AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT

JC AGRIC NOTES FOR FORM 1,2,3

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 FORM 1 NOTES
AGRICULTURE
Definition: The growing of crops and rearing of animals.
IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN BOTSWANA
Social Importance
This means how agriculture influences the customs, traditions, settlement patterns,
social status and welfare of members of the society. It involves the following;
Cattle are used in the payment of bride price (bogadi/lobola)
Some people keep large herds of cattle for prestige or so cial status. To these people
large herds of livestock are a symbol of wealth.
Cattle goats and sheep are slaughtered during ceremonies such as weddings, funerals
and healing ceremonies.
Some plants such as Kalahari devil’s claw (sengaparile), mosukudu and lengana are
used as traditional medicines and as herbal tea.
Source of draught power; some animals are used to pull heavy loads, to do work such
as ploughing and for transportation. Examples of draught animals are cattle, horses and
donkeys.
Economic Importance
This means the contribution of agriculture to the people’s lives in terms of providing
them with the means to earn a living and improving the country’s economy. It involves
the following;
Source of raw material: agriculture provides raw materials th at are used in
manufacturing of other goods. E. g: cotton and wool used to make clothes, timber used
to make furniture, leather from hides and skins is used for making shoes, belts and
bags.
Source of foreign exchange: animal products like beef and beef production by-products
(eg: hides and hooves are) sold to other countries eg European and South Africa. These
countries pay in their own currency and this money is used for some developments in
Botswana.
Source of food: agriculture provides food for people and animals, for example meat,
dairy products, cereals, vegetables, fruits and Lucerne, hay and lablab for livestock.
Provides employment opportunities: there are many job opportunities in agriculture, for
example, farmers, agricultural demonstrator, veter inary assistant, herd boy, etc....

Source of income: some farmers rear livestock and grow crops for sale. They earn
money from the sale of cattle and other animals, meat, hides, skins, milk, vegetables.
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IMPACT OF HIV AIDS ON AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY
Note: HIV and AIDS has no cure, it weakens the body’s immune system.
T. B, pneumonia and cancer are some of the diseases related to HIV/AIDS.
HIV/AIDS affects agricultural activities in the following ways:
An infected farmer would not be able to take care of his animals/crops because he
would be sick/weak most of the time.
Lots of money is spent on medication and doctor’s fees than on buying fertilizers,
seeds, chemicals, etc to improve agricultural production.
Time that could have been spent taking care of crops /livestock is spent taking care of
sick relatives or visiting the doctor.
Experienced/skilled farmers die from HIV/AIDS depriving the country of the skilled
labour force.
The government spends more money and time training new workers to replace thos e
killed by the disease instead of improving agricultural activities.
The disease affects mostly young people of the working age, this way agriculture is
losing its potential work force.
The agriculture industry suffers from reduced demand as more and more people die
from the disease and others spend money on medication, doctors and funerals instead of
on agricultural products.

THE IMPACT OF AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Agricultural activities, especially if not carried out correctly can hav e a negative effect
on the environment. These are activities such as ploughing fishing, cutting down of
trees, clearing the land, grazing animals, etc.... The negative effects include the
following:
Clearing of the land in order to facilitate ploughing le aves the land bare, exposing the
soil to agents of soil erosion.
Land clearing also leads loss of biodiversity since some plants end up being extinct and
some animal habitat is also lost. (Biodiversity; the variety of living things in an area )
Some farmers keep large numbers of livestock in a small area (overstocking), which
results in over grazing, hence soil erosion.
Some commercial farmers use heavy machinery to plough & carry out other activities.
This destroys soil structure leading to loss of nutrien ts from the soil.
Often farmers do not properly dispose animal waste and empty containers of chemicals,
which may end up polluting water resources.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGRICULTURE AND OTHER SUBJECTS
Agriculture is an applied science, this is because i t use knowledge gained from other
subjects, especially science subjects in a practical way. Examples are as follows:
Biology is needed to understand how animals and plants are structured, produce, grow
and reproduce.
Chemistry helps in understanding the chemical reactions that take place in plants &
animals, and also the fertilizers, pesticides and other chemicals used in agriculture.
Physics is used to understand how farm tools, machines & implements are
manufactured, operated & maintained, and also the structuring of farm buildings.
Mathematics is used to calculate, e.g. area of the field being cultivated, measure e.g.
dimensions of plots/fields, volume of produce, amount of things to use like fertilisers,
count livestock and produce, etc....
Geography assists farmers to understand how the climate affects farming and the land
forms and soil types suitable for agriculture.
Home economics aids in understanding the nutritional value of agricultural produce.
Business Studies helps farmers in calculating market prices, profit or loss, keeping
farm records and, marketing.
BRANCHES OF AGRICULTURE
This refers to the areas of study of agriculture. Below are some of the branches of
agriculture and what each is about;
Agronomy: deals with the production and management of field crops, e.g. maize,
sorghum cowpeas, etc...
Horticulture: involves the growing and management of vegetables, fruits and
ornamental plants.
Forestry: entails the growing and management of trees for wood and timber pro ducts.
Animal Husbandry: deals with the production and management of livestock.
Soil Science: involves soil use, management and conservation.
Agricultural Economics: entails the business aspect of farming, such as pricing,
marketing and record keeping.
Agricultural Engineering: deals with the use, proper care and maintenance of farm
tools, implements, machinery buildings and structures.
Range and Pasture Management: involves proper use of grazing land by keeping in it,
the right number of animals.
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURE
A career is a job that one does for most of their life. Agriculture has the following
career opportunities:

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 CAREER WHAT THE CAREER IS ABOUT/INVOLVES
Teacher Teaching agriculture in primary, secondary & tertiar y
institutions
Farmer Crop and or livestock farming
Veterinary assistant To treat and prevent animal diseases
Agricultural Advise farmers on the best farming methods and
demonstrator government agricultural policies
Agricultural research Investigate on better farming methods, new animal
officer breeds and crop varieties
Horticulturalist Masters the production and management of fruits,
vegetables and ornamental plants
Agricultural Masters the business aspects of farming, i.e. farm
economist management, record keeping, marketing, etc...
Agricultural engineer Designing, making, proposing proper use, care and
maintenance of farm tools, implements, machines and
structures
Other agricultural jobs include; irrigation officer, ranch manager, agric ultural genecist,
soil conservation officer, farm manager, forest officer, landscaping officer, etc.........
ENTRY REQUIREMENTS TO AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS
Institution Level of Entry Requirement
training
Botswana College of Diploma BGCSE, first & second class with
Agriculture (BCA) three sciences
Same as above, or a diploma in an
Degree
agriculture discipline
Degree in an agricultural discipline

Masters
Tonota College of Diploma BGCSE, second or third class with
Education three sciences
Tlokweng, Francistown & Diploma BGCSE, second or third class with
Serowe Colleges of three sciences or Primary Teacher’s
Education Course with some teaching
experience
Technical Colleges e.g. Certificate Junior Certificate, BGCSE
Gaborone Technical College
etc.
Brigades Certificate Junior Certificate

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 Rural Training Centres Certificate Varies; mostly an involvement in any
(RTCs) agricultural activity
Centre for In-Service and Certificate Varies
Continued Education
(CICE)

FOOD PRODUCTION SITUATION IN BOTSWANA

Supply and Demand of foodstuffs
The food that is produced by the country is the supply while the food required to feed
the population is the demand.
The demand for food in Botswana is generally higher than the supply therefore the
country imports food, especially from the Republic of South Africa. (RSA)
Food Security versus Food Self Sufficiency
When a country produces all the food required to feed its citizens, it is said to be self
sufficient.
For example, Botswana is self sufficient in beef requirements because it produces
enough beef to feed its citizens & to export to other countries.
Although Botswana is not self-sufficient in food production, it is able to but all the
food it needs from other countries.
When a country is able to provide its citizens with enough food, even if some of it has
been imported from other countries, it is said to have food security.
FACTORS LIMITING FOOD PRODUCTION & SECURITY IN BOTSWANA AND
WAYS BY WHICH FOOD PRODUCTION AND SECURITY IN BOTSWANA CAN
BE IMPROVED
Limiting Factor Solutions
Low & unreliable rainfall: rainfall in Build dams and water reservoirs in
Botswana is low and unreliable which farming areas to provide water for
leads to poor crop and livestock livestock and for watering crops.
growth. As a result not enough food is
Drill boreholes to access underground
produced.
water.
Conserve rain water in tanks.
Poor soil/Infertile soil: most soils in Soils can be improved by adding
Botswana are not suited for crop fertilisers, especially organic fertilisers
production, the soils are mostly such as kraal manure since they also
deficient in phosphorus. This means improve soil structure.
crop production is affected & also
Loss of soil should be avoided through
forage growing on such soils is of poor
soil conservation strategies.
quality hence poor livestock
production.

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Outbreak of pests, parasites and For crop diseases & pests, practicing
diseases: pests & diseases often cause good farming methods such as crop
serious agricultural losses. They can rotation & early planting is advised.
cause serious yield losses & low Chemicals (fungicides; diseases &
production. pesticides; pests) can also be used.
For animal disease prevention, farmers
should vaccinate their livestock and
practice good grazing systems such as
rotational grazing to control parasites.
Lack of skills & knowledge: many Farmers should be trained at Rural
farmers in Botswana are not trained in Training Centres.
modern methods of farming. They still
There should also be an increase in the
use traditional methods that result in
training of agricultural experts
low crop yields.
Poor storage facilities: most farmers Process agriculture products to reduce
use traditional methods of storing bulk & reduce risk of perishability.
crops which offer little or no protection
Locate farms near markets
to stored produce against pest and
disease damage. The storage structures
also store only small quantities.
Low adoption rate of new technologies: Encourage quick adoption of new
farmers are not easily convinced of the technologies by farmers through
advantages of new farming methods improved extension services whi ch
such as crop rotation & row planting, involve practical involvement of
hence it takes long for them to farmers. (field demonstrations)
eventually get to practice these.
Lack of capital: most famers in Acquire loans from organisations such
Botswana do not have the capital as CEDA & National Development
(money) to improve their farms. Farm Bank (NDB), this will allow a farmer
tools, implements & machines are to be able to afford what he requires
expensive & most farmers cannot for the farm & usually such loans are
afford to buy them. paid back over long periods & at low
interest rates.
Farms are far from markets: most farms Locate farms near markets where
are located on rural lands which are far possible.
from market places and this brings
Use available credit facilities to be
about the problem of transport costs for
able to afford transport costs.
farmers.

STRATEGIES AIMED AT IMPROVING FOOD PRODUCTION & SECURITY IN

BOTSWANA
The government provides financial assistance through programmes such as: Citizen
Entrepreneurial Development Agency (CEDA) & Young Farmers Fund.
The government has established programm es such as National Master Plan for Arable
Agriculture & Dairy & Arable Farming (NAMPAAD), Services to Livestock Owners in
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Communal Areas (SLOCA), Integrated Support Programme for Arable Agriculture
Development (ISPAAD), Local Enterprise Authority (LEA), e tc... which offer farmers
support, technical advice and subsidised farming inputs on different areas of farming.
The government trains farmers through Rural Training Centres (RTCs) which offer
farmers short term courses in areas of agriculture they need tr aining on so as to equip
them with both the theoretical & practical knowledge to be able to embark on such
projects.
Teaching of agriculture in schools; this helps since students are potential farmers of the
future, therefore educating them in agriculture ensures that those that end up embarking
on agriculture enterprises are knowledgeable.
Provision of agricultural research; the government trains and employs people who work
at the research unit. They carry out experiments to come up with varieties of crops &
breeds of livestock most suited for the environment of Botswana.
The government offers free vaccination for livestock diseases such as rabies anthrax &
foot & mouth disease. These diseases are referred to as diseases of national importance
& since they are vaccinated for free, if a farmer does not report an outbreak or
suspected outbreak they can be prosecuted.
Provides extension education through extension officers; these include people like
agricultural demonstrators & Veterinary assistants who are tra ined and then dispatched
to rural areas to extend the knowledge on to the farmers.
Maintains information services such as agricultural magazines like Agrinews.
Television and radio programmes are also broadcasted which pass useful information to
farmers nation wide.
The government constructs & maintains roads for transporting food products. Though
most of the roads from farms are not tarred, the government continues to improve the
road system and the available roads helps farmers to be able to get their pro duce to
markets on time.
Holds agricultural shows, field days and has demonstration plots. These help in
dissemination of practical information to farmers from both extension workers & other
farmers.
TYPES OF FARMING PRACTICED IN BOTSWANA
Arable farming: It involves the production of crops only. (i.e. when a farmer grows
crops only without rearing any livestock).
Pastoral farming: Involves the production of livestock only. (i.e. when a farmer rears
livestock only without growing any crops).
Mixed farming: This is the production of livestock & crops on the same farm & at the
same time.
LEVELS OF PRODUCTION
Subsistence Farming Commercial Farming
Production of crops and or animals for Production of crops and or animals for
family consumption. sale

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 Involves low capital investment. Involves high capital investments
Farmers produce on a small scale Large scale production
Work is done manually Work is done by machines
Uses outdated farming methods Uses modern technologies of farming

PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED BY COMMERCIAL FARMERS & THEIR

SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS
Production Problems
Solution(s)
Problems
Low & unreliable rainfall Drilling boreholes
Conserving rain water in dams, tanks, etc.. for
irrigation
Poor soil/infertile soil Adding fertilisers
Conserving soil
Outbreak of pests Practice good farming methods like crop rotation,
early planting & use of pesticides
Outbreak of diseases Practice crop rotation for crop diseases
Vaccinating of livestock and practice rotational
grazing for livestock diseases
Outbreak of parasites Dipping, spraying, & practicing rotational grazing
Lack of skill & knowledge Train farmers at Rural Training Centres
Increase training of agricultural experts
Low adoption rate of new Encourage quick adoption of new technologies by
farming methods farmers through improved extension services
Soil erosion Practice good farming methods such as crop
rotation, rotational grazing, minimum, etc..
Lack of capital Acquire loans
Improve access by small scale farmers to credit
facilities
Extreme temperature Produce adaptable crops & animals
Use controlled methods of animal (e.g. animal
housing structures) & crop production (e.g.
greenhouse)

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Marketing Problems
Problem Solution(s)
Agricultural products are Process perishable products
perishable
Selling animals alive
Acquire loans to purchase refrigerated trucks and
storage facilities
Small market size/small Export agriculture products
population
Tough foreign competition, Government should control importation of
especially from RSA agriculture products
Lack of transport Produce near markets
Poor market demand for Effective advertising especially through the media
goods
Agricultural products are Produce bulky products near market centres
bulky
Seasonal production Grow crops under controlled environment
Grow & preserve fodder crops for livestock
Poor road conditions to Roads should be tarred
farms
Lack of uniformity of Setting standards for sorting & grading of
products products
Practice proper management of crops & livestock
Lack of market knowledge Utilize agricultural programmes on TV & radio
Read agricultural magazines
Attend agricultural fairs
Low incomes of consumers Breaking the bulk of produce
Allow hire purchase

Career opportunities in agriculture

Agriculture research officer
Requisite –BGCSE
Institution of study- Botswana college of Education
Agriculture demonstrator
Requisite –BGCSE
Institution of study- Botswana college of Education

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Livestock production officer
Requisite –BGCSE
Institution of study- Botswana college of Education
Crop protection officer
Requisite –BGCSE
Institution of study- Botswana college of Education
Farm engineers
Requisite –BGCSE
Institution of study- Botswana college of Education
Horticulturalists
Requisite –BGCSE
Institution of study- Botswana college of Education
Tonota College of Educations
Primary college of Educations
Agriculture teacher
Requisite –BGCSE
Institution of study- Botswana college of Education
Tonota College of Educations
Primary college of Educations
Veterinary surgeon
Requisite –BGCSE
Institution of study- Botswana college of Education
Range manager
JC/PSLE
Ramatlabama Range Management School
Food Production in Botswana
Food security
This is when a country ensures that food is available in the country, irrespective of
whether the food was produced locally or the food was imported
Self sufficient
The ability of an individual country to produce enough food for itself and does not
import

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Factors limiting food production in Botswana
Unreliable rainfall – lack of rain , sometimes rain comes too early or too late make it
difficult to predict the best season for production
Low fertility of soils – this will lead to high cost of production if farmer use fertilizers
Pests and diseases – this can lead to total crop failure
Lack of knowledge and skill – there is extreme lack of expertise in farming by people
involved in agricultural projects
Lack of capital – farmers have no money to venture into commercial farming
Unfavorable climatic conditions - sometime temperature is too high for crops growth
People ‘s attitude- people prefer living and working in cities
Improving Food production and security in Botswana
Importing food from other countries
Storing surplus food to use during drought
Preserving food to make them last longer
Building more storage facilities
Strategies to improve food security
Provision of aid programmes e.g
CEDA
Young Farmer’s Fund
ISPAAD
LEA
NAMPAAD
Sponsoring students to study agriculture
Provision of Agricultural Training Institutions
Types of Farming practices
Pastoral farming
Production of animals only
Arable farming
Production of crops only
Mixed farming
Production of both animals and crops
These farming can be practiced at different levels
Subsistence farming
This is when production is done at a small scale for family needs
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Less capital is used
Hand tools are used
Use of traditional method
Less usage of input
Production is low
Cost of production is also low
Commercial farming
This is when Production is done for sale
More capital is used
Modern methods of production
Production is high
High usage of inputs
High cost of production
Problems faced by commercial farmers
Competition from imported goods
Cost of production
Lack of knowledge and skilled man power
Lack of money to buy machines, and other inputs
Poor infrastructure to transport goods to the ma rket
FARM IMPLEMENTS

WHAT IS A TOOL?
It is a small, simple hand operated devise which is used by a person to perform work
more easily. E.g. spade, digging fork, rake, pick, shovel, watering can, etc.

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Diagrams:

Tools
and their uses
Tool Use (s)
Spade Digging & scooping soil
Shovel Loading materials from the ground
Digging fork Deep cultivation on plots
Hoe Digging, weeding, making ridges & mounds
Axe Felling trees
Mattock Cutting & removing roots of young trees & shrubs & also
for digging
Pickaxe Breaking up hard soil & removal large tree stumps
Rake Levelling the soil on plots
Hand fork Shallow cultivation between plants on plots
Trowel Transplanting seedlings
Watering can Applying water to the soil
Secateurs Pruning and preparing cuttings
Garden shears Harvesting fruits & pruning
Measuring tape Confirming measurements/dimensions of fields, gardens &
plots
Sickle Harvesting grass & fodder & cereal crops
Slasher Harvesting grass & fodder crops and for land clearing
Garden line Straightening ridges & borders of fields

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 Knapsack sprayer Applying chemicals to crops

WHAT IS AN IMPLEMENT?
It is a device that is larger than a tool, but smaller than a machine that is used to carry
out work but requires more power than human power, hence is pulled by either animals
or a tractor. E.g. ploughs, harrows, planters, cultivators, etc...
Diagrams:

Implements and their uses

Implement Use (s)
Ploughs Tilling/ploughing the soil on fields
Harrows Levelling the soil on fields
Planter Sowing seeds in rows
Combined planter & fertilizer Sows seeds & applies fertilizer at the same
applicator time
Plough planter Tills the soil and sows seeds at the same
time
Cultivators Turning the soil between the rows of
growing crops (shallow cultivation on
fields)

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WHAT IS A MACHINE?
It is a device with complex parts that does work by using mechanical power such as an
engine or electric motor. E.g. tractor, combine harvester, milking machine, mower
etc.......
Diagrams:

Machines and their uses

Machine Use (s)
Tractor
Combine harvester
Milking machine
Mower

Differences between tools, implements and machines

Tools Implements Machines
Are small, simple and Are larger & heavier than Are large, complex and
light tools but smaller than heavy
machines
Operated by hand Need either animal power or a Use mechanical power
(human power) tractor to operate
Take longer to do work Are quicker than tools, Are faster when
especially when pulled by a performing work
tractor
Are cheaper to buy Are more expensive than tools Are expensive to buy
but cheaper than machines

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CARE OF TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES
Do not use a tool to do things for which it is not designed. For example, use a fork and
not a rake to break up large clods of soil, because the delicate prongs of the rake may
get damaged.
Return tools to their proper storage place after use. If you don’t do this, you could
easily lose them.
Store tools, implements & machines in a roofed storeroom/shed. Do not leave them
outside, because if they get wet, they might rust.
Apply grease/oil on moving parts to avoid friction hence reducing wear & tear.
Paint implements and tools to avoid rusting.
Tighten loose bolts on implements such as ploug hs, cultivators and harrows to avoid
damage to the implement.
Ask skilled personnel to service machines according to the manufacturer’s
recommendations & avoid amateurs’ jobs.
Replace serviceable & worn out parts of implements and machines on time to avoi d
further damage.
Make sure all electric cables are well insulated. Exposed electric cables often cause
costly fire damage to buildings & machinery.
Make sure that people who use machines have been trained. Incorrect use can cause
damage.
STORAGE OF FARM TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES

Keep them in a safe

& secure place where they cannot be easily stolen or damaged by the effects of the
weather.
Hand tools are hung on the wall or tool racks (not left lying on the floor of the storage
area) and clearly labelled, implements & machines occupy the floor space.
Use labels to identify spare parts & indicating where they are kept. In some cases,
smaller items can be placed so that they can easily be found.
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MECHANIZATION
This means the use of machines in the production, processing and storage of farm
produce.
Advantages of mechanization
It is time saving, farm operations such as cultivation, harrowing, harvesting, can be
done quickly & large areas covered in a short period of time.
It is less laborious, so reduces drudgery (hard work) in farm work.
It protects animals from doing hard work on the farm e.g. horses, cattle, etc..
It helps in earning income, a farmer can use his/her machines to do work for other
farmers & charge them a fee.
Machines do not get tired and do work more efficiently, but animals do.
A farmer can produce much more food with machines.
Disadvantages of mechanization
It leads to unemployment since it is labour saving.
Running and maintenance costs for machines are high.
Mechanical skill & knowledge are required to maintain & operate machines.
Heavy machines can destroy soil structure if they are not used properly.
Machines can widen the gap between rich & poor farmers.
Pollution of the environment: poisonous gases such as carbon monoxide released by
some machines may pollute the environment.
PROBLEMS CAUSED BY TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS & MACHINES ON THE
ENVIRONMENT AND THEIR SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS

Problem Solution
Too much movement of machines on Reduce movement of machines to avoid
the farm makes the compact/hard, this making the soil compact.
affects drainage, aeration & root
Where the soil is compact, it can be
penetration and also reduces
loosened to enable water to sink easily
underground water.
and be used by plants.
Destroyed soil structure leads to poor
Use farm implements & machines when
plant growth on the farm.
the soil is not too wet/too dry.
During ploughing & planting machines When ploughing, farmers should leave
& implements loosen the soil & destroy a border of natural vegetation around
the plants that grow naturally in the ploughed fields to reduce soil erosion.
area, making it easy for erosion to take
place.

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 The smoke, oil and scrap metal from Regular servicing of machines &
tools, implements & machines can correct disposal of used oil & scrap
pollute the environment, pollution metal can control pollution.
negatively affects the health of plants
& animals in the environment.
Farm implements can spread weeds and Clean implements thoroughly before
plant diseases. Seeds of weeds & using them in a new place.
pathogens cling to the blades of the
implement.
Farm tools & implements destroy the Look out for the burrows & nests of
animals that live under the soil by soil animals. If the animals are
uncovering their habitat, killing them accidentally uncovered, they must be
& destroying their eggs. These covered again.
organisms are important in
decomposing organic matter &
burrowers improve aeration.

