and you have done it already in previous labs. Check the program to see if it is giving any improper behaviour and note it down. In the following block:
void *credit(void * arg) { int a = *(int *) arg; balance = balance + a; } void *debit(void * arg) { int a = *(int *) arg; balance = balance - a; }
Add a sleep(1); at the end of each function and then run the program. Why is it that still we are given the same kind of behaviour. Whereas in previous lab you will recall that adding sleep(1) actually gave you dierent behaviour. Modify the code such as follows:
8.3
Exercise:
Introducing
Synchronization
Try introducing synchronization in the banking software according to the 3 methods that we studied during lectures. are: 1. Algorithm 1 (Usage of turn variable) 2. Algorithm 2 (Usage of boolean array of size 2) The techniques
Instead of balance = balance + a; Use int local = = balance ; + a; local ;
3. Algorithm 3 (Peterson's Algorithm:
Us-
local
local
age of both Algorithm 1 + Algorithm 2) You may use your lecture notes as a reference.
balance =
Instead of balance = balance - a; Use int local = = balance ;
local
local
a;
balance =
local ;
Both the above modi cations are doing the same thing. There is nothing new being implemented. The only dierence is that instead of a short atomic instruction, you have divided the task over a series of 3 instructions.
58
CHAPTER 8. SYNCHRONIZATION & DEADLOCKS
Part V Memory Management
59
Chapter 9 Memory
9.1 PROC File System
Q3
Now
check
the
current
time
on
your
watch? Give the following command without any arguments and press Enter: Do you notice that the modi cation time is the same as the time you entered the command. If not, wait for 1 minute and run the command again. You will see a list of all partitions that are currently mounted on your system. If you look closely, there will be an entry called PROC. PROC is a special le system and is an open door to the Linux kernel. You can peep in here to see what the kernel is doing. The proc le system can be accessed by changing into the /proc directory. You will notice that the modi cation time has changed yet you haven't even touched the le so far. This proves that the information appears on the y and that nothing exists in the directory as such. Now let's view the contents of this le. Type the following:
mount
cat /proc/version
You can see version numbers such as the kernel, and the compiler which compiled the kernel. Give the ls command again. Note the following again:
cd /proc
Here, you will apparently see plenty of les. But these are not les, rather they are parameters, data structures, and statistics collected from the kernel and which appear like les inside the /proc directory. The contents of this directory are created 'on-the- y' by the kernel whenever we read its contents. The existence of les in this directory only appear the instance you request it. Otherwise, the directory is EMPTY.
What is the le size? What is the modi cation time? How come so much information was just showed as contents of the le yet the le size is zero? Again, this is con rmation of previous point.
9.1.1 Exploring PROC
So let's start exploring this le system. Type the following command:
9.1.2 Processes in PROC
The numbers you see inside the PROC le system are directory representations for each process currently running on your system. These numbers are the process id's. If you give the ls command repeatedly, you will notice that these directory representations are changing dynamically. Choose a process ID and enter that directory using:
ls -l /proc/version
Note the following about above command:
Q1 Q2
What is the le size? What is the modi cation time?
cd /proc/<number>
61
62
CHAPTER 9. MEMORY
Size of shared libraries Memory used by the process for its stack Number of dirty pages (pages of memory that have been modi ed by the program) Check these information for your currently logged in shell.
View the contents. You should be able to see les like cmdline, cwd, environ, exe, fd, stat, statm, status, etc. process. Using the ps command, nd out the process id of your current shell. Of these, fd contains the number of open le descriptors for any given
ps
Now give the following command:
cat /proc/<your shell process id>/statm cat /proc/<your shell process id>/status
ls -l /proc/<your shell process
9.1.4 Overall Memory Usage in PROC id>/fd
Overall memory usage can be seen from
Q Q
What open le descriptors can you see from the output? What do the arrow operator (->) represent?
cat /proc/meminfo
Q Q Q
Find out the total memory of your machine How much of it is free How much is your swap space How much of that swap space is free from meminfo
Open a new terminal window and type the following:
Q echo "Hello World" >> /proc/ <your shell process id>/fd/1
Go back to the previous terminal window.
9.2
Exploring Memory
What just happened? nal windows open.
We had two termiEach terminal win-
dow was one instance of shell process (so 2 processes). We gave a command in one shell and the output appeared in the other shell. Isn't this communication between two processes? The IPC method of communication was through a le.
9.2.1 Logical and Physical Addresses
Write the following simple C program.