SOIL
SOIL FERTILITY
The ability of the soil to support plants with necessary elements needed for plants
growth
FERTILISER
Substance that can provide all necessary elements needed for plants growth
IMPOTANCE OF FERTILISER
Fertilizer are divided in to 2 types
ORGANIC FERTILISER
Fertilizer that are of plants and animal origin
E.g. green manure, kraal manure, chicken manure, compost
INORGANIC FERTILISERS
Fertilizers that are manmade, in factories by use of chemicals
e.g. 2:3:2, Urea, LAN
There are classified in to 2
Simple/straight
They provide only 1 nutrient element
e.g. Urea, LAN, Super phosphate
Compound
They provide more than 1 nutrient element
e.g. 2:3:2, 3:2:1
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HOW TO DERTIMINE THE APPLICATION RATE OF FERTILISERS
Calculate the amount of NPK 2:3:2 (22) needed for a sunflower plot measuring 2m x
2m. The recommended rate of application is 50kg/ha
Step 1. Calculate the area of the plot
2m x 2m = 4m 2
Step 2. Convert hectares to m 2
1 ha = 10 000 m 2 (100m x 100m)
Step 3. Calculate number at which the plot can get into 1ha
10 000m 2 ÷ 4m 2
10 000m 2 = 2 500 times
4m 2
Now calculate the amount of fertilizer needed for a plot
50 kg that is applied in a ha ÷ number at which the 4m 2 plot fit into a hectare
50 kg =0.02
2 500
0.02 x 1000 g =20 g
BASAL DRESSING
Application of fertilizer before time of planting
TOP DRESSING
Application of fertilizer after seedlings have emerged
FERTLIZER APPLICATION METHODS
BROADCASTING
Spreading of fertilizer on the ground by hands or using fertilizer spreader before or
after planting
DOLLOPING
Dropping fertilizer into the holes few centimeters from the plant by hands or drill
machine
BANDING
Adding fertilizer to the soil very close to the plant in furrows along on or both sides of
the plants
FOLIAR APPLICATION
Applying soluble fertilizer e.g urea in solution
LIQUID APPLICATION
Fertilizer are dissolved in water and added to the soil by irrigation

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MAJOR ELEMENTS
Needed by plants in large amount
e.g. -potassium, calcium, carbon, sulphur, hydrogen, oxygen, magnesium
MINOR ELEMENTS
Needed by plants in small amount
e.g. copper, iron, zinc, boron, aluminium, iodine
MAJOR ELEMENTS FOUND IN FERTILISERS
Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium

Name of sources functions Symptoms Symptoms Causes of

of of
element Deficienc
deficiency toxicity y
In soil
Nitrogen - inorganic - gives plants - yellow - Burns - leaching
fertilizer e.g. their green leaves seedlings
(N)
LAN, Urea colour
-soil
-weak stem - leaves erosion
- organic -helps growth and leaves transpire
fertilizer e.g. of leaves fast
manure

-delay
- Lightning reproductio
n of tobacco
- Nitrogen-
fixing bacteria
in legume
plants
Phosphoru - inorganic - help root - poor root - causes - soil
s fertilizer like growth system early erosion
ripening of
(P) Superphosphat
crops
e
- enhances - young
ripening of plant
fruit and becomes - leaves
- organic
tobacco purple/ red turn grey,
fertilizer
leaves in colour brown or
animal manure
black and
die
- increase - poor seeds
- rock like
quality of developmen
granite
grains t

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 - crops
become less
resistant to
diseases
Potassium - inorganic -help control -thin - delays -
fertilizer transpiration seedlings germination leaching
(k)
of seeds
e.g. muriate of -help
potash photosynthesi
- leaves Soil
s
curls - slow erosion
- increase ripening of
- organic
quality of seeds
fertilizer e.g.
crops - leaves
woodash
edges die

- rock minerals
e.g. micas

How soil fertility can be maintained

- Crop rotation
- Add fertilizers
- Cultivation
- Ploughing back crop residues

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF FERTILISER ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Contaminating drinking water
Affecting aquatic species
Contributing to global warming

SOIL PH

measure of how acidic or alkaline the soil is

22
Effects of soil pH on plant growth
availability and uptake of nitrogen
reduces activities of microbes
toxicity of some nutrients
PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

A cropping system refers to the arrangement of the crops in a field. The different ways
of growing crops include:
Monoculture
Mixed cropping
Continuous cropping
Inter cropping
Crop rotation
1. Monoculture
This is when farmers grow same crop (for example maize) on the whole field year after
year.
This system can also be referred to as mono -cropping.
Advantages of monoculture
It allows farmers to develop good skills in growing a particular crop therefore
specialize in the growing of the crop.
It allows mechanization of irrigation and other processes such as harvesting.
Costs are kept low and less labour required because can do most of the work
Disadvantages of monoculture
It can lead to poor soil fertility where the crop uses up the same nutrients all the time
It can lead to the spread of pests and diseases as they may remain on the old crop
residue and spread to next sowing
High risk of total crop failure. If the crops are attacked by pest and diseases, farmers
may loose the whole crop
2. Mixed cropping
This is the growing of more than one type of crop in the same field at the same time
without distinct rows. For example maize, sweet potatoes and beans may be grown in
the same field. This is a common practice for tr aditional farmers in Botswana who do
broadcasting of seeds.
Advantages of mixed cropping
Several crops are produced (so there is more variety of food)
Farmers develop skill in growing several types of crops.

23
Farmers take less risk of crop failing because if one crop fails, the other may not.
Diseases and pest will not spread easily
Labour requirements will be spread out if long term crops are mixed with short term
crops.
Efficient use of water and plant nutrient elements.
Disadvantages of mixed cropping
Using machines for harvesting may be difficult because different methods may be
needed to harvest the different crop s.
Competition for nutrients if all crops planted require the same nutrients.
Fertilizers may be wasted on plants that do not need them.
More skill is needed since different crops are planted.
3. Continuous cropping
It is growing of crops in succession over a given period without giving the land a
period of rest or fallow. As soon as one crop is harvested, another is planted so the
field always has crops growing on it.
Advantages of continuous cropping
Possible year round production (crop produce available over a long time) earning
money for the farmer.
Efficient use of labour as farm labour is occupied all the time.
Land will be used all the time and there is no need to clear areas for growing crops.
Disadvantages of continuous cropping
Land over-use lead to soil erosion as the structure of soil is destroyed
It is expensive if irrigation is carried out and fertilizers are added.
It leads to poor soil fertility if fertilizers are not added.
4. Inter cropping
This is a form of mixed cropping in which two or more crops are grown in the same
area alongside each other in alternate rows. Example; beans may be planted between
rows of maize. (inter means between)
Advantages
It allows for good use of land because the same land can produce a variety of crops
There is less risk of loosing the entire crop since there are several crops planted
It allows for a variety of produce to be grown
Crops that are useful to other can be grown together. For e.g. tall bean plants can shade
low growing pumpkin plants
Increased plant cover that allows for better erosion control

24
disadvantages
Lt lead to low yield especially in dry area as crops will compete for water
It requires more labour to plant, fertilize, weed and harvest the crops
Cost of production may be high due to the farmer having to manage many crops
5. Crop rotation
This is planting different crops on the same field at different times in an orderly
sequence rotating them yearly. Some farmer s have their land divided in to different
areas for planting different crops in a rotation. Usually farmers adopt a three or four
crop rotation system and may allow a period of rest for a piece of land. A leguminous
crop such as cowpeas, beans or groundnuts may be included to increase fertility of the
soil naturally.
A useful rotation to follow will be Roots then Leaves then legume
Field Plot A Plot B Plot C Plot D
Year 1 Cowpeas Sorghum Fallow Sunflower
Year 2 Sorghum Fallow Sunflower cowpeas
Year 3 Fallow Sunflower cowpeas sorghum
Year 4 Sunflower cowpeas sorghum fallow

Advantages of crop rotation

-Soil fertility can be maintained because legume plants leave nitrogen in the soil.
-Pests and diseases can be controlled more easily
-Parasitic weeds can be controlled more easily
-Total crop failure is avoided
-Improves the structure of the soil and reduce soil erosion
Disadvantages of crop rotation
-Skilled labour is needed to plan and practice a good rotation
-No money is made from the land when it is fallow.
Principles of crop production
-Crops that belong to the same family should not follow each other, for example beans
should not be planted after cowpeas, because they are both legumes.
-Crops that are attacked by the same diseases and pests should not follow each other in
a sequence e.g. maize and sorghum.
-Long rooted crops should follow shallow-rooted
-A legume crop must always be included in the rotation e.g. beans and cowpeas.
-The sequence should include a period of rest/ fallow for the land to recover.

25
Factors to consider in selecting a site for crop production
Quality of the soil
The soil should be fertile, well drained, well aerated and easy to cultivate. Crops grown
on fertile soil give better yields. Dark soil shows that there is plenty of humus, so the
soil is fertile.
A good supply of water
The garden or field should be near a good supply of water, which is one of the most
important requirements for plant growth. If the water is not enough, crops m ay wilt and
die.
Close to the market
The garden or field should be near a market where the produce can be sold. Some
produce like tomatoes are perishable that is they will rot if it takes a long time to get to
the market. It costs the farmer less to get pr oduce to a market that is nearby.
Topography
This is the description of land features and characteristics. The garden or field
should be as flat as possible to avoid the run -off of rainwater, which leads to soil
erosion. The land should also be free from big stones, trees and bushes so that it does
not cost too much to prepare it for growing crops.
Climatic conditions
The climate of the area should be good for whichever crops chosen to be grown.
Shelter
Crops should be protected from the effects of strong winds. To provide shelter,
windbreaks should be planted around fields e.g. netting and hedges used in vegetable
gardens.
Land preparation
It involves land clearing, destumping, cultivation, leveling and fertililser application.
Land clearing
It is the removal of unwanted materials from a field e.g.
cutting down trees
distumping
removing grasses, stones
Distumping
It means the removal of stumps from the ground
Reasons for land clearing
So that cultivation can easily done by tractors and animals.
Trees and shrubs compete with crops for water and nutrients.

26
Trees shade crops from direct sunlight
TILLAGE
This is working in the soil with tools or implements resulting in an area suitable for
growing crops.
There are two types of tillage
Primary Tillage
Secondary Tillage
PRIMARY TILLAGE SECONDARY TILLAGE

It is the initial breaking and loosing of It is the working in soil after ploughing
soil to a depth greater than 15cm. This is aimed at soil refinement to a depth less
also called Ploughing than 15cm

Implements for Primary Tillage Implements for Secondary Tillage

-Animal mouldboard plough -disc harrow
-Tractor drawn mouldboard plough -zig zag harrow
-chisel plough -rotary cultivator

For small areas; digging fork, spade, hoe Small areas; rake
or pick axe can be used

Ploughing
It is the turning of soil upside down.
Reasons for cultivation
Loosen the soil for easy plant root growth and penetration.
Improve soil aeration, drainage, water infiltration and water holding capacity.
Control weeds by burying them.
Control pests and diseases by exposing pest eggs and diseases causing microbes to the
heat of the sun.
Mix fertilizer with soil
Leveling
It is making the inside of a plot or field evenly equal. It is done using by using a rake
in plots, harrows and cultivators in fields.

27
Reasons for leveling
Allow equal distribution of water across the plot or field.
Avoid run-off of water which leads to soil erosion.
Leveling also help to break down clods or lumps so that soil becomes smooth and fine.
To obtain a uniform depth of planting.
Fertilizer application
Application of fertilizer before planting is known as Basal dressing. Compound
fertilizers such as 2:3:2 (22) and kraal manure and compost are used as a basal
dressing. It is important to apply fertilizers before planting so they can mix and
dissolve into the soil.
Reasons for basal dressing
It is important to apply fertilizers before planting so that they can be mixed and
dissolved into the soil before planting
To replace nutrients lacking in the soil according to soil analysis.
Some fertilizers such as compost and kraal manure improve soil structure.
To ensure good and healthy start for seedlings.
To promote healthy root development of seedlings.
To activate microbial activity in the soil.
Fertilizer Application Implements
Planter; which add fertilizers at the time of planting
Fertilizer spreader; spreads fertilizer before planting
Sprayers; spray fertilizer in liquid form
Sprinklers; spray liquid or dissolved fertilizers on the leaves of crops
Wheelbarrow, Can and buckets are used to carry m anure to wherever it is needed.
PREPARING A PLOT FOR GROWING CROPS
A plot is a prepared bed where crops can be grown. They can be used as either
temporary or permanent plots. There are three main types of plots used.

RAISED PLOTS
They are about 20 to 30cm above ground level. Top soil is used to raise the bed so that
it is full of good, fertile soil for plants. It is normally used in rocky areas where

28
cultivation is difficult. It may also be used in area where there is a lot of rain fall to
raise seedbed to avoid Water Logging.
Advantage
- more nutrients are made available to plots by adding top soil.
- provide drainage and aeration
- encourage better root penetration
- help to prevent washing away of crops during rainstorms
Disadvantages
- poor at conserving rainwater so unsuitable for dry areas
- it is time consuming and labour intensive
- nutrients are easily leached
SUNKEN PLOTS
Sunken plots are 10-15cm below ground level. They are used in areas where there is
normally little rainfall. During rainfall, water will run into the seedbed.
Advantages
- conserve a great deal for water
- suitable for dry seasons
Disadvantages
- allows water to stay in one place so are water logged
- soil easily becomes hard and poorly aerated
- plant roots find it difficult to penetrate into soil therefore not suitable for root crops
FLAT PLOT
These are most common type of beds used. They are prepared at ground level where
boundaries/ridges are made around the bed without digging. The surface i s not lowered
or raised.
Advantage
- They are easer to prepare
- Needs less labour
- Top soil is not disturbed
-flood irrigation is possible
Disadvantages
- Soil erosion is common in flat bed
- Plant roots do not penetrate deep therefore is not good for root vegetables
- difficult to manage where soil is having a slope.

29
PREPARING A HOLE FOR PLANTING TREES
Holes are prepared in an Orchard when planting trees. They must be big enough to
allow roots to grow and spread.
STEPS
-Mark the size of the holes and spacing for planting of trees
-Dig the holes approximately 0.5m to 1m deep and 0.5 to 1m deep.
-Put the top soil on one side of the hole and sub soil on the other side
-Mix top soil with fertilizers and put the mixture back in the hole
-Keep the sub soil to use for firming after transplanting

PLANTING METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

DIRECT PLANTING AND INDIRECT PLANTING
Direct planting
It is when the seeds are sown in the plot or field where the crop will grow and
mature(be ready for harvesting). All cereals like maize, most root vegetables like
carrots and beetroots and all leguminous crops like groundnuts, beans, and peas are
sown directly.
Advantages of direct planting
Seedlings are not disturbed; there is no break in their growth
Less labour is needed because the plants are not moved from the place where they were
sown.
Disadvantages of direct planting
Many seedlings may die during thinning.
Wastage of seeds is high.
When seedlings die, it is difficult to replace them.
Difficult to provide suitable environmen t for seedlings on large area.
Indirect planting
This means seeds are planted in a nursery and seedlings are later transplanted to a
permanent site. Examples of seedlings that can be transplanted include all leafy
vegetables like cabbage, lettuce, choumollia (kale) and fruit vegetables like tomatoes,
green peppers as well as fruit tree crops.

30
Advantages of indirect planting
Special attention is given to seeds and seedlings in the nursery.
Fewer seeds are used
Only strong and healthy seedlings are t ransplanted
It is easy to control the environmental factors for germination and seedling growth on a
small plot, e.g. temperature, water supply.
Seedlings that die after transplanting can easily be replaced with others from the
nursery.
Disadvantages of indirect planting
More labour is needed for transplanting
Time consuming
Some seedlings may die after being transplanted
A farmer needs to be skillful to carry out indirect planting properly.
Direct and indirect planting of crops
BROADCASTING AND ROW PLANTING
Broadcasting
It is planting seeds by randomly scattering them on the surface of the soil. This is
mostly done by hand or using machines
Broadcasting is the most common method of planting seeds in Botswana. This is
because it has been the traditional method for a long time, and is a very easy technique.
Advantages of broadcasting
It is easy and quick to use
It does not need a lot of labour
Does not require any specialized skills
Disadvantages of broadcasting
It can waste seeds where some fall ou tside planting area.
Crops can be overcrowded can be overcrowded if too many seeds germinate
Overcrowded crops competing for nutrients, space and water leading to low yield.
Difficult for cultivation, weeding and harvesting using machinery because the crops
grow anywhere
Row planting
This is planting seeds in rows at the recommended spaces in straight lines
Advantages of row planting
Good spacing between crops is possible, which means crops are not crowded.
Right spacing for crops, so there are higher yiel ds.
31
It is easy to use machines to cultivate, weed, spray and harvest.
Crops do not compete for water, nutrients and sunlight.
Disadvantages of row planting
More skill is needed
More labour and time is needed than for broadcasting
It is more expensive because machines are needed
DEPTH OF PLANTING
Correct planting depth ensures quick and uniform seedling emergence leading to a
uniform plant growth. The depth of planting is determined by:
Size of a seed
Generally seeds should be planted at a depth of 3 -5 times their diameter, so the larger
the seed, the deeper it is planted. If small seeds are planted too deep, the seedling may
fail to emerge due to shortage of energy.
e.g. A sorghum seed with a diameter of 2mm will be planted 6mm -10mm deed
depth of planting = diameter of seed x 3
= 2mm x 3
= 6mm
Type of soil
Seeds are sown less deep in clay soil and more and more deeper in sandy soils because
seedlings cannot easily emerge from heavy soils (clay).
Moisture content of the soil
Seeds should not be planted so deeply in soil that has too much moisture. If the seeds
are too deep, the seedlings may rot before they can emerge.
SPACING OF CROPS
It is the distance within and between plants in rows. Plants need to be planted with a
suitable distance between them. When plants are too close to each other, they are
forced to compete for nutrients, water, sunlight and space leading to lower produce.
Spacing of crops is determined by;
1. How a crop grows (growth habit)
Plants with large, spreading branches an d roots that grow sideways need more space
than crops which have fewer branches and grow upwards.
2. Amount of moisture in the soil
When soil has less moisture, crops can be widely spaced to avoid competition between
them but when there is enough moisture t hey can be closely spaced
3. Purpose for which the crop is grown

32
Crops grown for feeding livestock (fodder crops) are needed in large quantities so they
are always grown close to each other. Crops intended for human consumption are
planted at a wider spacing to improve the quality of the produce.
4. The fertility of the soil
Larger spaces are needed between plants in poor soil so that plants do not have to
compete for nutrients.
5. Types of machinery to be used
The spaces between the rows should allow machines to mo ve between them.
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
1. Mulching
This means placing a layer of material on top of the soil to conserve moisture or to
reduce evaporation.
- More common in small fields and gardens.
2. Reasons for mulching
-Keep soil moist and allow early seed germination and emergence of seedlings.
-Keep soil temperature low and reduces the rate of evaporation from the soil.
-Helps to kill weeds by preventing them from getting sunlight.
-Turns into humus after decaying in the field.
-Protects seed from birds and soil erosion.
-Reduce the impact of heavy raindrops, preventing splash erosion.
-Encourages microbial activities in the soil.
3. Materials used as mulch
Organic
Dry grass
Dry leaves
Stalks (from sorghum, maize)
Paper
Wood shavings, saw dust
Inorganic
Plastic sheet
Sacks (oranges)
Appropriate time for removing mulch
Mulch should be removed immediately after the emergence of seedlings to receive
sunlight for photosynthesis. This is done to prevent them growing tall and thin
(etiolating) as a result of lack of sunlight.

33
WATERING
It is the application of water to planted area or to crop plants. It is also known as
irrigation.
Reasons for watering
Water dissolve nutrients and will be then taken up by plant roots.
Helps in translocation of food to different parts of the plant.
Keeps the plant cells turgid and maintain their shape.
Keeps plant cool and protects them from wilting during hot days.
Keeps soil temperature low.
Water helps plants to make their own food (photosynthesis).
Methods of watering
1. Watering can fitted with a rose - A watering can should be fitted with a rose to
prevent the force of the water damaging the young seedlings. It is easy to use a
watering can but it takes a long time to cover a large area.
2. Hose pipe - Pipes can be fitted with sprinklers to avoid damaging seedlings. They
may damage plants while pulling the hose pipes across the plots.
3. Sprinkler irrigation - This is when the water is forced out into the air under
pressure and falls on the filed like rain.
4. Drip irrigation - This is when water passes along tubes and drips out slowly beside
each plant.
NOTE!
A. Avoid over watering.
Applying too much water can lead to the soil becoming waterlogged, and may destroy
soil structure. Water logging can result in the following;
Water fill air spaces in soil
Leaching
Increase fungal diseases
B. Under watering
Too little water can lead to wilting and death of crop plants.
WEEDING
It is the removal of weeds from a field of crops.
Weed
It is a plant that grows where it is not wanted. It may be grass, broad leafed plants or
woody bushes.
Reasons for weeding
They compete with crop plants for water, nutrients, air, space and sunlight.
34
Can be a home for pests which will damage crops.
Make it difficult to carry out management activities like harvesting, cultivation, top
dressing and harvesting.
Some weeds are poisonous to animals and humans.
Can contaminate the harvest and reduce the seed quality of the crop.
Weeds commonly found in Botswana
English Name Setswana Name Scientific Name
Black jack Moonyana Bidens pilosa
Mexican poppy Lopero Argemore Mexicana
Large thorn Mokhure Datura stramonium
apple
Couch grass Motlhwa Cynodon dactylon
Pigweed Thepe Amaranthus species
Poison leaf Mogau Dichapetalum
cymosum

PARASITIC WEEDS
They are plants which depends on other plants for survival. They absorb their food
directly from the host plants. Parasitic weeds grow only where there is a host crop on
which they depend for food. Some parasitic weeds found in Botswana;
Scientific English Setswana Host crop
Striga asiatica Red witch weed Molelwane Sorghum, millet, maize
Striga Purple witch Molelwane wa dinawa Cowpeas
gsenenoids weed
Alectra vogelli Yellow witch Molelwane wa dinawa Cowpeas
weed

METHODS OF WEED CONTROL

Mechanical control
It is the physical removal of weeds by handpicking, use of farm tools; hoeing, slashing
or implements for primary and secondary til lage; cultivator or mouldboard.
Cultural control
It is the use of recommended farming practices to control weeds such as mulching, crop
rotation and early planting.

35
Chemical control
The use of poisonous chemicals called herbicides to control weeds. Examples of
herbicides are 2.4D glyphosate, Atrazine, Simazine and Gardomil.
Biological control
This is the use of living organisms to control weeds. Cattle, sheep and donkeys can be
used to control grass weeds, while goats can co ntrol the spread of bush weeds.
THINNING
It is the removal of some seedlings to allow enough growing space for the remaining
plants. Usually smaller and weak seedlings are removed. Thinning is done about 2 - 4
weeks after seedling emergence.
DETERMINE THE CORRECT SPACING FOR THINNING CROP SEEDLINGS
CROP INTER ROW INTRA ROW
Sorghum 35cm
Sunflower 40cm
Cowpeas 10cm
Maize 20 - 30cm
Millet 35cm
Tomatoes 50cm
Carrots 5cm
Groundnuts 30cm
Cabbage 50cm
Onions 10 - 15cm
Spinach 20 -

Reasons for thinning

Prevent overcrowding of crops which will lead to competition for water, air, nutrients
and light.
Make farm operations such as cultivation, weeding, spraying and harvesting easier.
It helps to prevent pests from hiding.
Increases the quality of the produce
Disadvantages of thinning
It needs a lot of labour and time.
It is a waste where seedlings cannot be used.

36
The roots of plants growing close together become entangled and therefore thinning
may damage the roots of plants.
TRANSPLANTING
It is the transfer of a seedling from a nursery or seedbed to the permanent site or main
plot where they will grow and mature.
The appropriate time of transplanting seedlings
The time of transplanting differ according to the crop. Tree seedlings are transplanted
when they are about 30 cm high. Vegetable seedlings are transplanted when they are at
a height of 5 to 10 cm.
Transplanting is best be carried out
In the morning
Late in the afternoon
On a cloudy day when it is not hot.
When it is carried out in a hot time of day, the plants and the soil may lose a lot of
water and the seedlings may die.
Tools used for transplanting
Common tool used for transplanting is a HAND TROWEL.
PREPARATIONS FOR TRANSPLANTING
1. Hardening-off of seedlings
This means gradually exposing seedlings to less favourable conditions. It will improve
their chances of survival after transplanting. In the nursery, seedlings are regularly
watered, cared for and probably shaded from the sun. However, in the main plot or
field the growing conditions are less favourable; plants may be watered less and are not
protected from the sun. Hardening off is done b
Reducing watering at least one week before transplanting
Exposing seedling to bright sun light or outside the house fo r longer periods
2. Preparation of the main plot
Cultivate, apply fertilizer and level the main plot to prepare it for receiving the
seedlings.

37
3. Watering
Thoroughly water both the nursery and the main plot the day before transplanting. The

seedling will then be able to absorb all the water and will be less likely to wil
transplanting. If the soil is dry, it will crumble and fall off the roots and expose them.
HOW TO TRANSPLANT SEEDLING
Advantages of transplanting
Make or provide enough space between the plants.
Only healthy and fast growing seedlings are transplanted.
It is easy to replace seedlings if they die after during transplanting
Disadvantages of transplanting
It requires more time and labour.
Some seedlings may die after transplant ing.
38
It slows down growth soon after transplanting.
Roots may be damaged while transplanting.
Seedlings may transfer pest and diseases from nursery beds to the main field.
PRUNING
It is the removal of unwanted parts of a plant such as leaves, branches and stems to
improve the health and growth of a plant.
Fruit trees may be pruned once a year if possible. However pruning is not necessary
for most vegetables. Leafy vegetables such as spinach and rape can be pruned to
remove lower older yellow leaves which cannot be harvested. They may also be
removed because they encourage spread of diseases suc h as leave spot and black rot.
TOOLS USED FOR PRUNING
Secateurs
Pruning saws
Knives
Advantages of pruning
-remove dead, diseased and otherwise damaged branches
-easy air circulations and light penetration
-form and maintain a desirable shape
-facilitate movement within an orchard especially during harvesting of fruit
-promotes new growth in plants
-control pests and diseases
-increase quality and yields of fruits
-induce fruiting in certain fruit tree e.g. grapes
Disadvantages of pruning
-may cause injury to the plant which may take long to heal
-infections can easily spread from one plant to the other through the tools used if not
disinfected
-the cuts may also expose the plant to disease infections
-more time and labour are needed to prune plants
-it requires skill to prune plants
SUPPORTING PLANTS
Some plants have weak stems or tall stems that need to be supported so they can grow
upright. Such plants includes tomatoes, grapes, climbing varieties of peas and beans.
These plants also need support to expose leaves to sunlight for photosynthesis to occur
and raise fruits from the ground incase of a mature fruit tree.

39
Plants can be supported by STAKING and TRELLISING.
STAKING
This is where an individual plant is supported with a stick and loosely tied to it at
different heights e.g. tomatoes and garden peas.

TRELLISING
It means using a frame work of parallel wood or wire on which the stem grow and
spread e.g. grape plants.
Advantages of supporting plants
-It allows easy harvesting
-It is easy to control pests and diseases
-Ensures exposure of plant leaves to sunlight.
-Facilitates working between the rows during spraying, watering, cultivation and top
dressing.
-Allows watering without wetting the leaves which would lead to disease infection.
-Promotes better quality produce as pods, fruits a nd leaves do not hang in soil.
Disadvantages of supporting plants
-Time and labour consuming
-Expensive to carry out
-Requires skill

FIELD CROPS

Classes of field crops NB:COMPLETE THE TABLE BY FILLING IN EXAMPLES

CLASS OF FIELD CROP EXAMPLES
CEREALS Maize , millet , wheat ,sorghum ,rice
ROOTS Potatoes , cassava
FRUITS Pumpkin , melons

40
 LEGUMES Beans , groundnuts , cowpeas
FORAGE Maize , sorghum
BEVERAGE Maize , sorghum

Stalk borer
Control measures

-Burn the weeds

-Crop rotation
-Destroy the nest
-Spray with endosulphan
Yellow aphids
Control measures

-Plant resistant varieties

-Spray with endosulphan
Early planting
Maintain soil fertility
American ball worm
Control measures

-Deep cultivation
-Early planting
Dust with carbaryl
Spray with endosulphan
Corn crickets
-Weeding
Cow pea varieties
ER 7
Black Eye
Tswana
Soil requirement
Well drained sandy loam
Soil ph 5.5 – 7

41
Climatic requirement
Rainfall 500mm-600mm
Temperature 25 . C -33 . C
Fertilizer requirement
Superphosphate at a rate of 200 -300 kg/ha\ha
Pests of cowpea and their control
Cowpea root knot eelworm
Crop rotation
Cowpea beetle
Pods should be picked and split open
Cowpea aphids
Spray with Malasol
Use of biological control (ladybird)
Disease of cowpea and their control
Bacteria blight
Crop rotation
Plant resistant cultivars
Use certified seeds
Mosaic disease caused by aphids
Pull out and Destroy infected plants
Plant certified seeds
Plant resistant cultivars
How to calculate fertilizer application
Calculate the amount of NPK 2:3:2 (22) needed for a sunflower plot measuring 2m x
2m. The recommended rate of application is 50kg/ha
Step 1. Calculate the area of the plot
2m x 2m = 4m 2
Step 2. Convert hectares to m 2
1 ha = 10 000 m 2 (100m x 100m)
Step 3. Calculate number at which the plot can get into 1ha
10 000m 2 ÷ 4m 2
10 000m 2 = 2 500 times
4m 2

42
Now calculate the amount of fertilizer needed for a plot
50 kg that is applied in a ha ÷ number at which the 4m 2 plot fit into a hectare
50 kg =0.02
2 500
0.02 x 1000 g =20 g
Precautions to take when applying fertilizers in crop field
Add the correct amount recommended
Compound fertilizers like NPK should be added as basal dressing
Seeds should be sown a week after addition of fertilizer to allow fertilizer to dissolve
Fertilizer should not be applied when plants are covered with dew or irrigation water as
this can result in too much absorbed.
Reasons for treating seeds before planting
Seeds are treated to reduce attack from both pests and diseases
When treating seeds before planting germination percentage is increased
Soaking soften the seeds coat
Soaking breaks seed dormancy
Methods of treating seeds (traditional and modern)
Seed dressings-
use of chemicals before seeds are sown to protect them
or use of wood ash
Soaking
Seed are put in water for 24 hrs to soften their seed coat
Breaking of dormancy
Some seeds have a period of dormancy when they are inactive. Dormancy has to be
broken before seeds are planted.
Put the seeds in a cold place few weeks before planting
Application of hormones
Precautions to take when handling treated seeds
Never touch treated seeds with bare hands
Never smoke or eat when handling treated seeds
Effects of chemicals used on field crops on the environment
Pesticides may pollute dams and underground waters
Some chemicals may kill helpful organisms

43
Continuous use of pesticides can results in pests devel oping resistance against them
hence increasing their number

Methods of controlling pests which are not detrimental to the environment

Cultural methods
-Crop rotation
-Early planting
-Deep cultivation
-Removal of weeds
Mechanical methods
Hands picking and crushing
Biological methods
Use of other organisms such as predators, disease resistant varieties, parasites to
control pests
Harvesting cowpeas
Seeds will be ripe between 75 to 110 days
Pods are picked from plants as soon as there are ripe and before they splits
The whole plant can be cut with a sickle or hoe
The pods are spread in a threshing floor and beaten to separate the chaff
OR
Cowpea can be harvested as a fodder crop
The plant is cut at the stem leaving only the roots in the soil
Seeds are picked and the whole plant ( stem and leaves) is used for hay

ANIMAL NUTRITION

Animal Nutrition therefore means the study of animal feed and how i t is used in the
animal’s body.
It involves animals feeding; the food being broken down in the mouth, stomach and
intestines; nutrients being absorbed and the body making use of the nutrients. Food
eaten by livestock is referred to as FEED.
Reasons for feeding Animals
For Maintenance : Animals are given just enough feed to
- stay alive and remain in good health without gaining or losing weight.
-repairing and replacing body tissues
44
-providing energy essential for basic life processes (blood, circulation, excret ion,
digestion and respiration)
For Production: when there is an abundance of feed, excess nutrients tha t are not
needed for maintenance are used for production. Production in livestock is seen when
animals
-grow large
-produce offspring’s
-Yield products such as wool, eggs and milk
-performs more work i.e. more draught power will be provided if anima ls have more
energy
ESSEENTIAL FEED SUBSTANCES
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids (fats and oils)
Vitamins
Water
Minerals
The importance of the different feed substances in Animal Nutrition
Proteins
(sources ;legumes, sunflower seed cake, cotton seed meal, meat meal)
-repairs worn out tissues and build body tissues such as muscles and bones
-are necessary for growth especially of young animal
-proteins are also needed for production of products such as wool, milk and eggs
-needed for reproduction
-are a component of chemical compounds such as enzymes, hormones and antibodies
Water
-acts as a solvent in the animals body i.e. dissolves substances so that they can be
transported around the body
-medium for chemical reactions
-cools and regulates body temperature through perspiration
-aids in excretion of body waste products
-main constituent of blood (blood is made up of more than 90%water.
-maintains the shape of body cells
Carbohydrates
(includes sugars, starch and fibre (cellulose))
45
-provide heat and energy
-carbohydrates in the form of fibre or cellulose aids in digestion
-extra carbohydrates are changed into fats and stored for future use
Lipids (fats and oils)
-source of energy in the animals body
-forms part of the animals products
-warm the animals during cold weathers
-cushion up delicate body organs
-facilitate absorption of calcium and soluble vitamins
Vitamins
( are needed in small amounts)
Vitamins A :needed for bone growth, fertility and reproduction
: Also improves night vision
Vitamin B :important in the breakdown of carbohydrates and absorption of amino
acids
Vitamin C :prevention of infection
Vitamin D :assists in the utilisation of calcium i n the process of bone formation
Vitamin E : essential for fertility and reproduction
: prevents degeneration of brains
Vitamin K :plays an important role in the clotting of blood
Minerals
(are present in small amounts in feeds)
Calcium :bone and teeth formation
: Part of blood plasma
: Egg shell formation
: helps the animal to be alert
Phosphorus :bone and teeth formation
: improves fertilization
Potassium :important for nerve and muscle activity
Iron :important in the formation of blood cells and some enzymes
ANIMAL RATIONS
What is a ration? A daily measured amount of feed given to animals.
There are three types of rations:a balanced ration , production ration and
maintenance ration
46
TYPES OF RATIONS
Balanced Ration? A ration that contains all the nutrients needed by animals for
production and maintenance in the right amount/proportion
Maintenance Ration
The ration an animal receives that contain the correct nutrients in correct quantities
and types for the animal to maintain its weight and bodily functions. The ration is just
enough to keep the animal going without gaining or losing weight.
Production Ration
The ration given to animal so that it can produce extra meat, milk, wool eggs, work on
the farm or reproduce. For example a dairy cow will need a maintenance ration just to
keep its weight the same but it will need an extra pro duction ration to produce mi lk.
Animals that are prepared for slaughter are given a production ration containing more
nutrients than a maintenance ration. A production ration may include: oil seed cake,
fish meal, dairy meal, layer’s mash, broilers mash, growers mash, finisher mash and
carcase meal
TYPES OF ANIMAL FEEDS
The main types of feeds are Roughages and Concentrates
ROUGHAGES; are animal feeds that contain high proportions of fibre/cellulose and
low proportion of digestible nutrients. These feeds are mainly of plant origin. T here are
two types of roughages (Dry roughages and wet/succulent roughages)
1. Dry Roughage
- contain little moisture, it is mostly dry, dead plant material
- are given to livestock as part of maintenance ration
e.g. -dry veld grass -dry maize
-straw ` -hay
-Leaves -sorghum stalks left after harvesting
-twigs of trees
2. Succulent Roughages
-contain a lot of moisture, mostly green moist plants
-are more nutritional and are given to animals as either a balanced or production ration
e.g. -green grass on the veld
-green fodder such as Lucerne
-silage
The nutritional value of roughages
Roughages give bulk to the feed and helps in digestion

47
Animals that have large compartments of stomach i.e. ruminants can benefit from
roughages because their digestive system are able to break it down
Non ruminants such as pigs can only use little roughage
Roughages are sufficient if used as maintenance ration
Roughages are usually rich in minerals but deficient in phosphates
Roughages contain very few vitamins a nd proteins (except legume hay)
CONCENTRATES; are animal feeds that contain high proportion of digestible
nutrients and low proportions of fibre. The percentage of digestible proteins,
carbohydrates and fats is relatively high.
There are two types of concentrates; concentrates rich in proteins and con centrates rich
in carbohydrates
1. Protein Concentrates
-contain high amounts of proteins
e.g. -soya meal
-fish meal
-groundnut cake
-meat meal
2. Carbohydrates concentrate
-contain a high proportion of carbohydrates
e.g. -broiler mash
-sow and boar mash
-sorghum meal
-maize meal
-Kgalagadi brewer’s bran
The nutritional value of concentrates
Provide proteins and carbohydrates needed by the body
Are rich in energy needed to do work and other activities
Are rich in minerals and fats needed by the body
Are tasty and thus help the animal develop appetite for food
Are easily broken and releas e nutrients needed by the body.

48
Comparison between concentrates and roughages
Concentrates Roughages
-high amounts of carbohydrates and -low in carbohydrates and proteins
proteins

-fed to ruminants in large amounts

-fed to all types of livestock in small
amounts
-high fibre content

-low fibre content

-not easy to digest

-easily digested
-nutritive value of roughages varies with age
and season
-amount of nutrients is constant

-can be fed to ruminants on their own

-not suitable for feeding ruminants on
their own
-can be used as maintenance and production
ration for livestock
-can be used as supplementary feeds for
ruminants

SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDING
The provision of extra feeds to correct any shortages in the quantity and quality of
nutrients required.
Examples
Molasses meal/powder; is a thick, sticky and very dark syrup. It is produced in the
process of making sugar from sugar cane.
Mineral licks;
- Usually contain salt to make them tasty
- are a mixture of chemicals and nutrients that animals lick out of a container (drum or
trough)
- a winter lick contains extra proteins and carbohydrates
Bone meal; feeds made from ground bones or horns, reduced to fine powder
Di calcium phosphate; made from phosphate rocks and contains both phosphorus and
calcium

49
NUTRITIONAL DISEASES OF ANIMALS
These are diseases caused by lack of or too much of certain nutrients in the feed. Many
supplementary feeds are given to animals to avoid nutritional diseases. Nutritional
diseases are not infectious i.e. they do not spr ead from one animal to another.
Examples of nutritional diseases that affect livestock in Botswana:
Rickets :caused by lack of phosphorus and calcium
Shortage of vitamin D is responsible for rickets where animals are kept indoors.
Sunlight is a source of Vit D.
Milk Fever: shortage of calcium in the blood, usually after a cow has given birth an d
large volume of milk is suddenly produced
Bloat: too much gas fills up the stomach when an animal eats a lot of green fresh
plants
Anaemia: shortage of iron
Aphosphorosis: shortage of phosphorus
APHOSPHOROSIS (stiff sickness)
Cause: shortage of phosphorus
Symptoms:
-animals eat hard objects like old bones, wood, wires, sticks and stones
-its bones become weak and soft and thus cannot walk properly
-leg joints become swollen, stiff and painful making it difficult to walk
-it losses weight and becomes thin
-it may die if there is no treatment provided
Treatment:
-animal is given feed containing phosphorus
Control and prevention
-ensure the animal’s feed contains enough phosphorus at all times
-Dicalcium phosphate or bone meal contain phosphorus and thus should be given
to animals

FISH PRODUCTION
Importance of fish- Nutritional importance
Source of easily digestible and high quality proteins
Source of minerals such as phosphorus,Calcium, iron and iodine.
Helps in combating nutritional diseases e.g. goiter and night blidnesss and kwashiorker
Source of fish meal for animal feeds
50
Rich in vitamin A and D
Fish eating reduces blood cholesterol leves.
It lowers the risks of stroke and feeling of sadness or depression
CURRENT STATE OF THE FISH INDUSTRY IN BOTSWANA
It is still mainly at subsistence level
Botswana is land locked and therefore lacks access to sea where there is a lot of water
Demand of fish is higher than its supply
Batswana are not educated about fish farming and a few schools practice fis h farming.
There are no fish processing factories in Botswana
FACTORS LIMING FISH PRODUCTION IN BOTSWANA
-Shortage of water
-People have no interest in fish farming
-Lack of processing facilities
-Lack of knowledge in fish farming
- High costs of fish ponds construction
-Poor roads to access fishing areas
TYPES OF FISH
Fresh water fish
Breeds are:
Tilapia
Catfish
Salmon
Common Carp
Trout
Pike
Salt Water fish
Breeds are:
Tuna
Hake or Haddock
Sole
Sardine
MATERIALS NEEDED FOR CONSTUCTION OF A FISH POND
Clay soil

51
Wood
Pipes
Grass seeds
Plastic sheets
Stones
Bricks
Sand
Cement
TYPES OF FISH PONDS
Earthen fish pond
Concrete fish pond
Lined fish pond
HOW TO CONSTRUCT A FISH POND
Clearing of the site
Measure and mark with pegs
Dig out the soil to a required depth
Compact the soil on the floor and the walls after digging
Place water inlet, outlets and overflow pipes and cover the pipes with mesh wire to
avoid fish from escaping.
IF lined place the plastic sheets on the walls and the floor and place some soil for
planting.
Fertilise the soil if not fertile and plant grass
When the pond is ready fill it up with water to the required level.
MANAGEMENT OF FISH
TYPES OF FISH FEEDS
Natural feeds e.g. earhworms, small fish ,insects plants, tadpoles,snails etc.
Artificial or proprietary feeds: e.g. soya bean meal pellets ,bread crumbs, Maize or
sorghum bran, groundnuts meal etc
THE AMOUNT OF FEEDS GIVEN TO FIH
The amount of feeds given to fish depends on the size and population of fish but as a
rule of thumb the amount of feed given to a single fish is 5% of its body mass.
HANDLING AND TRANSPORTING LIVE FISH
Wet your hands before touching fish their skin is delicate
Hold the fish meal preferably with the operculum to prevent it from falling down
Release it gently into water without throwing it
52
Do not block the gills because they are used for breathing
Remove hooks from the fish gently to avoid injuries
TRANSPORTING LIVE FISH
When transporting live fish it is crucial to:
Put fish in water with abundant or plenty of oxygen for breathing
Make sure the temperature of water during transportation is the same as the one you
took fish from.
Starve the fish for 2-3 days before transportation to reduce waste material.
Check Temperature and oxygen regularly
Closed container is most suitable as it prevents splashing of water
NB: Two methods of fish transportation are: Closed method - for long distances and
open method for short distances.
Methods used to control fish population
Practice mono sex- keeping fish of the same sex only or separating males from females.
Increase fishing
Practice cage culture- it denies mouth brooding fish a chance to hat ch their eggs
Sex reversal- introducing a male hormone that makes females not to produce eggs
Destroying of fish eggs if found.
Introducing a predator fish- one has to be careful when using it not to finish all the fish
in waters.
PARASTES OF FISH
Internal parasites include:
Round worms
Tape worms
Anchor worms
External parasites include:
Gill flukes
Fish licekl
DESESASES OF FISH
Gill rot
Bacterial gill disease
Dropsy
Columnaries Bacterial kidney disease
Trichodina

53
Scoliosis
White spot
Black spot

NUTRITIONAL DISEASES ARE:

-broken back disease
-Thiamine deficiency disease
-Scoliosis
SCOLIOSIS
-Slow wound healing
- Reduced resistance to bacterial diseases
- Bleeding of areas under the skin
-Curved spine
Control and prevention
-include vitamin c in fish diet
PRASITIC DISEASES
-Trichodina
- White spot
-Black spot
TRICHODINA
Cause: protozoa
Tranmission
Can be transmitted through water contaminated with the parasite
Symptoms
-Discoloration of the skin consisting of a layer of grey mucus
- Fish crowd along the inlet and at the edge of the pond
Control and prevention
-Addition of copper sulphate to water
- Changing of water regularly
TOOLS OR EQUIPMENT USED TO CATCH FISH
1 The use of hook and line
2 Use of nets e.g

54
- Scooping nets can be used
- Seine nets can be used
- fishing with gill nets
3 The use of spears
4 Use of traps e.g baskets and buckets
SCIOLOSIS
Cause : lack of vitamin c
Transmissiion :Can not be passed to other fish
Symptoms
-Distorted gill support

RABBIT PRODUCTION

FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE STARTING RAB BIT PRODUCTION

Demand and availability of market for rabbits and rabbit products
Climate and type of housing needed
Amount of land available
Availability and cost of inputs
Government policy about agriculture or keeping of Rabbits
Source of breeding stock
Skill and knowledge level of the farmer
Marketing facilities and infrastructure
Source of funding
Competition from other rabbit producers
Availability of government and other support services
Distance to the market centers
Profitability of the business
METHODS OF PRODUCING RABBITS
INTENSIVE SYSTEM
Rabbits are raised in hutches kept in a house
Food , water and other requirements are met by the farmer
It is easier to observe and manage rabbits
The method requires high initial investment

55
EXTENSIVE SYSTEM – the open grazing method
Rabbits are kept on fenced pastures
Rabbits fend for themselves and little food may be prov ided
Simple boxes may be provided for shelter
Also cheap but productivity is very low
SEMI INTENSIVE- morant system
Rabbits are reared in grazing hutches (morant hutches) kept on outdoor on pastures
The hutches are moved to a fresh area
Water and food troughs are also provided
The system is cheap but exposes rabbits to predators
PREPARATIONS MADE BEFORE ACQUIRING RABBITS FOR AN
ENTERPRISE
Ensure that hutches are clean and full of fresh bedding e.g. dry grass, saw dust, straw.
Best bedding ; wood shavings and Saw dust . Problem with hay is that the rabbits eat it.
Purchase enough vaccines and drugs
Place clean trough for water and food in g ood position
Ensure that rabbits transport boxes are ready
Make sure there is enough rabbits pellets and vegetables
Ensure that there is reliable source of clean water
Acquire labour and train them
Prepare import papers in case where breeding stock is to be imported
Ensure sufficient protection from pred ators, thieves and sudden noise
A BUDGET FOR A RABBIT ENTERPRISE
This may include estimates on the following
ESTIMATE RETURNS ESTIMATE COSTS
Item Amou Item Amou
nt (P) nt
(P)
Sale of 100 rabbits @P50 each 3 does @ P65 each
Sale of 100kg of rabbit manure @P10 1 buck @ P70 each
/50kg bag
4 hutches for adults @ P175
each
4 hutches for weaners @ P175
each

56
 200kg rabbit pellets @P60 per
50kg bag
8 troughs for rabbit pellets@
P50 each
Medicines @ P30
Labour costs @ P300
Emergency costs @ P500
TOTAL ESTIMATED RETURNS TOTAL ESTIMATED COSTS

NB: determine whether the business will be profi table or not. Show your working
SIGNIFICANCE OF HOUSING IN RABBIT MANAGEMENT
Protects rabbits from adverse weather (excessive heat and cold) and rain. Rabbits
prefer cool weather conditions and should be kept in a well ventilated house. Heat
causes stress leading to poor growth and reproduction in rabbits.
Protects rabbits from thieves and predators
Facilitates easy management of rabbits i.e. feeding and provision of water
Housing also makes breeding control easy
Prevents rabbits from going astray (getting lost)
RABBIT FEEDS – rabbits are herbivorous which means they feed on plant materials

Rabbit pellets Concentrate

Green feeds such as grass, young green maize, cabbage leaves, spinach Roughage
leaves, lettuce, cowpea leaves, Lucerne, beans and groundnuts.
Root vegetables like carrot, cassava, radish and turnips. Roughage
Chopped dry roughages such as hay, dry leaves of good quality and Roughage
free from mould and dust
Rock salt Supplements
Milk feeding for young ones
Others: bread, biscuits, crushed oats, millet, sunflower seeds, shelled
ground nuts.

Do not feed rabbits with:

Spinach seedlings because they may have diarrhea
Tomato and Irish potato leaves as they are poisonous to rabbits

57
Plant material that has been sprayed with pesticides
Plants grown from bulbs e.g. onions
Importance of feeding rabbits
Ensure fast growth rate
Improves milk production in lactating does
Reduces mortality among young ones
Increases resistance to diseases
Improves fertility thereb y ensuring a large litter size.
REASONS FOR PROVIDING RABBITS WITH WATER REGULARLY
Water is needed for normal body processes
For proper feeding of dry feeds
To regulation body temperature / cool their bodies
For normal growth
For production for meat and milk
For excretion of waste material s
To dissolve and transport food substances
Water forms large part of the animals body.
HANDLING RABBITS DURING MANAGEMENT
Rabbits may be handled for sexing, claw trimming, inspection or moving them from
one cage to another. It is very important to handle them carefully because:
Their backbone can easily break when droppe d down
Their ears are easily stretched at the base to drooping position
They are easily frightened by sudden movements and noise
METHODS OF HANDLING RABBITS
Lift by the PELVIS – this is suitable for young rabbits about 3-4 months, only when
they are transferred from one hutche to other or else where. For young rabbits up to
Lifting it by the SCRUFF (loose skin over its shoulders) with one hand while the other
hand supports the rump. The handler must have short finger nails. Hold the rabbit
gently but firmly in a sitting position.
TRANSPORT RABBITS
Hold the rabbit close to your body with its face tucked into your arm. This makes it
very comfortable.
SEXING RABBITS
It is the process of determining whether a young rabbit is a male (buck) or female
(doe).