9.1.3 Process Memory in PROC
Look at the output of the statm le. It should display a list of seven numbers separated by spaces. Each number is the number of page frames of memory used by a process in a particular category. The categories are:
Total process size Size of process currently resident in main memory Size of memory shared with other processes Text section size of a process
#include <unistd.h> #include <stdio.h> #include <fcntl.h> int main() { int fd, bw, br; char *buffer=(char*)calloc(NULL, BUFSIZ); fd = open("/tmp/foo.txt",O_CREAT|O_RDWR); br = read(0,buffer, BUFSIZ); bw = write(fd,buffer,BUFSIZ); close(fd); return 0; }
You can see usage of I/O system calls such as open(), read(), write() and close(). You can also see a system call called calloc(). Calloc() is allocating un-used space for an array of calloc() and its sister system calls shortly.
number of elements. We will see description of
9.3. SYSTEM CALLS FOR MEMORY HANDLING
9.2.1.1 Logical Addresses 9.2.1.2 Physical Addresses
Compile this code using:
63
Now exit and recompile your code with the static option.
gcc code.c -c
and then
gcc code.c -o code -static
gcc code.c -o code -g
The
What is the size of the executable le with and without the
-g
-g
argument?
is for adding debug symbols. Use Objdump again.
What is the size of the executable le with and without the
-g
argument?
objdump -D code | less
Try to answer the following and compare with the information you noted down earlier.
We are now going to use the objdump utility to disassemble (-d) the program and view the information about the object le. Run the following:
Q Q Q Q
What is the starting point of your rst instruction again? What is the address of the main function? Do you think this time it is a logical or a physical address? At what instruction addresses are the dierent calls located (calloc, open, read, write, close, etc)
objdump -D code.o | less
Note: If the output is too much, you can enter
objdump -D code.o > /location/of/directory/code.txt
You can then view the contents of the output by opening code.txt in any text editor. Find out the following (You will have to learn to scroll the huge list of addresses up and down and learn to catch addresses):
In which section is the write() call referring to? Where is it referring to in memory address? Go to that address !!!
Q Q Q
The address on which your rst instruction of your program starts. Note it down. The address at which the main() function starts. Note this down as well. Identify the instructions for calloc(),
Do you think this is the actual implementation area of the write() call?
open(), read(), write() and close() calls and note down the addresses on which these instructions appear. This should be in the main function.
9.3
System Calls for Memory Handling
9.3.1 Introduction
For sake of de nition, a process is a running program. It means an OS has loaded a program into memory, has arranged some environment for it, and has started running it. Memory is required for the following areas in a process:
Q Q
What do you think? Are the addresses to the left logical or physical addresses? Find out where and in what section the write() call is referring to? Go to that section. How many lines of code are in that section (making a rough estimate)?
Do you think these lines of code are the actual implementation of the write call? Write() call is from the unistd.h library. So do you think we are currently looking at the function from the unistd.h library?
Text
Section:
The
portion
of
process
where the actual executable code resides. Data Section: Containing global data that are to be generated during run-time when the program starts.
64
CHAPTER 9. MEMORY
Heap: The region from where memory can be dynamically allocated to a process.
Stack
Section:
Where
local
variables
(non-static) and function calls are implemented. To have a general overview of how much size is allocated to a process, do the following simple test. 1. Create a simle Hello World 2. Compile it into an executable called Hello 3. Then, type the command: ls -l Hello and note down the size of the executable 4. Then, type the command: size Hello and note down the total size of all sections
#include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> int main() { struct coord { int x, y, z; }; struct coord *p; p = malloc(sizeof(struct coord)); if (p==NULL) { printf("Failed"); } else { printf("\n%d bytes allocated at address %d\n", sizeof(struct coord), p); } return 0; }
9.3.2.2
Free()
Once we are done with memory, we can return it back using the free() function. Continuing with previous code, we add the following:
ls -l Hello size Hello
You will notice that a lot of the size given in the ls command is nowhere to be seen for the size command. option 3: Heap. Where does it go? Look at
free(p); p = NULL;
The rst line will free the memory address returned to pointer p. This means it is marked for use if addtional memory is required for the process. However, variables still pointing to it can still use it until the time it is overwritten. This is known as a dangling pointer. It is good idea to set the pointers to NULL along with usage of free. Try free two times and see the output.
9.3.2 Memory Allocation
We have some library functions in C that are used for allocating additional memory to a process. These allocations are done at run-time. Dynamic memory allocation are performed by the calls malloc() or calloc(). of memory just allocated. When successfull, these will return pointers to the portion Once a portion of Finally, memory is allocated, we can change its size dynamically using the realloc() call. call. memory released is freed up using the free()
9.3.2.3
Realloc()
Using realloc() call, we can dynamically change the size of the block of memory allocated earlier on. It's usage is simple:
9.3.2.1
Malloc()
p = realloc(p, sizeof(struct coord)*10);
This will take the current block returned to pointer p, and change the size to whatever we specify as the second parameter. There is, however, a problem with the above statement .. can you identify it?
Initially memory is allocated using malloc. The value passed is the total number of bytes requested. If memory is not allocated, NULL is returned. If memory is allocated, a pointer to 1st address is returned. Try multiplying sizeof by a large number to see if it can allocate that much memory.
9.3. SYSTEM CALLS FOR MEMORY HANDLING
9.3.2.4 Calloc()
When we allocate space using malloc(), it is not initialized. Calloc() call is just a wrapper around malloc(). Not only does it allocate the required space, it also initializes it to 0.
65
p = calloc(1, sizeof(struct coord));
Where, the rst parameter is the number of members, and the second parameter is the size required for a member.
9.3.3 Exercise
Study the code below. What is wrong with it?
#include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> void f(void) { void* s; s = malloc(50); return; } int main(void) { while (1) f(); return 0; }
66
CHAPTER 9. MEMORY
Bibliography
[1] W.R.STEVENS, Unix Network Programming: Interprocess Communications, Vol 2, 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hall India [2] M.SINGHAL., Advanced Concepts in Operating Systems, Tata-McGraw-Hill [3] Gentoo x86 handbook, x86.xml available online:
http://www.gentoo.org/doc/en/handbook/handbook-
67
Index
/bin, 12 /boot, 12 /dev, 12, 13 /etc, 12 /home, 12 /lib, 12 /opt, 12 /root, 12 /sbin, 12 /tmp, 12 /usr, 12 /var, 12 absolute path, 12 bash, 13 boot, 11 boot image, 15 bootloader, 15 broadcast, 14 c ag, 14 chroot, 13 copy, 14 cp, 14 cron, 15 cxx ag, 14 directory, 12 directory tree, 12 emerge, 14, 15 env-update, 13 eth0, 14 ext, 13 ext2, 13 ext3, 13 extended partition, 11 fdisk, 11 le, 12 nland, 9 formatting, 13 fstab, 15 kernel, 9, 14 khyber lab, 10 lilo, 12 linux, 9 linux torvalds, 9 live cd, 10 liveCD, 13 liveDVD, 13 locate, 15 logical partition, 11 make, 15 make.conf, 14 makeopts, 14 master boot record, 12 mbr, 12 menucon g, 14 mkdir, 13 mke2fs, 13 mkswap, 13 module, 15 mount, 13 mount, usb, 13, 14 nano, 15 netmask, 14 network, 14 operating system, 9 partition, 13 partition, extended, 11 partition, logical, 11 gentoo, 10, 13 gentoo-sources, 14 getpid(), 29 getppid(), 29 grub, 12, 15 grub.conf, 15 helsinki, 9 ifcon g, 14 iso image, 10
68
INDEX
partition, primary, 11 partitioning, 11 password, 15 path name, 12 path, absolute, 12 path, relative, 13 pid, 29 portage, 14 ppid, 29 primary partition, 11 proc, 13 proxy, 14 rc-update, 15 reboot, 17 relative path, 13 root, 11 run-level, 15 shell, 9 software, 9 source, 13 source based distribution, 10
69
portage, 13
stage, 13
swap, 11, 13 swapon, 13 syslog, 15 system software, 9 system(), 24, 30 tar, 13 types.h, 29 umount, 14 unistd.h, 29 unix, 9 virtual machine, 10 vmware, 10
You might also like
- Aquaponic Design Plans Everything You Needs to Know: Everything You Need to Know from Backyard to Profitable BusinessFrom EverandAquaponic Design Plans Everything You Needs to Know: Everything You Need to Know from Backyard to Profitable BusinessNo ratings yet
- Notes On The Plan 9 Kernel Source, 3rd EditionNo ratings yetNotes On The Plan 9 Kernel Source, 3rd Edition328 pages