58
It is best to determine the sex of a rabbit 3 -9 weeks after kindling (giving birth).
Rabbits reach puberty at 3 – 4months. They will be ready for mating from 5 -
12months.
How is sexing rabbits?
Wash your hand before you start
Lift the rabbit by the loose skin above its shoulders
Place the rabbit on a flat surface on its back
Gently press in front and behind the uro -genital region with the fingers
Work slowly and gently

If the opening is circular/round with a protrusion, it is a male

If the opening is a slit or V shaped, it is a female
RABBIT PARASITES
External parasites of rabbits include lice, fleas, skin mites and ear mites.
Internal parasites affecting rabbits are coccidian, roundworms and tapeworm.

Life Cycle of Ear mites Effects on rabbits Control measures

1.Adult mites mate *suck blood from the * Isolate affected rabbits to
rabbit prevent spread of mites
2. Female lays eggs under
the skin of the host ear *cause irritation *Quarantine of newly
bought rabbits for 3 weeks.
3. Adult hatch into larvae (6 *cause diseased patches
legged) on the ear * Clean and disinfect the
rabbit hutches
4. Larvae suck blood and *loss of body condition
mould into a nymphs (8 *burn hay and bedding used
*leads to low resistance
legged) by affected rabbits
to diseases
5. Nymphs suck blood and *treat affected ears with an
* results in low
mould several times to oil-based insecticides
production
become adult mites

The cycle lasts for 4-5

weeks

59
Chemicals Used To Control Mites On Rabbits : Amitraz, Diazinon, pyrethrum

Life Cycle of Round Effects on rabbits Control measures

Worms
1. Rabbit eat food that *they use up food or * keep drinking and feeding
contains roundworms eggs nutrients in the intestine containers clean
of rabbits.
2. Eggs develop into larvae * keep the surroundings
in the livers and intestines *the rabbits loose appetite clean and free of waste
and grow poorly matter.
3. The larvae suck blood
from the walls of the *diarrhea [watery and * disinfect rabbit cages and
intestines sometimes bloody houses
droppings]
4. The larvae develop into *give rabbits fresh feeds not
adults that lay eggs. *serious attack can lead contaminated with parasites
to death of rabbits eggs
5. The eggs pass out of the
rabbit’s body through *give rabbits anthelmentics
dropping to get rid of internal
parasites[
6. The eggs lie in the
bedding and hay
7. rabbit feeds on hay
contaminated with
roundworm eggs and the
cycle starts again.

60
RABBIT DISEASES
Common diseases of rabbits include: Coccidiosis, ear mange, skin mange, mastitis,
ringworm, snuffles, myxomatosis, bloat(enteritis), sore hocks, weepy eyes
(conjunctivitis), epizootic haemorrhages, abscesses, urine hutch burn and coenurosis.

COCCIDIOSIS
Cause Symptoms Treatment Control
Protozoa *dullness *Add *buy rabbits pellets
sulphamezathine treated with coccidiostats.
(coccidia) *loss and watery faeces
solution to drinking
*pot belly – enlarged water.
abdomen *avoid contamination of
It lives in
food and water by faeces.
the rabbits *Continue to eat but
*sulphaquinoxaline
intestines. loose weight
can also be used.
*rough fur coat *keep hutches clean and
well ventilated
*staggering when moving
*affected rabbit die
within a month *isolate sick rabbits to
avoid spread of protozoa

*burn bodies of dead

rabbits to kill protozoa

RINGWORM DISEASE
Cause Symptoms Treatment Control
Fungus *White dandruff on rabbits Terramycin paste *isolate sick animals
neck and back applied on the affected
parts
*dust nest boxes with
(active ingredient
*fur loss fungicidal sulfur
tetracycline)

*rabbits will be scratching

their bodies

61
Disease control chemicals used in Rabbits: sulphamezathine, sulphaquinoxaline,
Terramycin and lanolin.

RABBIT PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS

Products:
Fur - can be used to make collar cuffs
Wool - jerseys can be made from wool and is obtained from Angora rabbits
Meat - low fat and cholesterol content but high in protein
Rabbit pelt - used for making handbags, gloves and cushions
By Products:
Manure
Blood meal
Bone meal
Other uses: - rabbits can also be used as Pets [kept for companionship]
-can be used in laboratory experiments for research
PROCESSING OF RABBITS
The outline below is the process of killing and dressing [skinning] rabbits
Get hold of a sharp knife and thick stick to be used when killing the rabbit
Catch and hold down the rabbit to be killed
Take the thick stick and hit the rabbit hard behind the forehead or on the forehead to
kill it.
Then cut off the head quickly and hang the rabbit by its hin d legs on a rail so as to
drain out blood.
Draining blood helps keep the meat fresh for longer
To start skinning, use the knife to cut through the skin around the hocks or just above
the rabbit feet.
Then cut open the skin inside each back leg moving towar ds the anus. Continue to
make the skin cut from the anus through the sex organs, stomach, chest up to the neck.
Pull the skin off the body starting from the hocks downwards to the neck area
Cut open the rabbit starting from the anus through the stomach to the chest
Remove all the internal organs of the rabbit and put them safely away.
Wash the carcass with clean water and leave it hanging on the rail for a while

62
MARKETING OF RABBIT PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS IN BOTSWANA
Rabbits are sold live or as dressed carcasses (rabbits which have been slaughtered and
prepared so that the meat is ready to cook) to the public.
Pelts (fur) are sold after being properly cured to local skin dealers or to industries
which manufacture pelt garments.

FORM 2 NOTES
FRUIT TREE PRODUCTION
The fruit trees found in Botswana may either be indigenous or exotic.
1. Indigenous fruit trees
These are fruit trees that are native to Botswana. They are not imported from other countries.
Examples of Indigenous fruit trees:
-Marula (morula)
-Monkey orange (mogorogorwane)
-Wild medlar (mmilo)
-Bush Raisin (moretlwa)
-Baobab (mowana)
-Snot Apple (morojwa)
-Large sour plum (moretologa
2. Exotic fruit trees
These fruit trees are native to other countries and have been imported into Botswana
Examples of exotic fruit trees
-Oranges -guavas
-Peaches -mangoes
-Paw paws -pomegranates (garenate)
-Grapes -apples
-Bananas -pear
-Lemons -pineapples
-Avocado -apricots
Importance of fruit trees and fruits
1. The nutritional value of fruits
63
 -they contain large amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and minerals
-they help in the digestion as the fiber they contain has a laxative effect
-they add a variety of colours, textures and tastes to our food
-they contain a lot of water when fresh and very little fat
-they stimulate one’s appetite

2. The economic value

-they earn income for a farmer
-they provide foreign exchange when exported
-source of raw materials for food industries
-sources of foreign exchange as they help reduce imports of fruits and fruit products
-provide employment for those working in orchards, nurseries and fruit processing
industries
3. Provide pollen and nectar for honey bees
4. Protect soil from erosion
An orchard: It is an area of land where fruit trees are grown.
Fruit: It is part of a plant that develops from a ripe ovary of a flower.
Requirements for the establishment of an orchard
 permanent supply of good quality water for irrigation; especially at seedling stage,
fruittrees require adequate water to grow properly. At flowering stage or when fruits are
being produced trees must receive enough water.
 topography; the land should be level or have gentle slope.
 land with deep, rich and well drained soils
 availability of dependable, experienced labour force (workers); some methods for
propagating trees require special skills and experience in order to be successful.
 existence of high demand for fruits; first establish if there will be a good and sustainable
market for the fruits/produce. It may be neccesary to conduct a market survey to establish if
there will be sufficeint long term demand for the produce.
 availability of support services such as horticultural experts
 Enough money to buy young fruit trees, tools and equipment, fertilizers and insecticides and
to pay for water and labour etc.
 suitable climatic conditions
 existence of wind breakers to protect an orchard against strong winds
 fencing to protect an orchard from animals and trespassers
Factors influencing choice of a fruit tree to grow
 type of soil; fruit trees can grow in a wide range of soils.
 climatic conditions; differences in temperature, light duration and intensity, humidity and
altitude have a major influence on choosing the type of fruit to grow. Many deciduous fruit
trees rest during cold period, grapes require short cold followed by apricot, peaches, pears
and finally apples. Some fruit trees are frost sensitive and will be damaged by cold winter.
 farmers knowledge and experience; grow type of fruit trees that you know about.
 Market for fruits; choose fruit trees that has the greatest demand
 resistance to pests, disease and drought

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  farmers preference and taste; the farmer will also have to decide which type of fruit tree to
grow especially for family consumption.
 fruitfulness of a tree (fruit bearing capacity of a tree); how many fruits can a fruit tree bear
 production life of a tree; how long the fruit tree will live and will still be producing fruits
 gestation period; how long it takes from planting srage to fruit bearing stage, some fruit trees
take a long time to start producing fruits and will more management before they give out
fruits

A tree nursery; It is a place where young trees are raised from seeds or vegetative parts before being
transplanted.

Materials and Equipment needed for nursery construction

Materials Tools/ Equipment
-Treated gum poles -pillars -hammers
- Net Shade -doors -wheelbarrow
-Treated timber poles -Nails -shovel
-Cement, Sand and Gravel -pegs -measuring tape
-Wires/strings -bricks(for concrete ridges0 -saws
Significance of net shading in a nursery
 protects young plants from high temperatures and high light intensity
 minimizes evapotransportation, so reduces water stress
 protects seedlings from direct beating by raindrops
 encourages cool conditions at ground level which favours growth of emerging seedlings
 protects seedlings from bird damage
Preparing the soil or media and fertilisers use in a nursery for propagating trees
1. Soil (loam and sandy soil) needs to be sterilised to kill micro-organisms, soil borne diseases
and nematodes. The soil can be sterilised through the following methods
a) Use of chemicals/fumigation; use methyl bromide and chloropicrin
b) Heat method; put soil in a drum and make fire underneath the drum in order to heat the

soil
2. Mix the soil with kraal manure in ration 1:1 and remove clods,, stones and objects that might
prevent seedlings to emerge
3. Separate the soil into small plastic bags, trays or seed beds
4. Have seeds ready, if needed, treat seeds to improve germination
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Types of fertilizers in a nursery; Compound fertilizers such as 2:3:2 (22) are usually used
NB; premixes can also be bought from the nrusery shops and supermarkets
Characteristics of a suitable soil mixture
 supply sufficient plant nutrients
 free from soil-borne pests and weed seeds
 well aerated, have a good water holding capacity and allows excess water to drain away
 low salinity level (amount of salt in the soil)
 capable of being pasteurised by steam or chemicals

METHODS OF PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES

There are two methods of propagating tree plants: SEXUAL propagation and ASEXUAL
propagation
1. Sexual Propagation
This is the production of fruit trees from seeds. Examples of exotic fruit tree propagated by seeds
are granadilla, paw- paw, peach and guava. Most indigenous trees are propagated by seeds.
Fruit trees produced sexual are never exactly the same as the parent plant from which the seed
was obtained. There are usually differences in size, colour of fruit, shape, quality and seasons of
maturity. The propagation of trees by seeds is therefore not usually desirable.
Advantages of Sexual Propagation
 it is an inexpensive method of propagation
 it does not require a great deal of skill to raise plants from seeds
Disadvantages of Sexual Production
 It is a slow process because many seeds require a period of dormancy (sleeping period of
a seed) before they germinate
 the new plants that are produced may not resemble the parent plants from which the seeds
were obtained
 sexual produced plants are often not resistant to a certain pests and diseases especially
during the seedling stage of the plant
2. Asexual Propagation
This is a production of trees using the vegetative parts of a plant such as the root, stem or leaves.
These vegetative parts have the ability to grow and develop into new individual plants e.g. roots,
which initiates the development of leaves and the stem will initiate the development of roots and
leaves.
Unlike sexual propagation, asexual propagation result in plants with the same characteristics as
the parent e.g. if the parent plant from which the vegetative parts (stem, leave or roots) which
was taken is resistant to diseases then the daughter plant is likely to inherit these characteristics.
If the parent plant bears many fruits, so will the daughter plant.
Advantages of Asexual Production
 It is the only way of propagation plants that do not produce seeds e.g. pineapple and
banana.
 it is easier and quicker than sexual propagation
 Asexual produced plants are more resistant to diseases, especially during the early period
of establishment
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  this method allows the nature of growth of the plant to be changed e.g. A tall plant may be
dwarfed and a thorned plant may be made thorn less
 Asexual propagation fruits often produce seeds earlier e.g. it takes a 9-12yrs to get fruits
from orange raised from seeds and only 2-3 years from asexually propagated oranges.
Disadvantages of Asexual Propagation
 some plants are difficult to produce asexually
 it may be expensive because of the cost of the materials required to propagate plants in
this way
 it requires knowledge and experience to select the vegetative parts used
 diseases may spread to the daughter plant if the material used is already infected
 great skill is required to carryout techniques such as a bud grafting and air layering
Types/Method of Asexual Propagation
 Use of Cuttings
 Use of suckers
 Layering
 Budding
 Grafting
1. Use of Cuttings
This is the production of a new plant by using a piece of stem, whole leaf or
piece of root. These pieces are cut from a parent plant and planted in
containers or nursery beds. Stem cutting are commonly used e.g. mulberries
and grape stem cutting of between 15-25cm are usually used. The leaves are
removed (to reduce water loss by transpiration leaving a few buds which will
develop into stems later. The cutting is then dipped in containers with root
formation. Then it is planted in containers with soil or in seed beds and then
watered regularly.
e.g. figs, some plum cultivars
2. Use of Suckers
Suckers are underground shoots (bananas) top shoots (pineapple) which develop from buds of
the parent plant. When these suckers are carefully separated from the
parent and planted, they develop into new plants identical to the parent.

3. Layering
This is the development if the roots while the stem is still attached to the
parent plant especially on guavas. Once the stem has rooted it cuts off from the mother plant.
Rooting of the stem is encouraged by using root growth hormones (rooting powder).
Layering can be done in guavas, pomegranate and apples. There are many types of layering
methods; simple and air layering will be shown below. The stem (once the roots have been
formed) is cut off from the parent plant and is grown as an individual plant.

67
4. Grafting
This is a form of asexual propagation which involves joining two separate wood structures.
These separate structures are joined together in such a way that they unite and continue to
grow as one plant. A stem can be joined to a stem and also to a root. The upper part of the
union is known as the scion and the lower part of the union is known as the root stock.
Grafting is used to grow plants that are related e.g. peach to peach, orange to lemon, apple to
apple.
Grafting is usually done during the dormand period (late winter or early spring) when the sap
is rising in the tree and the buds are actively starting to grow.
Grafting Improves
-growth rate
-productivity
-resistant to diseases

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5. Budding

This is also referred to as bud grafting. It involves joining a bud with root stock. Buds are taken
from parent plant which show high growth rate, resistance to disease and high fruit yield. The
rootstock chosen should also have disease resistance and high growth rate. It cab be used on peaches
plums and grapes. There are different methods of budding e.g. T budding, H budding, patch
budding, top budding, shield budding and I budding

MANAGEMENT OF SEEDLINGS IN A NURSERY

1. Watering
A good supply of water is necessary for the growth of seedlings. Watering should be done
twice in a day the 1st week after germination because the roots are still small and do not reach
germination because the roots are still small and do not reach deep. After that they should be
watered once a day, but thoroughly. Too much watering reduces root growth ad encourages
the growth of fungi and makes the stem of seedlings long and soft.

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 2. Weeding
Weeds should be removed immediately. They should not be allowed to flower and product
fruits cause this will make it difficult to control.
3. Controlling pests and diseases
Seedlings that are free of diseases and pests will have a better chance of survival in an
orchard. They will look healthy and attractive and fetch a good price at marketing time.
4. Thinning
Thinning out of seedlings is done to avoid overcrowding, competition for nutrients. When
thinning, those seedlings that are growing poorly should be removed.
5. Cultivation
It should be carried out regularly to improve aeration, water infiltration and destroy weeds
growing in the bed.
6. Shading
If it is very hot and seedlings show signs of wilting, shade must be provided using net or any
suitable material such as grass or branches of trees, in winter seedlings must be protected
from the cold and frosty conditions.
7. Fertilizer application
If there are any signs of mineral deficiency symptoms in the seedlings, appropriate fertilizers
should be added to the nursery beds to correct the deficiency.
8. Hardening of seedlings
A week before seedlings are to be transplanted they must be removed from the nursery and
put where they will be exposed to full sunshine. Watering of seedlings should also be
reduced at this time. This hardens the seedlings and prepares them for the harsher conditions
in an orchard. This process is known as hardening off.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SIZE AND DEPTH OF A PLANTING HOLE FOR A
FRUIT TREE SEEDLING
1. Type of roots
A tree with deep and wide system requires a deeper and a wider planting hole and vice versa.
2. Soil Type
If the soil is sandy, it is already loose and therefore the planting hole can be shallow. Where
soils are harder and more compacted such as in clay and where there are gravel particles not
far from the top soil, planting holes should be deeper. This enables the roots of fruit tree
seedlings to grow easily and without hindrance.
3. The size of the fruit tree seedling
The bigger the size, the wider and deeper the hole should be.
4. Soil Fertility
In soils of low fertility, the hole should be deeper and wider and then filled with more good
soil and manure.
5. Topography of land
On steep slopes planting holes should be deeper and wider than on gentle slope or flat land.
6. Expected productive life of a tree
A tree of a longer life span would need a bigger hole than one of a shorter life span.
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FACTORS DETERMINING SPACING OF FRUIT TREES
1. Soil Fertility
As a general rule, the poorer the soil, the further apart fruit trees seedlings should be spread.
This reduces competition for minerals of nutrients already in the soil.
2. Size of a fruit tree (growth habit)
Large trees need wider spacing between planting holes than small trees. A tree without large
spreading canopy requires more space than one with smaller crown.
3. Type of root system
A tree with a wider root system needs more spacing than with a smaller root system.
4. Water availability
If there is adequate rain and irrigation water, fruit trees can be placed closer to each other
than if water is in short supply. If there is little water, closely spread fruit trees will compete
for water.

5. Use of machinery
If the machines are to be used for harvesting, the space between the trees has to be wider.
Other forms of operation such as weeding, spraying and cultivation also influence the spacing
of fruit trees.
PREPARATION OF PLANT HOLES FOR FRUIT TREE SEEDLINGS
Holes for seedlings should be prepared well in advance (before transplanting).
Steps involves:-

mark the positions at recommended spacing

Dig out square holes of approximately 60-100cm (1m) deep. Keep holes straight up to the
bottom
 separate top soil from subsoil as you did the hole
 Mix up top soil with organic manure at a ratio of 1:1 and also add super-phosphate.
 break up the bottom surface of the hole and make it loose
TRANSPLANTING FRUIT TREE SEEDLINGS
It involves:-
 lifting and moving seedlings, from an orchard area, trees from a nursery (polythene)
baskets and chibuku containers
 Before being taken from the nursery, trees should be hardened off by exposing them to
full sunshine and gradually reducing the amount of water given to them. This prepares
them for full, harsh conditions in the orchard.
Hardening off can be done about a week before transplanting
 Back filling the hole - The top soil, organic matter and fertilizer mixture is filled into the
hole first so that the root collar will be level with the ground surface.
 add some water to the soil in the hole to help remove air pockets
Planting the seedling from a plastic bag
 cut away plastics so that the soil is left around the roots
Any broken roots must be clipped away with sharp clippers.
 Place the seedling in the centre of a hole and add the soil around the seedling up to the
root collar or ground level. Firm soil around root collar to remove air pockets.
Construction of the basin around the plant
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Use the sub-soil to construct a dish shaped basin round the plant to hold irrigation water.
Watering: - Finally water the seedlings heavily and repeat it every 2-3 days or for a week

Diagrams’ showing how a fruit tree seedling is planted

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Management Practices in an orchard
1. Irrigation
Regularly irrigation is done to assure normal growth of trees and high fruit yield.
2. Weeding
Weeding is done to prevent weeds from competing with trees for water, nutrients and space.
Weeds can also harbors and attract pests.
3. Cultivation
It is done to improve water infiltration, aeration, soil and to control weeds. It has to be done
shallowly to avoid damaging the roots. Any leaves or compost material of fertilizer around the
base of the trees should be turned under the soil very shallowly during cultivation.
4. Control of pests and diseases
Insects, pests are usually a serious problem when growing fruit trees as they damage the fruit
trees and affect their growth.
Fruit trees should be regularly inspected for any disease affecting them. If a disease is
spreading to other fruit trees, prevention is always better than cure.
5. Fertilizer application
It is done usually to replace nutrients and ensure continued vigorous growth of trees.
6. Provision of support
In early stages of growth, many fruit trees need staking to maintain upright growth positions.
Some trees like grapes require support throughout their productive life as their stems are weak.
Pruning
It is the removal of unproductive parts of a plant.
Reasons for pruning
-remove dead, diseased and otherwise damaged branches
-facilitates easy air circulations and light penetration
-form and maintain a desirable shape
-ensure productive use of plant nutrients
-facilitate movement within an orchard
-prevent overbearing of fruits
-control pests and diseases
-facilitate harvesting of fruit
-increase quality and yields of fruits
-induce fruiting in certain fruit tree

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HARVESTING and PROCESSING OF FRUITS
Methods of harvesting fruits include hand picking and machines.
Most fruits are harvested by hand rather than by machines. Fruits do not ripen at the same
time, those that are ripe have to be identified and handpicked carefully without causing damage
to them. Many fruit trees are likely to be damaged or bruised when harvesting using machines.
Damaged fruits fetch low price and hence cause a loss of income to the farmer. Machines can
only be used to the fruits which are being harvested for processing.
For small scale producer, hand harvesting is most convenient because it is cheap. In large
orchards, hand harvesting is time consuming and requires employment of a large number of
people to do the job. After harvesting the fruits go through PROCESSING which involves the
following;
 Moving to a warehouse - cleaned - soaked - grading - packaging
storing and marketing .

 Fruit may also be canned, turned into juice or made into Jam.

MARKETING FRUITS
In commercial fruit production enterprise, fruits are harvested in large scale for sale. They can
be sold fresh or processed into various products.
Factors to consider when marketing fruits
1. The availability of a market
2. The form in which fruits will be sold
3. Variety
4. Quality
5. Grading
6. Pricing
7. Cleanliness
8. Packaging of fruits
9. Storage facilities
10. Transportation

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 FORESTRY
It is the management of naturally occurring trees and man-made trees plantations in order to
produce products such as timber, fruits etc.
Indigenous trees of Botswana
These are trees that are native to Botswana e.g.
- Real Fan palm (Mokolwane)
- Mopane (Mophane)
- Marula (Morula)
- Baobab (mowana)
- Shepherd’s tree (motlopi)
- Umbrella thorn (mosu)
- Camel thorn (mogotlho)
- Snot apple (Morojwa)
- Blood wood (Mukwa)
- Monkey thorn (mokala)
- Weeping wattle tree (mosetlha)
- Lead wood (motswiri)
Exotic trees of Botswana
These are trees originating from outside the country e.g.
-Eucalyptus (boloukomo)
-Silver oak
-Pepper tree
-Jacaranda
-Pepper tree
-Christmas tree
-Rubber tree
-Tree of heaven

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Tree products found in Botswana

Tree Products Uses

1.Timber and poles Furniture, fencing, poles for electricity, building

2. Wood pulp Paper making

3. Tannin and dyes Dyeing and tanning industries

4. Fuel wood and charcoal Fuels for cooking, warming houses

5. Fibre and fronds Handicraft making

6. Fruits(morula, snot apple, velvet raisin, Food for people and animals
sour plum)

7. Gums and resins Food for people and animals

8. Nectar and pollen from flowers Food for bees

9. Medicinal herbs Treatment for diseases

10. Phane worms Food for people, a source of protein

11. Browse and green fodder Food for livestock

12. Seeds Make necklaces for traditional wear and eaten by birds

Importance of trees and tree products

 they provide timber

 provide shade for animal
 protect soil from erosion by wind and water
 improves soil fertility and assists in nutrient recycling
 provide habitat for various animals e.g. birds
 source of food in the form of fruits and vegetables
 provide browse for livestock and game animals
 provide nectar and pollen for bees and other insects
 source of materials used as medicines or drugs e.g. sengaparile
 source of tannin and dyes
 source of fuel, wood and water cycles
 shade soil, so reduce evaporation of soil moisture
Veld products
These are non-timber products obtained from the animals and plants found in the veld/ field. They
are made available for human or animal consumption or used in any other way except timber.