- CS311 Operating Systems: Hugh Anderson Maths and Computing Science, USP Anderson - H@usp - Ac.fjNo ratings yetCS311 Operating Systems: Hugh Anderson Maths and Computing Science, USP Anderson - H@usp - Ac.fj130 pages
- F Xlii P Xliv A Xlvi: Section One: Basic AdministrationNo ratings yetF Xlii P Xliv A Xlvi: Section One: Basic Administration37 pages
- AIX - From New User To Technical ExpertNo ratings yetAIX - From New User To Technical Expert372 pages
- AIX - From New User To Technical ExpertNo ratings yetAIX - From New User To Technical Expert372 pages
- Debian GNU/Linux Reference Manual (29 June 2024 Version)No ratings yetDebian GNU/Linux Reference Manual (29 June 2024 Version)273 pages
- xv6: A Simple, Unix-Like Teaching Operating System: Russ Cox Frans Kaashoek Robert Morris September 5, 2022No ratings yetxv6: A Simple, Unix-Like Teaching Operating System: Russ Cox Frans Kaashoek Robert Morris September 5, 2022114 pages
- Study Notes GNU Linux Command Line InterfaceNo ratings yetStudy Notes GNU Linux Command Line Interface107 pages
- GXESL208_IT_Workshop_Worksheet_250305_085447No ratings yetGXESL208_IT_Workshop_Worksheet_250305_08544750 pages
- An Introduction To Linux/Unix at Denison: Jessen T. Havill Last Revised On January 6, 2006No ratings yetAn Introduction To Linux/Unix at Denison: Jessen T. Havill Last Revised On January 6, 200631 pages
- The Linux Terminal for Advanced Users - The Command Line Made Easy: First EditionFrom EverandThe Linux Terminal for Advanced Users - The Command Line Made Easy: First EditionNo ratings yet
- Securing ChatGPT: Best Practices for Protecting Sensitive Data in AI Language ModelsFrom EverandSecuring ChatGPT: Best Practices for Protecting Sensitive Data in AI Language ModelsNo ratings yet
- Advanced Multiplayer Game Development with Ureal Engine 5: A Comprehensive Guide to C++ ScriptingFrom EverandAdvanced Multiplayer Game Development with Ureal Engine 5: A Comprehensive Guide to C++ ScriptingNo ratings yet
- Aquaponics Design Plans, Construction, Operation, and Income: Organic FoodFrom EverandAquaponics Design Plans, Construction, Operation, and Income: Organic FoodNo ratings yet
- [FREE PDF sample] Linux Kernel Development 1st Edition Robert Love ebooks100% (2)[FREE PDF sample] Linux Kernel Development 1st Edition Robert Love ebooks55 pages
- FortiClient EMS 6.2.6 Administration GuideNo ratings yetFortiClient EMS 6.2.6 Administration Guide203 pages
- RH033 Red Hat Linux Essentials: For Windows Professionals and Other Operating System Users Course SummaryNo ratings yetRH033 Red Hat Linux Essentials: For Windows Professionals and Other Operating System Users Course Summary3 pages
- Modernize Your Mission Critical Sap It Environment: Replacing Solaris/Sparc With Linux/Hp Proliant ServersNo ratings yetModernize Your Mission Critical Sap It Environment: Replacing Solaris/Sparc With Linux/Hp Proliant Servers24 pages
- Yum Command Fails With-"Curl Error (37) : Couldn't Read A File" - "Issue While Fetching Content Using Custom or Third Party Repositories"No ratings yetYum Command Fails With-"Curl Error (37) : Couldn't Read A File" - "Issue While Fetching Content Using Custom or Third Party Repositories"4 pages
- Testing of The Cache Memory in The OpenSPARC T1100% (1)Testing of The Cache Memory in The OpenSPARC T113 pages
- Kolab - Groupware 3.0 Enterprise - Installation - Guide en US PDFNo ratings yetKolab - Groupware 3.0 Enterprise - Installation - Guide en US PDF78 pages
- Proxmox Virtual Environment 7.0 ReleasedNo ratings yetProxmox Virtual Environment 7.0 Released3 pages
- OrangeHRM Middleware Installation Guide Advanced UbuntuNo ratings yetOrangeHRM Middleware Installation Guide Advanced Ubuntu34 pages
- Files - Python Questions and Answers - Sanfoundry PDFNo ratings yetFiles - Python Questions and Answers - Sanfoundry PDF15 pages
- Oracle Hyperion Epm System Certific11.1.1.3No ratings yetOracle Hyperion Epm System Certific11.1.1.323 pages
- Dopra Linux OS Security (SingleRAN - 04) PDFNo ratings yetDopra Linux OS Security (SingleRAN - 04) PDF35 pages