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Some veld products of Botswana

Name Uses

Gemsbok bean (Morama) Seeds can be roasted and made into morama, butter or their oil
also be founded to powder to make a drink

Kalahari devil’s claw Tubers are dug up, sliced, dried and crushed. Used as medicine
(Sengaparile) for treatment of arthritis, stomach disorders and skin problems

Wild tea (Lengama) Leaves picked, dried, crushed and used as tea. Can be used to
treat cold, coughs, asthma, stress, fever and headaches
Lemon Bush (mosukujane)

Pig weed (Thepe) Cooked like spinach for food

Wild okra (Delele)

Tsamma melon (Kgengwe) A source of water, eaten raw or boiled seeds may be roasted

Herero Cucumber A source of water. Eaten row or roasted. Seeds

(Mokapane)

Mophane moth Mophane worms are collected, squeezed, dried and roasted,
may be put in brine solution and tunned.

Pickly pear (motoroko) Fruits eaten fresh

Hereo cucumber(mokapane)

Morula and boabob fruits Fruits eaten by people and animals

Wild silk moth (matlhowa) Use by traditional dancers

Sources of tree seeds

 collection from forests and woodlands

 purchased from shops
 Forestry Association of Botswana
Sources of tree seedlings

 Government forests nurseries (impala) at Francistown

 Commercial private nurseries such as Sanitas, Veld Products Research (V P R)
 brigade nursery ( Serowe farmers brigade, Mochudi brigade, Kweneng Rural Dev
Agency)
 Forestry Association of Botswana nursery at Kumakwane
 One-stop Service Centre for Agriculture (OSSCA) nursery at Palapye

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Seed Collection process
Seeds collected should be viable, healthy and mature seeds (maturity is the final stage of seed
development of a tree). Seeds can be collected from around the school, near home or in the forest
and can be grown in the garden or homemade nursery.
Methods of seed collection

1. Hand Picking ; ripe seeds are collected by hands. Pick seeds from the top of the trees, the
best seeds are usually found there
2. Shaking the tree; a cloth is spread under the tree and the tree is shaken or hit with a stick.
Seeds will fall to the cloth.
3. Collection of seeds that have fallen to the ground ; collect seeds which have fallen to the
ground. Some seeds will become ripe after they have fallen to the ground
4. Cutting off seeds bearing branches; branches that bear cluster of ripe seeds can be cut
using pruning shears or clippers. A sheet can be spread under the tree to collect falling
seeds during the cutting process.
N.B

 Do not collect all the seeds from one tree. The seeds from that tree may be of poor quality
 Dry seeds before storage
 Protect seeds from pests and diseases as well as excessive moisture
Reasons for not collecting seeds that have been lying on the ground

 Such seeds might have lost their viability

 Such seeds may be immature and will not germinate
 Seeds may have pests and diseases
 Seeds may be very old and may be unfit for germination
Factors that inhibit germination of tree seed
1. Lack of moisture
Seeds do not germinate where moisture is low or insufficient for germination. Water
dissolves nutrients within the seed so that the embryo can make use of them.

2. Extreme temperature
If the temperature is too hot or too cold, seeds will not germinate. Most seeds do not
germinate below 100C.

3. Hard seed coat

Some seeds have a hard seed coat that does not allow seedlings to emerge and also does
not allow for water to enter the seed germination/activating the embryo.
4. Pests and diseases - They damage the seed and make it unfit for germination.
5. Immature seeds - Do not germinate
6. Depth of sowing - Seeds that are sown very deep do not emerge

What could be done to improve the germination percentage of seeds?

1. Filing the seed coat / scarification
The seed coat may be removed using a metal file. This method takes a long time however
2. Soaking
Soak seeds in water for 12-24 hours before sowing so as to make their coat soft and also to
provide moisture for activating/embryo enzymes in the embryo for germination
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 3. Boiling
Very hard seeds are given the boiling treatment. This is done by dipping seeds in boiling
water for a short time and then sowing them
4. Breaking seed dormancy
The dormancy of the seed should be broken before sowing them. It can be broken by
hormone application

5. Mulching
Mulch keeps the soil surface soft and moist
6. Using Sulphuric acid
Concentrated acid can be used to soften the seed coat
How to calculate percentage germination of seeds
The percentage of seed germination is calculated as follows:-
1. count the amount of seeds to be sown
2. sow seeds in lines and each line should have the same number of seeds
3. observe the amount of seedling that emerged
4. find the difference between the amount of seeds sown and seedlings that emerged
5. Calculate the percentage of seedlings emerged. Say for example, you sow 200seeds and out
of 200 seeds sown, only 180 seedlings emerged. In this case the percentage will be:

180 germinated out of 200 seeds sow

Percentage of germination = number of seedlings emerged x 100

Number of seeds sown
=180 x 100
200
=180
2
=90%
Workout:
1. Taboka planted 60 seeds and only 25 germinated. Calculate the germination percentages
of seeds
2. Lorato planted 300 seeds of mmilo 90% of them germinated. How many seeds
germinated?
3. Gorata planted 220 seeds and 120 of them germinated. What is the germination
percentage?

Woodlots
A woodlot is a place set aside for growing trees.

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What is the importance of Woodlots and why should they be managed correctly?

1. protect soil from erosion

2. they help to meet the increasing demand for fuel,, wood and other tree products e.g. poles
3. they help to increase the value of land, that would otherwise be unsuitable for agriculture
4. they make sure that there will always be trees in the future
5. they create employment

How should woodlots be managed?

1. control pests and disease (fungal diseases) by removing and burning desired trees and
biological control
2. Protect woodlots from fire by removing weeds, use of fire breakers and by practicing
controlled burning.
3. protect woodlots with young trees from animal damage by fencing them
4. harvest only large, older or damaged trees, leave young ones to grow
5. practice thinning of weak trees so that the healthy, best trees are left growing
6. allow livestock to graze in woodlands but only under large trees to reduce growth of
vegetation
7. woodlots should be replanted, even after harvesting is done
Forestry Conservation
This refers to correct use of forests and their protection against destructions.
What is the importance of forestry conversation?
1. they prevent the spread of deserts and desert like conditions
2. forests help us to preserve plants and animals, and protect them from extinction
3. helps to conserve water and soil
4. forests are also tourist attractions and they also beautify the landscape
5. they provide a home or habitat for animals, birds and in some countries for people
Ways of conserving the forest
1. People should be educated in schools and other forms about the importance of forests
2. Woodlots should be protected from fires by putting fire breakers
3. Woodlots should be established to provide wood for fuel. This will leave forests
undisturbed
4. Forests should be protected to prevent people from cutting down trees and anyone
harvesting without permission should be punished. Baobab, Mukwa, Morokuru, Mukuse
and Brown Mahogany are protected by law.
5. Forest areas should be fenced especially if they have young trees to protect them from
wind and domestic animals
6. While young, forest trees should be irrigated (if there is no rain), protected from pests and
disease ad from adverse weather.
7. Clearing of forest should be discouraged. Instead more forestry should be put and create
employment
8. Communities should be encouraged to take part in forestry conversation projects
AGRO FORESTRY
This is an agricultural practice where land is made more productive by combining the growing of
crops and forest plants with keeping animals in the same land at the same time.

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Agro forestry practices
This is the different ways in which the trees are planted while growing crops and rearing animals.
Examples are;

 silvocultural or silvoarale
This is where crops and trees are grown in the same place. It could be maize alongside trees of
eucalyptus. In this type we benefit from maize as well as eucalyptus products such as poles.

 Silvopastoral
This is where animals are kept in an area where trees are planted. The animals may feed on the
trees. This benefits the animals as well as humans, by producing tree products or even enjoying
the shade.

 Agro silvopastoral
This is whereby trees and pasture are growing where livestock is kept. We benefit from the
shade and poles from trees, animals benefit from the pasture.

CHICKEN PRODUCTION
SYSTEMS OF REARING CHICKENS
There are three systems of rearing chickens:-
- Extensive
- Semi - Intensive
- Intensive
-
A. EXTENSIVE SYSTEM/ FREE RANGE
This is a system whereby chickens are allowed to move freely to find their own food and shelter.
Free range birds eat mostly worms, insects, animal waste and sometimes given little maize or
sorghum grain. At night chickens sleep on poles, trees or anything suitable. In some cases chickens
can be provides with shelter to protect them from predators. Chickens lay eggs in the bush or what
ever place they can find(nests).
Advantages
- It has low input cost therefore is a cheap method.
- Birds are not crowded so they are unlikely to develop vices(bad habits such as feather
pecking and cannibalism
- Birds do not suffer from dietary deficiencies because they have a varied diet
- There is no accumulating of litter which may act as a breeding ground or diseases causing
organism
- It does not require any skills because there is minimal management.
- The birds pick up grit, which helps in digestion.
Disadvantages
- Chickens are not protected from thieves and predators such as dogs, jackals and hawks.
- Chickens can destroy vegetables and flowers in other people’s garden
- There is no controlled breeding. Any cork mates with any hen
- Diseases and parasites can spread very easily and is difficult to control.
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 - Chicken manure is not collected and cannot be used in gardens
- Chickens may become sick because of dirty food and water.
- There is low production as few eggs are laid and growth is slow

SEMI – INTENSIVE / Fold system

This is a system whereby chickens are kept in movable folds or arks (usually placed on fresh
pasture). Folds are made up of wire mesh, poles and can hold about 25 chickens Nest boxes, feeding
troughs and drinking troughs are provided in the unit.

Advantages
- It protects birds against poor weather conditions and predators
- It is easy to control diseases
- Birds are unlikely to develop vices due to low stocking rate
- Birds have access to grit (small stones) which helps their digestion
- The system is relatively inexpensive
- Birds are unlikely to suffer from dietary system
- Birds can eat fresh grass and their droppings can fertilize the land
Disadvantages
- Not many chickens can be kept in this system
- Contamination by diseases and parasites is likely to occur in the opening area
- A fairly large area is also needed
- Feed is wasted through spillage and being eaten by wild birds in the open area.
- Time and labour consuming to move folds.
C. INTENSIVE SYSTEM
This is whereby chickens are kept indoors for the rest of their lives. (Deep Liter System and Battery
Cage System)
DEEP LITTER SYSTEM
This system is suitable for both layers and broilers. Chickens are kept in the house with the floor
covered with litter 10 -15cm depth providing the chickens with bedding and also absorb moisture
from chicken faeces (droppings). This keeps the chicken house dry and stops it from being smelly.
The litter can be saw dust, dry chopped grass, crushed maize cobs e.g. chickens are never allowed to
go outside. They are provided with food and water in feeders and drinkers.
Advantages
- Chickens are protected from predators and thieves
- Chickens are protected from harsh climatic conditions
- Parasite and disease control is easy
- Chickens do not need to go and look for food
- Chickens cannot destroy other people’s crops
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 - Collection of eggs and keeping of records is easy

Disadvantages
-It is expensive e.g. building structures and purchasing of feeds and drugs.
-Chickens can easily develop bad habits e.g. cannibalism (chicken eating another chicken),
egg eating, and feather pecking.
- In layers, eggs usually get dirty, this system is best for broilers.
- An outbreak of disease or parasite attack could kill all the chickens.
- Feed and water are contaminated by chicken droppings
- Not easy to keep accurate records.
BATTERY CAGE SYSTEM
The chickens are kept in small wire cages, usually 3-5 per cage. Food and water are provided to them
in these cages. The battery cage system is most suitable for commercial egg production. Chickens are
kept until they stop laying in these cages and lot of eggs would have to be sold to make profit.
Advantages
- It is easy to keep records for the production of each chicken
- Eggs are usually clean
- There is no chance for chickens to develop bad habits e.g. Egg eating.
- Chickens do not waste energy looking for food
- Cannibalism and egg eating is not common
- Parasites and diseases can be controlled easily because the hens do not come in contact with
their waste products
- It is easy to clean and disinfect the poultry house
- Many chickens can be kept on a small piece of land and thus egg production can be
increased.
- The hens do not get broody because they cannot sit on their eggs.
Disadvantages
- An expensive system to run as cages, feeds and equipment have to be purchased.
- Chickens get cage paralysis as their movement is restricted by the cages.
- The cages can only be used for layers.
- The risk of disease outbreaks especially respiratory diseases is very high
- Good management skills are needed to run the system profitably

BREEDS OF CHICKENS

1. Broiler breeds
These are chickens kept for meat production. They are usually bought when they are a day old and
then raised until they are ready for slaughter. e.g.
Broilers Characteristics of chickens
Cornish Game  Originate from Britain
 A hybrid chicken
 Dark blue to green feathers with brown patterns on hens
 Large and produce good quality meat.
Plymouth Rock  It has stripes of black and white feathers
 Originates from America
 Medium sized breed

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  Can also produce many eggs
Ross and  White in colour
 Hybrid chickens (results from crossing two different breeds)
Cobb 500
Light Sussex  Originate from Britain
 Has white feathers with some black feathers in the wings and tail
 Large chicken with white skin, legs, feet, and beak
Black Australorp  Originate from Australia thus Australorp
 Black in colour and white skin
 Lays brown eggs
 Small bright red comb and wattle
 Dual purpose breed but good for meat production

2. Layer breeds
These are chickens kept for egg production. Chickens lay eggs that are either white or brown,
depending on their breed. e.g.
Layers Characteristics of chickens
White Leghorn  Originates from Italy
 White with yellow shanks
 Small, thin bird
 Lays large white eggs
Hyline  It is a hybrid
 Good egg producer
 It is brown but has white patches towards the tail.
Amberlink  Hybrid chicken
 White in colour with black tail and neck
 Lay large numbers of eggs
Isa Brown  Brown in colour
 Hybrid chicken
 It is a hybrid (developed from other breeds of chickens)
 Lay large number of big brown eggs

3. Dual purpose breeds

Chickens kept for both meat and egg production e.g.
DUAL PURPOSE Characteristics of chickens
BREEDS
Tswana  Originates in Botswana
 Has varied colours because of unplanned breeding
 Medium comb and wattle
 Dual purpose breed
Rhode Island Red  Developed in USA
 Heavy bird with dark red and black feathers
 Yellow skin, legs, feet and beak
 Produce fairly large number of brown eggs
New Hampshire  Developed in USA
 Light red feathers and yellow skin, legs, feet and beak.
 Lays large number of light brown eggs. Produces good quality meat

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD LAYER
 Large, bright prominent eyes
 Lean chest with very little fat
 Well developed bright red comb and wattle
 bleached shanks, beak and toes
 Large oval and moist vent
 The pelvic bones should allow 3-4 fingers between them, and they must also be flexible.
 It must not be broody
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD BROILER
 High feed conversion ratio (eats less food and gain more weight).
 It must have a wide large and fleshy carcass.
 Healthy birds have bright and prominent eyes
 Broiler should preferably be yellow soft and supple.
 Resistance to diseases and have low mortality rate

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF A HEN

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF A HEN
The reproductive system of a hen includes the OVARY and the long OVIDUCT.

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OVARY
The ovary produces ova (female sex cells) and the yolk. The yolk is the yellow part of the
egg.

THE OVIDUCT CONSISTS OF:

1. THE INFUNDIBULUM OR FUNNEL
The funnel guides the released yolk into the oviduct. This is where fertilization occurs
because sperm (male sex cell) introduced by the cock during mating are stored here. The egg
yolk will remain for about 15 – 20 minutes. Whether there is sperm to fertilize the egg cell or
not, it then moves downwards into the magnum.
2. THE MAGNUM
This is the albumen-producing region. The egg cell spends about 3 hrs here, during which it
is covered with albumen.
3. THE ISTHMUS
This is the membrane-producing region. The egg cell spends about an hour in this region
while the shell membranes are laid around it.
4. THE SHELL GLAND OR UTERUS
In this region, the shell is laid around the egg cell. The process takes 18-20 hours. A good
laying hen requires 2.5kg of calcium per day to produce a strong egg shell.
5. THE VAGINA
The complete egg stays here for 1-10 minutes before it passes to the cloaca. The vagina
produces the fluid (mucus) that reduces friction when the hen is laying the egg.
6. CLOACA
The cloaca is the opening or vent that serves both as an excretory n and a reproductive organ.
The vagina opens into the cloaca and the egg is passed out. Sperms from the cock would also
be deposited through the cloaca into the vagina and swim through to the whole oviduct.
A complete egg takes about 24 hours to be formed.
STRUCTURE OF AN EGG

THE FUCNTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE EGG

1. THE SHELL
The outer cover of the egg made mainly of calcium and phosphorus. The egg shell protects
all the inner parts of the egg. It is porous and allow air(gases) to flow in and out which will
allow a developing chick to take oxygen in and release carbon dioxide.

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 2. THE SHELL MEMBRANE
The two membranes are between the shell and the albumen. They are separate at the larger
end of the egg to form air space. They prevent micro-organism from entering into the egg.
They are also porous.
3. THE ALBUMEN
This is also called the egg white. It is rich in proteins, carbohydrates and minerals which are
used by the developing chick. In a raw egg the albumen is a clear liquid, but when cooked it
becomes solid white.
4. THE CHALAZA
It the twisted white material found on the opposite sides of the yolk. It holds or keep the yolk
on the centre of the albumen. Also protects the embryo by acting as a shock absorber.
5. THE EGG YOLK
This is the yellow part of the egg. It contains proteins and fats. The yolk provide nutrient to
the developing chick.
6. THE GERM DISC
It is attached to the surface of the yolk. It undergoes cell division so as to form an embryo
when the egg is incubated.
7. THE AIR SPACE/AIR SAC
Found at the larger end of the egg between the two shell membranes. It provides the
developing embryo with oxygen and keeps the egg fresh or in a good condition.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN DECIDING THE TYPE OF CHICKEN TO RAISE
1. Type of chicken production
 Egg production
 Broiler production
 Day old production
2. Availability of reliable supplies of feeds, medicines and equipment
3. Cost of raising the chickens
4. Availability and cost of labour and skills necessary for running the enterprise
5. Availability of starting Capital
6. Infrastructure (availability of electricity and roads to the farm)
7. Availability of adequate land
8. The market –knowing what people are willing and able to spend money on.

RECORDS IN A POULTRY PROJECT

Financial Records
These records show all the transactions involving money. They show how much money was spent
and how much money was earned. Farmers use this records to tell if their enterprises are VIABLE or
not. They must work out if they are making a profit or loss. Examples of financial records include;
expenditure record, income record, creditors and debtors Acc, profit/loss Acc, Cash Acc e.t.c

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Profit /Loss Account
ENTERPRISE: EGG PRODUCTION
INCOME /RETURNS COSTS / EXPENSES
Date Items Amoun Date Items Amount
t
2/3/10 30 dozen eggs @P8 per P240.00 1/3/10 10 bags of layers mash @
dozen P50 per bag.
………
……..
6/3/10 ………
20 dozen eggs @P8 per ……… Medicine and drugs
7/3/10
dozen
P200.00
12/3/1
0 P283.50 Salary for 1 employee
31/3/10
35 dozen eggs @P8.10 per
P600.00
dozen
23/3/1 ………
0 ……
61 dozen eggs @P8.10 per
dozen
31/3/1 P309.70
0
38 dozen eggs @P8.15 per
dozen

Total Returns Total costs

Profit / Loss for the month = Returns – Costs NB. +ve (profit) -ve(loss
=
=

Production Records
These are all details of production of individual enterprise of a farm business. They show all the
details on input needed for the enterprise and how much output/produce was obtained from the
enterprise. Examples of production records includes;
Inventory record, egg production record, feed record, mortality record, labour record, vaccination
record.

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A)Egg production record

Collection of eggs
Date Number of morning afternoon evening TOTAL
layers
1/6/09 80 28 16 20 64
2/6/09 80 30 26 15
3/6/09 80 29 27 18
4/6/09 80 36 27 16
5/6/09 80 27 25 20
6/6/09 78 24 20 16
7/6/09 78 26 25 14
Total number of eggs collected per week

B) Record

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 Mortality/Death Record
Feed Record
Date No. of No. of balance
bags bags
used
Date No. of Mortality balance
chicken 1/6/09 10 1
1/6/09 100 0 7/6/09 9 1
2/6/09 100 3 14/6/09 8 1
3/6/09 97 5 21/6/09 18 1
4/6/09 97 0

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QUALITIES OF S GOOD CHICKEN HOUSE
A good chicken house should have the following characteristics
1. Good Ventilation
Fresh air from outside must circulate in the house to replace air inside the house
2. Protection from predators
A good chicken house must prevent animals such as cats, snakes, dogs, rats, birds and
thieves from getting into the chicken house.
3. Protection from harsh weather
It should prevent chicken from bad condition such as high and cold temperature, rains
4. No direct sunlight
Materials such as empty bags and plastic nets help prevent chicken from becoming too
hot. Chicken tend to peck each other when they become too hot.
5. Easy to clean concrete floors
The concrete floor must be easy to clean and to disinfect
6. Water proof roof
When the roof leak, the litter will get wet and diseases such Coccidiosis could develop.
The house must be built and placed in such a way that flood water cannot enter it.
7. Smooth Walls
The walls should be smooth and without cracks because parasite and tampans will hide
there.
8. Cost Effective
A chicken house should be cheap, easy to build and provide enough floor space for each
bird .i.e. 20 chicken per m2 in the first four weeks then increase to 12 birds per m2
MATERIALS FOR BUILDING A CHICKEN HOUSE
Materials Tools and equipment
Bricks Shovel
Treated / Gum poles Wheel barrow
Cement Hammer
River sand, pit sand and gravel Saw
Corrugated Iron sheet for roofing Tape measure
Diamond mesh wire/chicken wire Pliers

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 Nails Spirit level
Timber rafters Etc.
Strings
Doors

 Cement bricks, concrete stone, river sand cement, pit sand and gravel
The materials will make a strong chicken house, floor will be easy to clean and make
litter management easy
 Timber rafters, corrugated iron sheets and nails.
These will make a strong roof which will protect chickens from bad weather and provide
a shade
 Wire mesh, window and doors
These materials help in the ventilation of the chicken house. Doors will provide an
entrance to the chicken house
 Treated poles
Used to support the roof. They are treated to protect them against termites.
Construction of a chicken house (Steps)
Step 1. Draw up the plan
Step 2. Mark out the area for the building
Step 3. Put the poles in the ground
Step 4. Construct the foundation floor/ floor slab
Step 5. Construct the Walls
Step 6. Construct the roof structure
Step 7. Fit the netting

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Step 8. Fit the heavy Duty Canvas

SOURCE OF SUPPLY FOR LIVE CHICKENS

 Private Chicken Farms
Notwane Farm, Star Poultry, Ace Farm, Tswana Pride, Goodwill.

 Individual Chicken Producers

These are people who raise chickens in their homes

 Imported from other countries

South Africa and Zimbabwe

 Hatcheries
Feed centre, Jims Farm Supplies, Notwane, Otse farms e.t.c.
PREPARATION FOR THE ARRIVAL OF LAYERS
1. Clean and disinfecting the house.
This will get rid of disease causing organisms. If there were chickens in the house, all the
old litter and any dirt must be removed, equipment (drinkers and feeders)should be
cleaned and disinfected
2. Buying appropriate and adequate feeds and medicinal supplies(vaccines and drugs).
3. Installing feeding and drinking trough and making show they are clean
4. Placing new litter on the floor( if raising them under deep litter system). If using battery
cage system place the litter under the cages.
5. Ensure that there are enough people who will be taking care of chickens
6. Installing laying nests if you are expecting to receive point of lay hens.
7. Placing a brooding unit if expecting day old chicks. A heat source must be provided and
switched on a day before chicken arrive so that there will be warmth in the unit.

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IMPORTANCE OF KEEPING THE CHICKEN HOUSE CLEAN.
 To prevents build up of parasites and diseases causing organisms.
 Cleaning prevents bad smell on the chicken carcasses. Chickens that are reared in dirty
litter have a bad smell that will drive away the customers.
 The litter in the house must be turned after two weeks. All wet spots must be removed
and replaced wit clean fresh litter in the poultry house.
 It reduces dirt on eggs.

CLEANING OF THE HOUSE involves;

1. Removing the litter from the flow by shoveling into the wheel barrow and carrying it out
of the house
2. Sweep the floor with floor using hard broom.
3. Wash and scrub the floor and walls with water and detergent
4. Disinfect the floor and walls using any appropriate disinfectant
5. Allow the floor to dry for a few days
6. Spread clean dry litter on the floor.
7. If there are external parasites, it may be necessary to fumigate or spray the building and
equipment with pesticide.
8. Always provide a foot bath at the entrance of the chicken house.

TYPES OF FEEDS FOR BROILERS AND LAYERS

TYPE OF AGE TYPE OF NUTRITIONAL FUNCTIONS A
CHICKEN FEEDS VALUE

Day old to 3 Chick starter Protein (23%), Building A

weeks mash vitamins and muscles and 1.
mineral salts flesh rapidly in
BROILERS and forming m
bones

3 – 4 weeks Broiler growers

N
mash
ag
lib
ac
5 to slaughter Broiler finisher Rich in protein Rapid growth tim
mash (20%) and
carbohydrates

94
 Day old to Finely ground Protein ( 18 - Healthy growth 12
6weeks chick Starter 20%) fe
mash

*1
ch
6 – 18 weeks More coarsely Less protein Prevents pullets
ol
ground (15%) and more becoming too
sta
LAYERS Grower’s mash carbohydrates fat and slow
4w
content growth slightly;
ne
provides energy
for active young
birds.
*1
ne
da
Point of lay to Coarse meal, 14% protein, less Egg production
21 weeks pellets or crumb carbohydrates and and egg shell
Layer’s mash high percentages formation
*h
minerals
w
(calcium)
fe

REASONS FOR PROVIDING CLEAN WATER

Chickens need water for easy digestion of food in the chicken’s digestive system.
Water transports nutrients in the body.
Plays an important role in excretion of waste products.
Water helps in functions such as egg and meat production. Less water intake will
decrease feed intake which will lead to low production.
 Dirty water may contain germs which can cause and spread diseases.
 Water is also used when slaughtering and dressing chickens.
BROODING
Chicks need to be kept warm for few weeks after hatching. This is because they do not have well
developed feathers to keep them warm. Brooding means raising or taking care of chicks until
they have well developed feathers that will keep them warm.

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There are two methods of brooding chicks namely;

1. Natural Brooding
This is when mother hens takes care of her chicks by providing them with warmth. The hen put
the chicks under her wings, help the chicks to find food and protect them from predators. A small
number of chicks are usually kept under this method.
2. Artificial Brooding
This is when chicks are raised without their mother and have to be provided with heat or warmth
until they have well developed feathers. This is usually done under commercial production. A
brooding unit (also called brooder) set aside for the care of day old chicks during the first few
weeks, has to be constructed.
HOW TO CONSTRUCT A BROODING UNIT AND MATERIALS NEEDED
A Brooding unit may be a whole house or part of a house. Galvanized iron sheets, cardboard
material and hardboard can be used. The sheets are tied together with a wire and supported by
bricks to make them stable. The sheets are tied together such that they form a circular or oval
shape. The circular or oval shape prevents crowding of chicks in corners. Chicks crowd in
corners when they frightened or excited and may suffocate each other leading to death.
Floor of the brooder must be covered with litter so as to absorb the wet droppings from the
chicks and to provide comfort. The feeders and drinkers are also set in the unit high enough for
chicks to be able to eat and drink. Finally, a source of heat must be provided in the centre of
brooder. The brooding unit is removed at about 4 – 5 weeks of age. That is when the chick will
have well developed feathers.

METHODS OF HEATING A BROODING UNIT

1. Mbawula System
This is the most common method of brooding chicks in rural areas. A bucket with holes made in
the sides filled with burning firewood or coal is used to provide warmth. Make fire in the bucket
outside the chicken house. The bucket is then taken into the house when the firewood or coal
have burned completely and there in very little smoke coming from it. To prevent chicks from
burning themselves, wire mesh is put around the bucket. A cut drum can be hung above the
bucket to keep the warmth in the unit for longer.

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Advantages of the Mbawula
 It is cheap
 Easy to set up
Disadvantages
 Fuel must be added to the fire to it burning
 If the house is not properly ventilated, the chicks and people going into the house may be
killed by carbon monoxide fumes released by the fire.

2. The Gas heater / Brooder system

A gas brooder uses a gas from cylinders to produce heat for the unit. It has a filament and it is lit
using matches. The heating filament glows once it has been lit and gradually heats up the whole
brooding unit. The temperature of the heater can be changed to make it hotter or colder. The
heater must be placed beyond the reach of chicks to prevent death by burning.
Advantages of the gas brooder
 It does not produce any carbon monoxide.
 The temperature of the brooding unit can be turned up or down.
 It is easy to light the heater.
 It can be switched off if it is not needed.
Disadvantages of the gas brooder
 Gas is very expensive
 It may not be very easy to get gas in rural areas.
 If any gas leaks, it may cause an uncontrolled fire

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 3. Paraffin lamps / Heaters
These are heaters which use paraffin to provide warmth to the chicken house. They are placed in
the centre of the brooding unit. They can also be suspended above the chicks so that they do not
come in direct contact with them. The size of the heater depends on the number of chicks.
4. Infra Red Lamp
This system uses infrared heaters to provide warmth to the chicks. These lamps have reflectors
which direct or reflect heat on to the chicks. The lamps are suspended above the centre of the
brooding unit. The problem with this system is that it can only be used where there is electricity.
5. The drum system
A drum is fitted into the wall of the brooding unit. The open end of the drum is on the outside of
the wall and much of the drum is inside the house. The drum may need to be supported to make
sure it does not fall down. A fire is lit inside the drum and as the drum becomes hot it heats the
inside of the house. If the house is large, then more than one drum can be used. No smoke goes
into the house.
Advantages of the drum system
 There is no danger of carbon monoxide inside the house.
 It is very easy to use
 It is cheap because it uses local materials.
Disadvantages of the drum system
 The drum needs to be replaced regularly because the fire damages it
 The drum is not in the centre of the brooding unit so chicks will crowd near the walls
underneath the drum.

6. The tunnel system

A pipe is fitted to the wall of the brooding unit. The pipe or tunnel goes from one side of the
brooding unit to the other, and is connected to a chimney at one end. A fire is made at the
opening of the tunnel and the heat spreads through the tunnel and makes the whole house warm.
The smoke leaves the tunnel through the chimney and so there is no danger from carbon
monoxide.
Advantages of the tunnel system
 There is no danger of poisoning from carbon monoxide fumes.
 The method is cheap because it makes use of local materials.

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Disadvantages of the tunnel system
 Big tunnels can lose a lot of heat
 Tunnels need to be replaced frequently because the fire damages them.

7. Hay Box Brooder

This is a simple wooden box that is lined with either hay, straw or grass around the inner walls
and soft material such as cotton wool, old rags or feathers on the floor of the box. This brooder is
used for small numbers of chicks and is not suitable for commercial production.
CARE GIVEN TO YOUNG CHICKSIN A BROODING UNIT
1. Fill the feeders and drinkers with food and water. Stress pack mix (tranquilizer) should
also be added to water to relieve the chicks from travel stress.
2. Take chicks out of the boxes and count them to make sure that you have received the
correct number. Prepare a record book for the chicks.
3. Observe chicks and help those that do not drink water or eat food. The chicks have no
experience and are just learning.
4. Observe the chicks and see how they respond to the warmth. They should be kept at
temperature of 32°C to 35°C if they crowd together close to the heat, then they are too
cold. If they move far away from the heat, then they are too warm. If the temperature is
correct, the chicks will spread out all over the unit.
5. Fill the feed trays or sheets of paper with food for chicks on a regular basis. Clean the
feed trays and water containers daily
6. Chicks are provided with light during the night so that they can eat at night
7. Diseases and parasites are also controlled.

INCUBATION
This is providing a fertilised egg with necessary condition so that the chick will develop and
eventually hatch out.
Incubation takes about 21 days and the process requires
 warmth temperature about 39°C
 moisture in the air and proper ventilation

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  regularly turning to prevent the developing chick embryo from sticking to one side.
There are two types of incubation
A. Natural Incubation
The hen become broody and sits on her eggs, after laying 10-15eggs. Broodiness is natural
instinct in hens to sit on and incubate eggs until they hatch. After laying eggs, the hen
continuously turns the eggs to prevent the yolk sticking to one side and also help ventilation.
The hen controls temperature of the eggs by leaving the nest occasionally to feed
B. Artificial Incubation
This is when eggs are placed in a machine called an Incubator to keep them warm until they
hatch. Eggs are collected from the nest while they are still fresh and should be fertilized.
Artificial incubation is carried out by imitating natural incubation. Incubators are basically box
like structures heated by electricity, paraffin lamp or gas heaters. Incubators can hold 50 -10 000
eggs. Incubators have several vents that can be opened and closed to adjust temperature and
humidity. Inside the incubator is a thermometer that helps the farmer to keep right temperature
(37.0C – 39.0C).
NB: An incubator should be warmed before eggs are put inside. A place where chicks are
hatched in Artificial Incubators is called Hatchery.

CULLING
It is the removal of undesirable or unwanted birds from the flock. Unproductive or unwanted
chickens are those that produce few eggs or poor quality meat. It also includes chickens that are
sick time and again, weak, deformed or injured.
CRITERIA USED WHEN CULLING CHICKENS
1. Low Production
 Poor layers and non-layers must be culled

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  Broiler birds that show retarded (slow) growth must be culled
2. Poor Heath
 Sick, injured or disabled birds should be removed from the flock
 Weak and deformed birds must be culled
3. Bad Habits / Vices
Birds that exhibit bad habits such as eating eggs, fighting other chickens, pecking others
(cannibalism) and broodiness should be culled immediately.
DEBEAKING
This is cutting of about one-third of the upper beak and a quarter of a lower beak of a chick. A
debeaking blade or a special machine is used for this operation.
REASONS FOR DEBEAKING
 Reduce fighting
 Reduce egg breaking and eating
 Reduce feather pecking and cannibalism
DEBEAKING PROCEDURE
Both upper and lower beak of a chick is cut with a red hot blade. The beak is then pressed
against the red hot blade for 3 seconds to cauterize blood vessels. Avoid damaging the chick’s
tongue. The lower beak is left longer that the upper one.

VACCINATION
It is making an animal (chick) immune to a disease by introducing mild or dead pathogens which
normally cause the disease.
The presence of a small amount of the disease causing organism in the chicken’s blood causes
the chicken’s immune system (the body’s natural defence system) to react and get rid of the
disease causing organism. Once a chicken’s immune system has reacted to an organism, its body
has a defence system in place. The next time the chicken is infected with the same organism, its
body will be able to fight the disease and the chicken will not become ill. By spending some
money on vaccination against common diseases, the farmer avoids losing money from the deaths
of large number of chickens.
PARASITES
A parasite is an organism that lives in or on another animal. There are two types of parasites:

101
  Internal
They live inside the chicken’s body. Common internal parasites are roundworms and
tapeworms. They leave the chicken body with the faeces. If a healthy chicken eats infected
chicken droppings or eats an infected insect, it will get the parasite.

 External
External parasites are found on the skin of chickens. They live by sucking blood from the
chickens. If a chicken loses too much blood, it will become very weak and unproductive.
Common external parasites include lice, fleas and mites.
MITES/ RED MITES
They are small reddish brown crawling parasites with eight small legs. They attack chickens
mainly at night coming from cracks on the walls or dark areas such as corners in the house,
bedding material such as litter and in the nest boxes. They have piercing and sucking mouth parts
and such blood tissue fluids.
HARM CAUSED BY MITES TO CHICKENS
 Mites suck blood and lymph (clear liquid from body tissues) from chickens therefore
cause anaemia (low red blood cell count)
 The chickens are irritated and scratch themselves
 Chicken lose their appetite resulting in poor growth for broilers and few eggs for layers
 If birds are badly bitten they may lose their feathers
 Mites cause blemishes and marks on the chicken body which will make the carcass
unattractive to the consumer
 Mites do not usually kill chickens but small chicks may die from weakness.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL

 Spray the walls and floor of the house with an emulsion of mercapthion. Carbaryl
powders can also dusted on to the chicken. A cheap alternative will be using an emulsion
of paraffin and soap. This can be sprayed onto birds and the house.
 All wooden structures, such as poles and rafters should be painted with carbolinium.
 All wild birds should be kept away from chicken houses because they often carry mites
and other parasites
 Clean and disinfect the house thoroughly before putting in a new batch of chickens.

DISEASES
A disease is an illness or condition when the body does not function normally. It is the deviation
from a normal state of health whereby normal life processes are disturbed. Diseases can be
caused by micro-organisms such as bacteria, protozoa and viruses while other disease may be
caused by poor nutrition or poor management of chickens.

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Some common chicken diseases are;
 Newcastle disease
 Coccidiosis
 Marek’s disease
 Fowl typhoid
 Fowl cholera
 Infectious bronchitis
New Castle Disease (NCD) /letshoroma la dikoko kana mokorobalo
Cause Transmissio Symptoms Treatmen Control
n t
A Virus carried Respiratory Symptoms No 1. Vaccination
contagiou on feet of treatment
*Coughing and sneezing *Hitchner (1 day old) through
s disease wild birds
No cure eyes(intra ocular) at the
that can from farm to *Gasping for breath
Hatcheries.
wipe out a farm.
thousand *Sticky mucus released
*Lasota (3 - 4 weeks of age)
of birds through nose and mouth
in drinking water
over a Contact with
wide area *Komarov (4 -20 weeks of
contaminated
in Nervous Symptoms age) through intra muscularly
water and
Botswana. or in drinking water
feed. *Paralysis of legs and wings
*Chick walks backwards
and fall 2. Good strict hygiene/good
It is Spread
sanitation
caused by through dirty *Twisted neck
Virus equipments

3. Quarantine/isolation
General
-Screen against wild birds
*loss of appetite
-Buy stock guaranteed
*Egg production may stop. healthy
*Greenish diarrhea which
smells bad
4. Slaughter of the stock
*High death rate (90- 100%) incase of an outbreak.
within four days Emptying of the house and
disinfection.

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Coccidiosis / letshega
Cause Transmission Symptoms Treatment Control
Protozoa Chickens pick Blood stained or Put chemicals Keep birds in clean and
(Coccidia) protozoa from greenish watery such as Amprol dry litter
droppings of droppings and
infected birds. Sulphamezathin
The e in drinking Cleaning and disinfection
protozoa is High death rate usually water fro seven of the chicken house.
found in the within 1st week days.
intestines of
chickens Feed them with mash
and usually Ruffled (untidy) containing coccidiostats,
damage the feathers a chemical that kills the
lining of protozoa.
the
intestines Chickens look weak,
dull and sleepy. Incase of an out break,
isolate infected birds,
change litter and disinfect
Loss of appetite, but all equipment.
drink a lot of water.

Post mortem will show

an enlarged caeca (large
intestine)

1. SLAUGHTERING CHICKENS
Chickens must not be given food 12 to 24hours before they are slaughtered. This will reduce
spilling of digestive contents onto the meat during slaughtering. The most common methods of
slaughtering chickens are;
 Chopping or cutting the head.
 Breaking or dislocating of the neck.
 Piercing the brain and cutting the jugular vein.
The last method is the least cruel and also the best because it ensures the carcass loses most of its
blood. The dead chicken is then hung upside down to drain the blood. Piercing the brain
paralysis the chicken and cutting the jugular vein means that bleeding is thorough.

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 2. PROCESSING OF CHICKENS
Scalding: Slaughtered chickens are put in hot water at 55 - 60˚c for two minutes to loosen
feathers for easy plucking. If the water is too hot, it will cook the tender meat and the skin will
come off.
Plucking: This is the removal of feathers from the chickens’ body. Scalded chickens can be
plucked manually or using machines. Not all the feathers will be removed from the body of the
chicken and hand plucking will be necessary to get ready of the remaining feathers. Cleaning
with cold water or lukewarm water is necessary after plucking the carcass.
Evisceration: this is the removal all the interior organs/giblets/offals (gizzard, liver, heart
intestines)of a chicken. Always make sure not to break the gall bladder (santlhoko) and throw it
away after evisceration.
Trimming: remove the neck and cut off the feet which can also be packed and sold separately.
The carcass is then washed thoroughly with clean water.
Chilling: the carcass is then dipped into iced cold water for about 30 minutes. This reduces the
temperature of the carcass and eliminate or remove the bacteria that cause food poisoning. The
carcass is then hung on the rack so that water drips off it.
Packaging: the dressed chicken are packaged into clean plastic bags, weighed and the weight is
recorded. Dressed chickens are then stored in the freezers ready for selling or cooking. The
carcass can be also cut into different parts and sold as chicken pieces. These portions include half
chicken, quarter chicken, drumsticks, thighs, wings, breast and abdomen cut. Giblets (offal) are
also washed, packed separately in plastics and can be sold separately.
CANDLING OF EGGS
It is passing a powerful light through an egg to determine its internal quality. This is done to test
freshness and fertility.. The eggs is held against a powerful ray of light and the contents of the
egg can be seen. Abnormalities, cracks on the shell and blood spots can be discovered through
this method. Candling is done as part of grading eggs according to their quality.

The apparatus used for egg candling is called a CANDLER.

PURPOSE FOR CANDLING OF EGGS
 Determine the presence of meat or blood spot.
 Determine the condition of egg yolk and egg white
 Presence of cracks.
 To detect the infertile eggs and those with dead embryos during incubation

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GRADING AND PACKAGING OF CHICKEN EGGS
Grading eggs means sorting eggs into different groups according to size, weight and internal
quality.
Grading helps to reduce wastages and makes uniform packaging and easier pricing. The external
quality of an egg depends on its;
 Shape
 Shell strength
 Colour
 Size
There are four egg grades used in Botswana. They are based on weight;
SIZE MASS
Extra large (size 1) More than 60g
Large (size 2) 51 – 60g
Medium (size 3) 41 – 50g
Small or pullet Less than 40g

Once graded, the eggs are packed in the egg trays with the narrow end of the egg facing
downwards so that the air space is on top. This prevents the inner contents from spilling into the
air space and causing spoilage. Eggs need to be stored in a cool place at a temperature of 10-
15˚c. Eggs easily absorb odours or strong smells. This affects their flavour and is called tainting.
Eggs must be stored away from substances that give out strong smell such as onion, fish or
petrol.
MARKETING OF EGGS
Eggs must be marketed daily so that they are as fresh as possible when they reach consumers.
Only surplus (remaining) eggs need to be stored. Egg producers (large scale) sell directly to
wholesalers, retailers and hotels. Small scale farmers sell to their community.
Price of eggs is influenced by the demand and the supply as well as by the grade. The largest
eggs are the most expensive, cracked eggs are usually the cheapest.
MARKETING OF CHICKEN PRODUCTS
Marketing means the promotion and sale of products. When layers reach a certain stage they
begin to produce eggs that can be sold. When they stop laying, they can be sold for meat.
Broilers are sold for meat from the age of 6 weeks until about the age of 12 weeks.

106
Factors that influence price of chicken products;
 Size of the products
People will pay more for larger chickens and eggs.

 Quality of the products

People will pay more for good quality chickens and eggs.

 Cost of production and advertising

If the production and advertising costs are high, the farmer will have to ask for higher prices
for the products so that a profit can be made.

 Demand
When the demand for chicken products is high, farmers can raise the prices because people
will pay more for them.

 Supply
When the supply is high, farmers may have to lower their prices because there is a lot of the
product on the market and people do not have to pay a lot for it.
THE PRICE OF CHICKEN PRODUCTS
Broilers can be sold live or dressed (ready for cooking). To sell live chickens, a farmer needs a
ready market so that they sell quickly. Keeping of the birds (broilers) longer reduces profit. The
price of chicken is influenced by the supply and demand of that commodity in the market. The
price the farmer sets must cover his/her production cost so that the enterprise operates at a profit.
The farmer’s price is found to be lower than that of wholesalers and retailers because he/she is a
producer and must sell to wholesalers and retailers. If birds are sold live, the price is usually set
per bird. Dressed birds are usually sold at a specific price per kilogram.

FARM MANAGEMENT
What is farm management?
It means the best utilization of available resources such as land, labour, capital and time for
maximum production and profit on the farm.
Importance of farm management

 Helps the farmer to make correct decisions on how to produce and what to produce.
 The farmer can get high yields without wasting resources.
 A well managed farm can create employment.

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DEMAND
It is the quantity of a commodity the consumers are willing to buy at a certain price at a given
time.

Price of mealie meal Quantity Demanded The law of demand

(pula/kg) (Kg/month)
PRICE
2 14
4 10
6 7
8 5
10 3
12 2
Low Price High Price

16 Demand Curve

14
12 Demand Demand
10 increase decrease
8
6
4 The high the price, the lower the quantity
2 demanded. The lower the price, the high the
0 quantity demanded.
2 4 6 8 10 12 14

DETERMINANTS OF DEMAND
1. Price of product
If the price of a commodity is lower, people tend to buy it in large numbers. If the price is high,
less people tend to buy.
2. Taste and preference/ fashion
Some goods are in high demand because they are nice to taste than others. N.B oranges are
preferred during winter because they help control flu and cold.

108
3. Consumer Income
When consumers have more money, they buy more goods. i.e the greater the income the higher
the demand and the lower the income the lower the demand.
4. Quality of a product
There is high demand for good quality products. People will pay more for good quality fresh
fruits than bad quality ones
5. Population / market size
This refers to the number of consumers in a particular area. If the number of consumers
increases, the demand will also increase.
6. Advertising
If a product is well advertised, consumers will turn to buy it more because of the way it was well
advertised.
7. Competition from similar products
Consumer will have an option to buy maize meal or sorghum meal. Or an option between Butter
and jam. This will increase the demand on the good that is competing well against the other one.
SUPPLY
It is the amount of a product the producer offers for sale at a certain price.
e.g. if the price of sorghum goes up, farmers will be keen to produce more. And if the prices go
down, they will produce and sell less.

Price of mealie meal Quantity Supplied The law of Supply

(pula/kg) (Kg/month)
PRICE
2 2
4 3
6 5
8 7
10 10
12 14
High Price Low Price

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 16 Supply Curve

14
12
Supply Supply
10
increase
8 Decrease
6
4 The high the price, the higher, the quantity supplied.
2 The lower the price, the lower the quantity supplied.
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14

DETERMINANTS OF SUPPLY
1. Cost of production
If it is expensive to produce a product, that product it will be low supply; e.g. it is expensive to
produce cheese in Botswana, so the supply of cheese will be low.
2. Number of suppliers
Farmers are suppliers of farm produce; if the number of farmer’s increases, then the amount of
food offered for sale will also increase
3. Improved methods of production
If people use new methods of production like the use of machinery in farming, it will increase
the supply of produce. This is because machinery i.e. tractors are efficient and takes a shorter
time to do work.
4 Natural factors/ Season
Natural factors include climate and soil. If there is a lot of rain this season, a lot of crops will be
harvested. Floods , hail storm, fires and frost will lead to decreased supply. Poor rainfall and
infertile soil also limit crop production in Botswana. Some products are seasonal; they will be
more during a certain season and scarce in another one. i.e. Oranges are abundant during winter
time
5. Time
Different types of crops take different lengths of time to mature and become ready for harvesting
or sale. This affects the supply of a product; e.g. Vegetables take a short period of time (few
months) to mature and harvested, but fruits take a long time (years) to mature and harvested.
7. Availability of inputs
If the inputs for a certain product are not enough, that product will be in short supply; e.g.
yoghurt is made from milk, if milk supply is less, it means less yoghurt will be produced.

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MARKET PRICE
It is the point where quantity demanded is equals to quantity supplied. It is the price at which
the supplier maximizes profit and the consumer maximizes satisfaction. It is at this point that the
supplier can sell and the consumer can buy. It can also be defined as the Equilibrium price (EP).

Price of mealie meal Quantity Demanded Quantity Supplied

(pula/kg) (Kg/month) (Kg/month)

2 14 2
4 10 3
6 7 5
8 5 7
10 3 10
12 2 14

Market Price
16

14
Equilibrium Point (EP)
12

10
Price (Pula)

0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Quantity of Mealie meal (Kg)

A market is any place where buying and selling takes place

FACTORS DETERMINING THE MARKET PRICE
1. DEMAND
If the demand is high or increase, the market price will also be high or increase e.g. if more people
need meat, the meat price will be high or increase.

111
 2 SUPPLY

If the supply is high, the market price will be low e.g. at the moment there is a high supply of
vegetables, the prices of vegetables are low.
NB. All the determinants of Demand and Supply influence the market price.
DIFFERENT LEGAL FORMS OF A BUSINESS ORGANISATION

1. Sole Proprietorship
This is a business owned by and operated by one person and exists until the owner retires or dies.
It is the simplest type of business organization. Many farms in Botswana are owned by Sole
Traders.
Advantages

 The owner receives all profits hence motivated to work hard

 The owner has direct contact with the customer therefore addresses their needs better
 Decision making is not delayed because only one person is involved
 It is simple for the owner to operate
Disadvantages

 The owner bears full responsibility over costs incurred by the business
 There is no one to consult on business matters
 If the business is sued /loses, it goes directly to the owner and he might end up losing his
property.

2. Partnership
This is a business made up of two or more people (maximum of 20 people) who contribute their
resources to the business. In this business a legal document known as DEED OF PARTNERSHIP is
drawn and signed by all partners. The document includes;
Ways in which profits are shared
Amount of money to be invested
Salaries
Ending and inclusion of new members e.t.c
Advantages

 There is more capital invested in the business

 Responsibilities are shared amongst members
 Members contribute in decision making hence concrete decisions are made\
 It is easier to form , liabilities /losses are shared among the partners hence its impact is
reduced.

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  It is a flexible form of business as partners can easily bring their children and spouses to
provide labour.
Disadvantages

 Having to consult all members before action is taken cause delays

 If one member is not effective the business may suffer
 There is unlimited liability of each member hence partners personal assets can be claimed
to pay debts.
3. Company
This is business owned by shareholders and run by a Board of Directors that has been elected by
shareholders. There are two types of companies; Private limited company and Public limited
company
Setting up a company involve the following;
a) Name of the company
b) Address of the office
c) Purpose of the company (i.e. manage layer and grow vegetables
d) Many invested and profit distribution
e) Number of shares available for purchase i.e. 1000 shares at P50/share
f) When meetings are to be held for shareholders I.e. last Friday of November
g) Number of directors and how they are elected into directorship (Board of Directors)
h) A company is registered with the Registrar of Companies
Advantages

 Shares are sold to a large number of people hence high capital investment (public)
 Shareholders have limited liabilities (they are only responsible for the capital they have
invested in the corporation )
 If one has shares in a company he/she can transfer or sell them
 A company enables individual /shareholder to pull their resources together
 Credit may be obtained more easily by a company than by an individual
 Professional skilled people are employed to manage the company.
Disadvantages

 Company are more expensive to form, legal fees cost a lot of money.
 The company may grow very large and become difficult to manage
 There are a lot of legal matters involved
 It takes a lot of time to register and to start operating the company
4. Cooperative
It is registered organization created by producers/retailers who have decided to come together
for mutual benefit. Farmers bring their resources together, to construct farm structures or
purchase equipment which they will share to enhance their production. They are brought
together by their common economic needs.

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They are responsible for;
a) Bulk buying- of seeds and cattle therefore farmers will be able to buy at lower prices.
b) Selling produce-200 farmers may own among themselves a Dairy and the milk
produced will be sent for processing industries.
c) Financing- may loan money to farmers at lower rates of interest in order to buy
machinery and inputs.
d) Back Up services-like Veterinary services, free advice on farming, linking farmers with
processing industries such as milling and cheese production.
Advantages

 Members share transfer equipment , structure which tend to be more profitable than
when each farmer organizes his /her own.
 Members are also employees in the same business therefore it is labour saving.
Disadvantages

 There may be conflicts between members

 Some members are reluctant to work hard hence poor performance of the business
AN EFFECTIVE ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE IN A FARM
An organizational structure shows how responsibilities are placed among various levels of the
work force.

 It shows the hierarchy of authority and responsibility on a farm

 It makes effective and clear communication from one level to the next between all levels
Below are two examples of organizational structure of a simple business and a big business

DOWN SYSTEM

Owner / Manager

Labourer Labourer Labourer Labourer

SHARED DECISION Manager Manager

Manager

114
 Farm Supervisor Farm Supervisor Farm Supervisor

(Crop production) (livestock) (Marketing)

Bookkeeper

Labourer Labourer Labourer Labourer Labourer Labourer

FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT
1. SETTING GOALS FOR THE FARM
– Before production can begin, farm managers must know what they aim on the farm. Usually
most manager’s aim is to earn the highest profits.
2. DECISION MAKING
Farm managers must make three very important decisions

- what to produce
- how to produce it
- how much to produce
3. PLANNING
Planning the activities of the farm on daily basis; a plan showing dates of planting, addition of
fertilizer, harvesting time e.t.c.
4. IMPLEMENTATION
The farm manager carries out the plan. He makes sure that crops are grown, fertilizers are added
e.t.c
5. MONITORING AND SUPERVISING
The manager sees to it that workers do the work which is supposed to be done. He constantly
checks the progress of the activities carried out on the farm.

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EVALUATION
At the end, he checks to see if the results have been achieved, if the planned activities on the
farm have succeeded or failed.
ROLES /DUTIES OF MANAGEMENT
1. Board of directors
Made up of directors of the company and the chairperson.
 They make major long term policies and decisions i.e. expansion of the vegetable
production over the next 10years
 Appoint the lower management officers
 Decide on how profits are distributed
2. Managing Director
Main function is to ensure that the decisions made at Board Level are carried out

3. Farm Manager
Is responsible for day to day running of the farm and decision making . i.e. what type of
livestock feed to buy and when to plant maize. He also work closely with managers of
different departments

4. Department Manager
These are people responsible for activities which take place in their departments
a) Production Manager
Is responsible for production of crops and /or livestock on the farm. He ensures that all
materials are available such as machinery, labour, materials etc.

b) Personnel Manager
Personnel refers to the people employed on the farm. A personnel manager will choose
the right people for the right job, motivate and train them, set wage levels and bonuses,
monitors and supervises the workforce.
He looks after the welfare of workers like provision of housing and may terminate
employment of workers who perform badly.

c) Purchasing Manager
Responsible for buying the inputs to be used in production of crops and livestock. E.g.
beef producer will purchase feed for livestock and vaccines
d) Maintenance Manager
Ensure availability of correct tools and machinery, regular servicing and arrange for repair
when broken

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 e) Marketing Manager
Responsible for choosing the best way to sell farm produce. Stages involved in marketing
are; storage, preparation for sale, processing, transportation, advertising, market
research and financing.
f) Finance Manager
Refers to anything to do with money, financing manager must obtain funds, control all
expenditure for the benefit of the farm. He/she needs to ensure that enough money is
available for the payment of debts and that the farm makes a profit.

g) Security Manager
Manager ensure protection of all expensive farm machinery and assets from loss and
theft

h) Supervisors
These people closely supervise the workers in various departments to ensure that they
carry out their duties well
QUALITIES OF A GOOD FARM MANAGER

1. Honesty; A manager must always tell the truth and keep accurate records of money spent
and received. In so doing he will be trusted by his workers
2. Fairness; A manager should treat all workers in the same way (equally) and not favor
others
3. Confidence; This is needed when introducing new methods of production on the farm.
Farming is a risky business and success is not always guaranteed. A manager must have
confidence in himself so that the workers can also have confidence in him.
4. Good health; He often works long hours. He must be healthy to keep up with the demand
(extra hours) of the farm
5. Skillful; A manager must have skills and knowledge of the work so that he can guide the
workers
6. Ability to lead people; Leading people does not only mean giving instructions. The
manager should be willing to listen to the opinions and feelings of workers on the farm
and even learn from them.
7. Motivation; The manager must be able to motivate the farm workers to work hard
8. Adaptability; This means that the manager must be willing to change the way things are
done in the farm even at short notice e.g. replacing cattle with other types of livestock if
the beef prices fall.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE STARTING AN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION ENTERPRISE

 Market
 Current and potential consumption
 Distribution system

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  Buyers (retail stores, wholesalers, and farmers)
 Prices
 Minimum size
 Availability of raw material
 Capital needs
 Labour needs
 Operational cost
 Management skills

PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED BY COMMERCIAL FARMERS IN BOTSWANA

1. Unreliable rainfall- in some years, rains come very late, so farmers are forced to plant
crops late and crops production is affected negatively.
2. Crop pests and diseases- during years when there is good rainfall, Botswana experiences
severe outbreaks of insects and other pests that cause a great loss.
3. Traditional living patterns- Batswana traditionally have three living places: the village, the
lands and cattle post. In many cases these places are far apart which makes it difficult to
take care of crops at the same time with taking care of animals.
4. High production costs- most of the implements, machines and fuel needed for modern
farming methods must be imported from other countries and are very expensive.
5. Lack of capital- the average farmer does not have the money to buy better implements,
fertilizers and certified seeds.
6. Poor soil quality- only about 5% of the soil in Botswana is suitable for crop farming.
7. Lack of technical skills in agriculture- some farmers do not have training in commercial
agriculture.
8. Poor record keeping- many farmers in Botswana do not keep correct records and cannot
keep track of the performance of the operation.
9. Unavailability of agricultural inputs- some of the production inputs are not readily
available in Botswana, and hence they take a long time to arrive in the country.
10. High temperature- the summer temperatures in Botswana are very high, this leads to high
evaporation of moisture from the soil and crops.
11. HIV and AIDS- many farmers and farm workers are affected by HIV and AIDS. This has
reduced labour on the farms.

Suggested solutions to problems experienced by commercial farmers.

 Farmers should make use of government programmes such as CEDA that are there to
provide loans and assistance in developing skills.
 Farmers can seek loans from commercial banks.
 Farmers and farm workers should be trained to use modern farming methods.

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  Farmers should dig boreholes and use water for irrigation; build more dams to collect
rain water.
 Add fertilizers to the soil to improve soil fertility.
 Chemicals can be used to control pests and diseases.
 Farmers can plant crops that are drought and disease resistant.
 To improve the supply of labour, farmers should pay better salaries and improve working
conditions.
 To reduce the harm caused by HIV and AIDS, FARM OWNERS AND WORKERS SHOULD BE
encouraged to go for HIV and AIDS testing.

MARKETING
What is Marketing?
1. This is delivery of customer satisfaction at a profit.
2. When individuals or groups obtain what they need or want through exchange of
products.

producers marketin consumer

g
Marketing brings together the consumer and sellers of the goods and services to do business.
Sellers ensure that they satisfy the needs and wants of their consumers and get appropriate value
in return for the product sold.
MARKETING CONCEPTS
These are ideas that firms/businesses should use to analyze the wants of their customers and
make decisions to satisfy those wants and needs. It is about matching a company’s capabilities
with the customers wants and needs.
But there are threats when analyzing the need

 Competition
 Political changes
 Economic, social and technological environment in trying to match their capabilities with
the needs and wants of their customers

REASONS FOR MARKETING

 Bridges the gap between needs of producers and consumers

 Helps producers better understand the needs of consumers so that producers can better
meet those needs

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  Help producers decide what product to produce and when to produce it.
 Leads to satisfaction of consumer and higher profits for the producers.
 Used to retain the customers
 Helps build customer relationship (well planned activities, implemented properly
enhances the relationship)
 Marketing also help build a brand image( will let customers to know what to expect)
 Builds value in your product and services for your customers.

MARKET MIX
Every business owner needs to plan how to sell his or her products in order to get the most profit
possible. The marketing mix is a model that outlines the most important elements of successful
marketing plan. These elements are also called the four Ps of marketing, because each of them
starts with a P.

P1 P2
Product Promotion

P3 P4
Price Place

1. Product ; is anything that can be offered for sale

; is anything that satisfy a need
; must bring benefit to the consumer.
2. Price ; is the amount of money that the consumer has to pay for the product
; product must carry the right price (right) in light of market forces
; set the right price for the product because it will affect the consumer choice of
product
; price determines the income that can be generated by the business
3. Place ; the right product must be at the right price in the right place for the consumer
to purchase
; channels must be considered

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 Channels = 1. Producer consumers especially for fresh
vegetable
= 2. Producers retailers
consumers
4. Promotion; means methods of communication used by a marketer to persuade
consumers to buy a product
1. Advertising (news paper, magazines, radios and TV)
2. Personal selling ( sales persons/people)
3. Sales promotion ( specials and free samples
4. Public Relations (sponsorships)

METHODS OF MARKETING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS/ CHANNELS

This are channels for transfers of goods from point of production to point of consumption
MARKTING CHANNELS; path that a farm product takes from producer to consumer. The length
of the path depends on the type of product marketed.
CHANNEL 1 producer consumer
Product s are sold directly to consumers without middle men. E.g. fresh cabbage sold at a farmers
road side stall
CHANNEL 2 producer agent consumer
Product sold through a middle man, middle is entitled to payment. E.g. agent buys cattle on
behalf of a farmer.
CHANNEL 3 producer Retailer/Vendor consumer
Producer sells to retailer / street vendor and they sell to consumer

CHANNEL 4 producer wholesaler Retailer consumer

There are more middle men which make the path longer. E.g. producers sells beans to BAMB,
BAMB grade and pack the beans in small quantities ; 1kg, 2kg, 5kg and 10kg, the packages are
sold to retailers who will then sell to producers.
CHANNEL 5
Three middle between the producer and the consumer

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i.e.

cattle Grain

producer producer

BMC (slaughter, processing into meat BAMB

Cuts and packaging)

Wholesalers Millers

Retailers Wholesalers

Consumer Consumers
UTILIZATION OF ICT TO PROMOTE
ICT stands for Information Communications Technology. ICT in marketing involves the use of
phones, newspaper, television, the internet, email and other forms of communication to attract
customers to buy a product.
FARM RECORDS
Farm records are written statements of day to day events which occur on the farm.
Reasons for keeping farm records

1. They allow the farmers to compare performances between enterprises on their farms
2. They help farmers obtain loans from financial institutions.
3. They help farmers work out how much income tax they must pay.
4. They remind farmers of any debts they owe

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 5. They help farm advisors or extension officers give better advice.
6. They help farmers plan for future.
7. They allow farmers to compare the farm’s performance with other farms.
8. They record the history of the farm.

There are different types of farm records such as:

 Physical records which include the farm inventory, farm diary, livestock and field records.
 Production records such as milk or egg production.
 Financial records.

1. PHYSICAL RECORDS
The farm inventory
An inventory is a list of all the farm’s assets and their value. It shows a farmer how much his farm
is worth. To prepare an inventory you need to count, record and value all the assets on the farm.
Table14.1 a farm inventory

Date of inventory: 27 June 2011

Item Quantity Value per Total

unit value(pula)
(pula)

Tractor 1 100 000

Mould board plough 1 10 000
Broiler chicks 2000 5.50
50kg bag starter mash 200 70
50kg bag finisher mash 300 85
Bull 1 4 500
Dairy cow 10 3 200
Calf 7 600
50kg bag wheat bran 50 30
70kg bag maize 70 40
50kg bag super phosphate 20 80

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 Total

Farm diary
A farm diary is a day to day record of everything that takes place on the farm.
School farm diary

Date Description of activities Time taken

16 January Our teacher divided us into pairs. Each pair was given a plot, 3m by 2 hours
2011 1m, to grow maize. We dug the plot with a fork and removed the
weeds by hand. We leveled the plot with a rake and made a ridge
around the plot using a rake and a spade.

19 January 2×50kg bag of broiler starter mash arrived 10minutes

2011

20 January We prepared the poultry house for the arrival of one day old chicks. 1 hour
2011 We swept and disinfected the floor.

21 January We placed wood shavings on the poultry house floor. We used a 45 minutes
2011 hosepipe to water the fruit trees.
30 minutes

22 January We planted two rows of maize in a plot. The rows were 70cm apart. 1 hour
2011 Along each row we made a small hole every 30cm. We placed two
seeds in each hole and covered them with soil. We watered the plot
with two watering cans.

23 January The layers started to lay eggs. We collected eight eggs and graded 10 minutes
2011 them.

Livestock records
Livestock records include information on the type of livestock on the farm, their dates of birth,
their physical and health status, and any diseases or deaths they experience.
Field records
Field records contain all the information about the crops growing on a farm. They show the size
of the fields for each crop, the variety of the crop planted, the dates for sowing, weeding, fertilizer
application, pest control, harvesting and any other activities carried out.

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 2. PRODUCTION RECORDS
Production records are kept for each enterprise.

 The inputs used. Inputs are the materials and equipment that the farmer needs to grow
crops or rear livestock.
 The outputs obtained. This is what the farmer produces.

Crop production records

Crop production records include the following information:

 Amount of inputs used; amount of fertilizer, seeds sown etc.

 The outputs or yield obtained; maybe stated in bags, kgs, or tons.

3. FINANCIAL RECORDS
 Costs or expenditure; this is the money a farmer spends on buying inputs such as seeds,
fertilizers, vaccines, livestock and feed.
 Income, revenue or returns; this is the money a farmer receives when selling his produce.
 Profit or loss; profits are made when income is greater than costs. A loss happens when
costs are greater than income.

Sales book for broiler production

Year: 2011
Month: May
Enterprise: Broiler (batch No.1)

Date of Sold to Amount sold Selling price Income Receipt

sale received number

15/05/11 Spar, moleps 135 P45.00each 0265

17/05/11 Choppies 41 P42.00each 0166

18/05/11 Ookeditse 3 P40.00each 035

19/05/11 Eric 8 P40.00each 1002

Total

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An expenses book for broiler production

Year: 2011
Month: February to April
Enterprise: broiler ( batch No. 1)

Date of Item Bought Amount Buying Amount Receipt

purchase from bought price spent number
(Pula per
bag)

24/02/11 1×50kg bag starter BAMB 5 75 0204

mash

24/02/11 1×50kg bag finisher BAMB 15 85 0205

mash

01/03/11 1×50kg bag finisher BAMB 10 85 0217

mash

03/03/11 One day old chicks Jims 200 4.50 0218

farm

11/03/11 1×100g tin of LAC 1 20 per tin 0223

Oxyphen powder

11/03/11 1×200g tin of LAC 1 20 per tin 0224

terramycin

24/04/11 1×100g tin of LAC 3 20 per tin 0226

Oxyphen powder

Total

Financial records may be used to produce a profit and loss account and a budget.
Profit and loss account
The profit and loss account is a summary of costs and income during the year. It shows the
valuation or value at a particular time, eg;

 Permanent buildings e.g. tool shed and barn

 Equipment e.g. tractors, ploughs and spades

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  Farm materials e.g. chemicals and fertilizers

A profit and loss account for a crop

Name of farm: Bonnington

Year: 2011
Period: 1 January – 31 December
Crop: onions

Income Expenditure

Item Amount Item Amount

Closing valuation of P9 000 Opening valuation of P10 000

buildings, equipment buildings, equipment
and farm materials. and farm materials

Sales: Expenses:

Onions Seeds

Fertilizers

Labour

Utilities

Total Total

BUDGETING AND FUNDING AGRICULTURAL ENTERPRISES

Budgets
A budget is an estimate of how much money a farmer may spend on, or receive from, a particular
enterprise in the future. This type of record is used for planning on the farm.
Reasons for budgeting

 It shows whether a business is likely to be viable.

 The budget will show how to plan to spend the loan.
 You can estimate future tax payments by looking at your expected income.
 It can be used to estimate the expenditure.
 It can be used to compare the profitability of various ways of doing business.

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  It estimates how much money you will need to have to continue business in the following
year.
 It helps you avoid over spending.
 It helps you identify weak points in farm operations.

How to prepare a budget for a farm enterprise

A budget is prepared as follows:

1. Preparing a plan

To make a plan, you must decide on the following:

 Types of crops to be grown

 Area to be planted for each crop
 Numbers of each type of livestock
 Production and harvesting methods
2. Estimating the costs and income

Costs
Make a detailed list of all the inputs you will need for your farm to succeed.
Income
List all the products your farm will produce and sell, together with the expected selling quantities.

3. Working out the estimated costs and income

In the expenses column, add all the estimated maximum costs of production to give the total
maximum expected costs.
FUNDING AGRICULTURAL ENTERPRISES
In Botswana farmers are funded through:

 Grants – grants are non – refundable but farmers may be required to fulfill certain
conditions.
 Subsidies – the subsidy sponsor pays a portion of the price for specified inputs. You pay
the rest. The subsidy percentage is non – refundable.
 Loans – these are sums of money lent to farmers with interest for a period of time.
Farmers have to pay loans back with interest.

Institutions and organizations or agencies assisting agriculture enterprises

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 1. Government

Current government schemes include the Integrated Support Program for Arable Agriculture
Development (ISPAAD), Livestock Management and Infrastructure Development (LIMID) and
cluster fencing of arable land.

2. Parastatal organizations

Parastatals are organizations that are partly owned by the government, although they are
managed independently as a profit – making entities. This includes Citizen Entrepreneurial
Agency (CEDA), National Development Bank (NDB) and Botswana Corporation (BDC)
3. Commercial banks

These are banks such as Bank Gaborone, Barclays, Bank of Baroda, Capital, Stanbic, Bank ABC and
Standard Chartered bank.
The conditions attached to funding of agricultural enterprises / criteria for funding
1. Private banks

All private financial institutions demand that farmers who apply for loans must be 18years of age
and above. The applicant should have an account with the bank so that the bank can directly take
its repayment installments from the account.
2. CEDA

The scheme is intended to help:

o Citizens over 18 years wishing to start a business
o Citizens over 18 years wishing to expand a business
o Citizens and foreign investors who have joined together to start and run a business.

3. ISPAAD

It is for arable agriculture and is open for both Batswana and foreigners with residence and work
permit. Applicants must be over 18yrs and must provide proof that they own or lease the fields.
The elements funded are:
o Cluster funding: the farmers must establish a cluster management committee, have
properly drawn site plans and constitution.
o Provision of potable water: the farmers must establish a cluster and a constitution.
o Provision of seeds: all rain fed farmers are eligible and the land should be a maximum of
16 hectares
o Provision of fertilizers: all rain fed farmers are given certain fertilizers.

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 o Facilitation of access to credit: helps farmers get loans from NDB,
o Establishment of agricultural services centers (ASCs): these centers assist farmers with
machinery for ploughing, planting and harrowing.
4. LIMID

This scheme is not a total grant but requires applicants to make varying percentage contributions.
o Animal husbandry and fodder support
o Borehole and well-equipment support
o Borehole drilling and reticulation support
o Small stock support programme
o Cooperative poultry abattoir facilities
o Small scale guinea foul production
o Tswana chicken production

The conditions attached are:

o ID and over 18 yrs

o Should be owning cattle or small stock
o Must be in possession of land board certificates for residential or business plot.
o A registered cattle brand
o Goats and sheep supplied may not be sold for three years
o Those who benefited before may not re- apply
o All equipment supplied will remain the property of the government.
5. Young farmers fund
o Botswana citizens 18 to 40 years old
o The maximum size of the loan is P500 000 and the interest is 5% per annum.
o The grace period for loans will not exceed 24 months
o Asserts financed by the fund must be pledged as security
o The beneficiaries will be required to sign binding loan agreements with the fund.
o The beneficiaries will must provide CEDA with regular reports on the performance of the
projects
o Beneficiaries must be willing to be guided and developed as entrepreneurs.
o No applicant can be granted more than one loan at a time
o The project must be full – time owner managed
o The project location must be approved by the ministry of agriculture extension services.

Application forms for funding

Application forms for government assistance programmes are available from departments of the
ministry of agriculture, the ministry of Youth Sports and Culture, CEDA offices and NDB.

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BUSINESS PLAN
Reasons for conducting market research
Market research is making a detailed study of consumers, competitors and industry conditions.
Market research is conducted for the following reasons;
1. Identify demand

Market research gives information on whether or not there is demand for your product or
service.
2. Identify customer needs and wants

Market research identifies customer needs and wants.

3. Identifying completion

You should compare what your customers need to what your competitors offer.
4. Identifying a customer profile

Market research helps you to identify the kind of people likely to buy your product

5. Starting a new business

It is necessary to conduct market research before you start a new business such as an agricultural
enterprise.
6. Launching a new product

Before you launch the product you need to know if there is demand for that product.
7. Finding new markets

Market research helps to find and enter new markets.

8. Increasing sales

Market research helps to make decisions on marketing targets and strategies such as advertising
and packaging.
9. Tracking changes in market

It will help you about the increases and decreases in demand for your product.

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BUSINESS IDEAS AND OPPORTUNITIES
1. The business idea

A business idea is a thought or concept that can be developed and turned into a profitable
business. It forms in the mind because a person sees a solution to the problem.
2. The business opportunity

A business opportunity is a chance for getting into business that may involve selling or leasing
any product or service. Often people’s needs and wants provide an opportunity for doing
business.
Agricultural business opportunities

 Crop production
 Poultry production
 Beef cattle production
 Dairy cattle production
 Fruit production
 Game farming

Reasons for preparing a business plan

A business plan is prepared for two main reasons

 Funding purposes

Lending or funding institutions need business plan to satisfy themselves of the viability or
profitability of a proposed business.

 Operational guidance

The entrepreneur is able to make proper decisions based on what the plan stipulates. The
manager is able to stay focused on the goals because they are clearly laid out in the objectives.
ELEMENTS OF A BUSINESS PLAN
1. Summary statement

This is a brief description of the business and what it is all about and why it is being conceived. It
also captures the name, address and location of the business.
2. Strategic objectives

This is what the business intends to achieve in all aspects of its operations. Its mission and
principles.

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 3. Key players

This section refers to the human resource base and its structure.
4. The customer

The market base for the business, the geographic location and demographic details of the
market.
5. Competition

It includes detailed information about competitors and their way of operating.

6. Penetration strategies

These are general marketing plans and strategies such as advertising and promotion to reach the
potential customers.
7. Forecasts

This is the financial part of the business plan and it contains the financial budgets – the cost
budgets and the income budgets.
PREPARATION AND PRESENTATION OF A BUSINESS PLAN
1. The idea
 What is the idea and why is it unique? Is the idea feasible?
 Describe the type of business you are interested in.
 State the overall aim and specific purpose of the proposed business.
2. Study the competition
 Who are the competitors, suppliers and potential clients?
 What is the price of the products presently on the market?
 Can you compete with the quantity and quality?
 What is the percentage of market share that you expect?
3. uction process
 Describe the products that you will produce.
 Which production methods do you plan to use?
 State your labour requirements.
4. Your resources
 The guaranteed available resources, at a competitive price, to produce the product.
 What is your financial position?
 What facilities are available to you?

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5. Structure
 Which organizational structure and type of enterprise do you prefer?
6. Location
 What is the intended location of the business?
 Why do you select this area?
 Will you purchase or lease?
7. Marketing plan
 How will you introduce the product?
 How will you encourage the purchase and use of the product?
 Determine you’re your budget.
8. Price structure
 How will profit be determined?
 How will you determine production cost and selling price?
9. Human resources management
 Who are the people you wish to employ?
 What are their skills and experience?
 How will you recruit and retain them?
 List the principal function each person will perform.
 Describe the objectives of the management team.
 Describe the business arrangements and responsibilities of the owner.
10. Financial plan
 Provide a budget for initial costs, a cash flow projection for the financial year and a
balance sheet for the year.
 Outline anticipated profits or losses.
 State where the money will come from (funding).

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 FORM 3 NOTES

VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
Vegetable crops grown in Botswana

Indigenous vegetable crops.

These are vegetables that originate in Botswana, for example;

 Single leafed cleome (Rothwe)

 Pig weed (Thepe)
 Bush Okra (Delele)
 Cow Pea (Morogo wa Dinawa)
 Water lily (Tswii)
 Wild stripped cucumber (Monyaku)
Exotic Vegetable Crops

These are vegetables that originate outside. Botswana for example

-Spinach -cucumber -beans

-Cabbage -cauliflower -kale

-Beetroot -peas -parsnips

-Lettuce -tomatoes -egg plants

-Leeks -onions

Nutritional Value of vegetables

 They are rich in minerals and vitamins which help protect the body against diseases.
 Leafy vegetables and potato skins are good source of fibre which help in digestion and
excretion.
 Spinach is a source of iron which is essential for blood formation.

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  Eating carrots can help improve one’s eyesight as carrots contain carotene and vitamin A.
 Vegetables such as beetroot, potatoes and legumes are rich in carbohydrates which gives
us energy.
 Fleshy fruit vegetables, such as tomatoes contain a lot of water which is needed in the body.
 Vegetables such as garlic and onions increase ones appetite by adding flavour to the food
making food smell good and taste better.
Demand and Supply of Vegetable production situation in Botswana

Since most of Batswana recognize the importance of vegetables in their diet, they buy the
vegetables at the market and eat at home. However not all vegetables are readily available on the
market. This shows an imbalance in the supply and demand for vegetables. So the situation shows
that the demand for vegetables is HIGH and the supply for the vegetables is LOW. Therefore we
still import vegetables from other countries as to meet the demand.

Opportunities for further vegetable development

There are good opportunities in the development of vegetable industry in this country. The large
demand for vegetable means that there are many opportunities for further vegetable development.
Instead of relying on imported vegetables Batswana should use government grants and their own
resources to start vegetable enterprises. Other opportunities include the following

- Marketing
- Processing
- Distribution of vegetable and vegetable products.
- Waste water from house holds
- Home made fertilizers
Government Strategies aimed at improving vegetable production

 Providing Financial Assistance: Government provides financial assistance to vegetable

producers through the CEDA programme. People willing to start vegetable production may
apply for grants under this programme.
 Including horticulture in the school curriculum: To increase knowledge and skills in
vegetable production, students are taught how to grow vegetable at an early age. Some of

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 the students may be interested in starting vegetable production business after leaving
school.
 Developing market structures or facilities: Government has built market structures for
local producers and is still planning to build other market structures as to encourage
vegetable producers to produce more without fear with the presence of markets.
 Supply of inputs: Inputs like seeds, seedlings, pesticides and fertilizers can be bought by
vegetable producers at farmer’s centers, veterinary, hardware supply stores and super
markets.
 Providing technical support: Agricultural demonstrators have been employed by the
government to help provide technical advice and support to vegetable producers. The
demonstrator shows them how things are done with the production of vegetables.
Requirements for the establishment of a vegetable enterprise

- Enough land with fertile soil

- Permanent source of water for irrigation

- Adequate capital to finance the project

- Correct tools and equipment

- Near to consumption centers or market

- Skilled, experienced and reliable personnel

Factors considered when choosing which vegetable to grow

-Vegetable needs of a family

-Soil type and climatic conditions needed by crop

-Technical knowledge of the crop

-Market demand for vegetables

Resistance to pests, diseases and drought

-Ease of growing and managing

-Labour requirements

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 -Value of the crop

Methods of vegetable production

1. Open beds or Field Production: This is where vegetables are grown in an open cultivated
piece of land. No individual plots are made instead the whole field where vegetables are to
be planted is cultivated. Vegetable crops are planted in rows and taken care of until
harvesting or maturity. Cabbage, spinach and onions can be produced under this method.
2. Seedbed/Plot production: Seedbed or plot production is suitable for growing vegetables
on a small scale for example for home use, research or for growing vegetables in the school
garden for educational purposes. With this method, different types of seedbeds are used
like flat seedbed, raised seedbed and sunken seedbed.
3. Concrete bench production: Under this method, several permanent beds with a
framework of bricks or concrete are constructed. The base of the walls is made of concrete.
It should have outlet holes that allow excess water to drain. We then put growth medium
in the bench and cultivate our crops. It is good to use in areas where there are water
shortages and where we are to conserve moisture. This production method is also used in
nurseries
4. Greenhouse or tunnel production: Greenhouses are structures with glass or plastic roof
and walls that are usually transparent. This is to allow the sunlight to enter and warm the
inside but then prevent the heat from escaping. Sometimes this house is in the shape of a
tunnel. Greenhouses are usually used by commercial vegetable producers because they are
expensive high technology facilities. Vegetables can be grown here throughout the year
because the structures protect the vegetables from heat, cold, strong winds and pests.
Tomatoes for instance, can be sown in green house in winter because they susceptible to
frost.
5. Hydroponics: This method is used where water and soil are limiting factors in the
production of vegetables. Vegetables are grown in a medium such as gravel, sand or
sawdust to provide some root anchorage. Plants nutrients are supplied directly to the roots
in the form of a solution.
6. Pots/Containers: With this method pots or containers are filled with medium in production
of vegetables. Support may be provided using stakes or by trellising.

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Seedbeds/ plots for vegetable

1. Raised Plot
They are about 25cm above ground level

Advantages

-often better soil structure and more plant food for vegetables

-provide good drainage and aeration

-encourage better root penetration

-help to prevent washing away of vegetables during rainstorms

Disadvantages

-poor at conserving rainwater

-it is unsuitable for very dry areas

- more work is done to build a heap

2. Sunken Plots
Sunken 10-15cm below path level

Advantages

-conserve a great deal for water

-suitable for dry seasons

-the seedlings are protected from damage by strong winds.

Disadvantages

-allows water to stay in one place so are water logged

-it takes a lot of work and time to prepare

-soil easily becomes hard and poorly aerated

-they are suitable for heavy rain areas

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 This is the type of seedbed suitable for vegetable production in our area as we receive little
amount of rainfall.

3. Flat seedbed
A flat seedbed is level with the ground surface

Advantages

-it is easy and less time consuming to prepare than

the other types of beds.

Disadvantages

Seedlings can easily be washed away by running water since the beds are level with
the ground

Classification of vegetable crops

Vegetable crops are generally classified according to the part of the plant eaten or used. The
common classes include; leaf, legume, roots, fruit, bulb and flower.

Class Part Used Examples

Leaf Leaves Cabbage, spinach, choumolia, kale and lettuce

Legume Young pods Peas, bush beans and broad beans

Root Root Carrots, beetroot, parsnip, radish, Irish potatoes

Fruit Fruit Tomatoes, eggplants, green pepper, cucumber and pumpkin

Bulb Bulb Onions, garlic, leeks and shallot

Flower Flower bulb Cauliflower and broccoli, Brussels sprout

Varieties of vegetables under study

1. Spinach/ Swiss chard

- Ford hook Giant

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 - Lucullus
- Bloomsdale
- Viroflay
Soil and climatic requirements

Soil

Spinach is a heavy feeder and thus it grows well in a fertile, well drained, well aerated and sandy
loam soil. Spinach prefers slightly acidic to neutral soil (with pH range of 6.0-7.0). If soils are
acidic lime has to be added.

Climate

Spinach is a col season crop and grows well in winter and autumn. It can resist frost and prefers
temperature ranging from 10°C to 30°C. It is also a heavy drinker and requires more water as to
produce succulent leaves.

Organic and Inorganic fertilizers of spinach

Basal dressing

Add kraal manure 5-8 kg/m2 or chicken manure 2-3 kg/m2 at least 2 weeks before planting using
broadcasting method

200g/m2 of superphosphate and 80-100g/m2 of NPK are usually used when the soil is too poor

Top dressing

Apply 14g of LAN or 20g of ammonium sulphate per 3m2 three weeks after planting and repeat
the treatment 4-5 weeks. Side dressing or ring method are used as methods of application.

Planting and spacing (sowing)

Seeds are sown directly on a nursery or raised or sunken plots. Inter row spacing is 40 - 60cm and
Intra row spacing is 15 - 25cm. The depth of planting is 1 - 2cm

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Management practices of spinach

Mulching

It should be done immediately after planting using dry grass. It helps smoothen weeds and also
protects loss of moisture from the soil encouraging germination.

Watering

Water plants regularly and sufficiently

Reasons:-
1 cool soil
2 for germination
3 control soil temperature
Thinning

It should be started 2-3weeks after seedling emergence to allow seedling enough space to grow.

Reasons:-

1 create space

2 avoid competition for nutrients , sunlight , water

Weeding

Weeds should be removed at all times whenever they are observed.

Reasons:-

1 control pests

2 avoid competition for water , nutrients

Cultivation

Regular cultivation of soil is essential before and after planting.

Reasons:-

1 for aeration

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2 for water , air penetration

Shading

Provision of net shade to young seedlings is very essential looking at our climatic conditions.

Reasons:-

1 avoid crops to scotched by the sun

2 controls soil temperature

Fertilizer application

Most of the vegetables are heavy feeders and they need to be provided nutrients at all times when
needed.

Reasons:-

1 increase soil fertility

2 imrove crop quality

Pest and disease control

Regular inspection of vegetables for attack by pests and diseases is important. When attack is
observed measures should be taken to control them without delay

Reasons:- improve crop quality

Pests affecting spinach

-Aphids - red spider mites

-Cutworms - Thrips

-Birds - root knot eelworms

-Cabbage moth

- Leaf miners

- American bollworms

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Description of pests affecting vegetables

Aphids

These are soft bodied slow moving insects of varying colours such as black, green yellow, grey
and brown depending on the species. They have sucking mouth parts and are found on the
underside of leaves.

Cutworms

The cutworm gets its name from its feeding habit. It is a greyish and hairless caterpillar produced
by a moth. A common behavior of the cutworm is that it curls into a ring or into a letter C shape
when disturbed or touched. Cutworms hide under the soil close to the surface during the day.

Thrips

These are yellow to brown insects which are 10cm long.

Damage caused by pests on spinach (aphid, cutworms, diamond back moth)

-They suck plant cell or juices while on the underside of the leaves.

-They chew the leaves until only a thin layer of the leave remains

-Saliva injected on the leaves while feeding may spread diseases

-Large number of aphids feeding on the leaves cause curling of the leaves.

Methods of controlling pests

-Sanitation methods and crop rotation can be adhered.

-Use of insecticides such as Malathion and Dimethoate can be used to kill pests

-Highly infected plants should be removed and destroyed

-Regular weeding should be carried out so that pests do not hide in weeds.

Diseases of spinach

-leaf curl - Spinach blight

-Leaf spot - Downey mildew

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 - Damping off - Anthracnose

Damping off

It is caused by fungus

Symptoms

- The base of the stem and roots turn black or dark brown in colour.
- Seedlings become stunted
- Leaves start yellowing and finally wilt.
- Seedlings die because there is no transportation of water and nutrients from the roots to the
upper parts of the plant since the tissues have been damaged.
Treatment

There is no effective treatment for this disease. Prevention is the best strategy to use.

Control and prevention measures

- Avoid over watering and planting in poorly drained or watered logged soils.

- Sow seeds thinly to avoid overcrowding. Thinning over-crowded seedlings is very helpful.

- Remove infected plants and sanitize and sterilize equipment that has been used where there
was Dumping off.

- Spray seedlings as soon as possible after germination with fungicide (Rizolex)

Signs of maturity in Spinach

Spinach will reach maturity within 7 - 9 weeks after direct planting. The leaves are well developed,
tender, fresh and have dark green color. The leaf tissues or cells will still be soft instead of woody.

Harvesting and processing of spinach

Leaf pickling starts about 2 months after planting and continues for 3 - 10months. Cut off leaves
with a sharp knife just above the ground. Only a few mature leaves are harvested at a time allowing
the young ones to remain and grow well. Leaves should be picked early morning as this will ensure
they are crisp.

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Spinach is not usually processed as it is sold fresh.

Marketing of spinach

After spinach has been harvested, damaged and diseased leaves should be separated from those
that are fresh, tender and of good quality. Good quality leaves can now be washed with clean water
to remove dirt. The selected healthy leaves are tied in bundles or wrapped in plastic bags before
they are sold. Spinach can also be chopped in smaller pieces and put in plastic bags in preparation
for sale. Spinach need to be transported to the market soon be its very sensitive to temperature
change. It can be sold directly to individuals, supermarkets, wholesalers and Botswana
Horticulture Market.

Storage and preservation of spinach

Like most leafy vegetables spinach is very perishable and has a short storage period. To avoid
wilting, spinach is stored in cool place. If there are no refrigerators, spinach leaves can be placed
upright in containers with water as the leaves will keep on absorbing water and remain in good
condition. Wrapping the leaves in plastic will also preserve moisture in the leaves for some time.

2. Onion
Onion cultivars differs mainly in the following ways

-size of the bulb

-shape of the bulb (ball shape or flat topped)

-Skin colour (may be straw yellow, red, reddish brown or purple)

-The flesh (white or cream)

There are two main types of onions:

-Bulb

-Spring onion or salad

Bulb onions form large bulbs and spring onions are those which are harvested when small and
immature and they have tiny bulbs.

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Onions Cultivars

CULTIVAR BULB SIZE BULB SHAPE BULB SKIN COLOUR

Bulb Onion

Australian brown Medium Ball Red brown

Grano Medium Flat-topped Straw yellow

Brownsville Large Ball Straw yellow

Pyramid Medium Flat-topped Straw yellow

Texas Grano Large Ball Straw yellow

Bon accord Medium Ball Straw yellow

San Medium Flat topped Dark yellow

Spring Onion

White Lisbon Tiny Ball White

White Welsh Tiny Ball White

Soil requirements

Onions require well drained, loose sandy loam soil. Compact soil will make the onion form small
bulbs, so avoid planting in clay soil. The soil should be free from weeds, pests’ diseases and stones.

The pH range must be between 6.5 to 7.5 neutral.

Climatic requirements

Onions prefer cool temperatures. When it is too hot onion plants still produce large leaves though
the bulb remain small. Bulb formation requires more hours of day light with minimal moisture in
the soil. Onions are drought resistant and can withstand frost.

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Organic and Inorganic fertilizers of onions

Onions are also heavy feeders and for basal dressing kraal manure can be used at a rate of 3-
4kg/m2. With regard to inorganic fertilizer, still under basal dressing, 2:3:2 (22) can be used with
an application of 100g /m2. Top dressing can also be done with the addition of LAN at a rate of 15
g/m2 four to six weeks after transplanting. Also add muriate of potash six weeks before harvesting.

Management Practices on onion

Spacing

Onions are usually sown indirectly on seedbeds/boxes and they are later transplanted to permanent
plots where spacing is as follows:

- Inter spacing 30 - 45cm

- Intra spacing 10 - 15cm
- Onions seeds can take 12 – 14 days to emerge
- Onions can be transplanted at any time of the day because they can withstand heat as they
store moisture in the bulb. Onion need trimming to make planting easier i.e. roots are
trimmed to 1cm while leaves are trimmed to 10cm.
- Onions are transplanted 1 and half months after sowing.

Trimming

-Trimming of leaves will prevent falling and keep away pests and diseases.

-Expose bulbs to sunlight

Watering

-Watering should be done regularly because they are shallow rooted vegetable plants
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-Reduce watering towards maturity to encourage bulbs to become firm.

Cultivation

-Soil has to be cultivated regularly removing some of the soil around the onion bulb as this
encourage them to grow.

Weeding

Remove weeds regularly as they attack onions and this could result in reduced crop yields.

Fertilizer application

Top dressing the plants with LAN will stimulate rapid growth of the onions.

Pest and disease control

Inspect the plants daily for the signs of pest or disease damage. If plants show any sign of attack
appropriate action should be taken to control the problem.

Onion

Pests attacking onions

Thrips

Damage caused by thrips

Thrips feed on plant juice and leaves become covered with whitish silvery patches.

Feeding also causes the leaves to curl and wilt.

The whole plant may eventually die

Methods of controlling thrips

Malathion can be used to control thrips. Mix it at a ratio of 18ml to 10L of water.

Cultural methods may also be used

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Diseases of onion

- Downey mildew -Storage root (fungal)

- Fusarium bulb (root) - Purple blotch

Downey Mildew

It is caused by a fungus

Symptoms

Purple mould forms on the leaves which then slowly die

Leaves eventually turns yellow

The bulbs become soft and are not suitable for storage

Prevention

Spray the plants with Dithane M45 at a rate of 20g in 10L of water

Avoid planting in poorly drained soil

Signs of maturity in onions

The time for harvesting onions depends on the type of onion grown. You can harvest spring onions
6- 8 weeks after sowing, when the bulbs are 2 cm in diameter.

Large bulb onion requires four to six months to reach maturity. When fully mature the leaves bends
over and turn yellow. You can leave the plants on the ground for another two weeks.

Harvesting and processing of onions

-They take 4 - 6 months to reach maturity.

-They can be harvested as fresh onions while still having the green leaves or they can be uprooted
and left on the ground to dry up

Bulbs are usually harvested by hand. A garden fork can be used to loosen the soil around the bulb
such that they can be pulled out easily

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Marketing of onions

-Onions are sold in bundles whilst fresh .They are tied in bunches by their leaves and sold.

-Leaves can be cut off and bulbs packed in bags for selling

Storage and preservation of onions

-Spring onions do not have long shelf life. They last longer if they are stored in refrigerators.

-Ripe onions have much longer shelf life. They can be stored in trays in a shady, dry, well-
ventilated place.

-They can also be dried and kept in good condition for long term use.

REPRODUCTION AND BREEDING IN CATTLE

WHAT IS REPRODUCTION?
It is a process which involves the fusion / uniting of male and female gametes to give birth to a
young animal.
Male gamete: sperm
Female gamete: ovum
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF A COW (female)

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS LABELLED

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1. OVARY
A cow has two ovaries; each one produce female eggs or ova (singular- ovum). They also produce
chemical substances known as hormones. Hormones control pregnancy and the sexual cycle in
female animals.
2. INFUNDIBULUM / FUNNEL
This structure receives the released ova from one ovary during each cycle and guides it to the
fallopian tube/ oviduct.
3. THE FALLOPIAN TUBE / OVIDUCT
Guides the ova to the uterus. If sperms have been introduced into the female reproductive tract,
this is where fertilization will take place.
4. THE UTERUS
This is where the embryo that has formed during fertilization attaches and develops. In the uterus,
the embryo is nourished and protected.
5. THE CERVIX
This is a ring of thick muscles that opens into the uterus. During pregnancy, these muscles remain
tightly closed and act as a protective seal that stops the developing embryo from being expelled
from the uterus before the end of the pregnancy. It also prevents pathogens from entering the
uterus.
6. THE VAGINA
This is where sperms are deposited during mating. It is also where urine from the bladder comes
through when going out of the animal’s body. The vagina is also the passage through which a fully
developed foetus passes out during birth.
7. THE VULVA
This is the opening to the vagina. It facilitates mating and serves as an exit through which foetus
and urine are expelled. It is seen outside the animal’s body underneath the tail.

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THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF A BULL (male)

FUNCTIONS OF LABELLED PARTS

1. THE SCROTUM
This is a bag like structure that contains the two testes and hangs between the hind legs of the
animal. It regulates the temperature so that sperms do not die.
2 THE TESTIS
There are two testes which hang outside the body, one on each either side of the penis. They
produce the male sex cells or sperms and the male sex hormone called TESTOSTERONE.
3. THE EPIDIDYMIS
This is long coiled tube surrounding part of each testis. It is the structure in which sperms are
stored until they are needed during mating.
4. THE VAS DEFERENS / SPERM DUCT
Each testis has a vas deferens or sperm duct, which is a continuation of the epididymis. The sperm-
duct carries the sperms from the epididymis to the urethra.
5. THE SEMINAL VESICLE, PROSTATE GLAND AND COWPER”S GLAND
These are the glands which open into the urethra. They produce sticky fluid in which sperms will
swim. This fluid, together with sperms is called SEMEN. Semen is passed into the female via the
urethra. Semen also neutralizes any urine remaining in the urethra. This is important because urine
is toxic (poisonous) to sperms
6. THE URETHRA
This is a long tube running through the centre of the penis. It passes the semen into the female
vagina. It also carries urine from the bladder to the penis.

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7 THE PENIS
This is the organ used during mating and it deposits the semen into the female vagina. The penis
also discharges urine from the bladder.
8. THE SHEATH
It skin that covers and protects the penis
PUBERTY
It is the stage of sexual maturity in both males and females.
Age and weight for reaching puberty by cattle
Female animals (heifers) reach puberty between 9 – 18 months, and males around 8 months.
Although female animals reach puberty at this time, they may not have reached a sufficient body
mass to reproduce. Therefore, they should not be bred or mated at the beginning of puberty, but
rather when they reach a body mass of 200 – 260 kg. This is when they are about 2 ½ years old.

Breed of cattle Estimated age (months) at Estimated weight (kg) at

puberty puberty
 Simmental 11 325
 Tswana 11 160
 Charolais 12 340
 Jersey 9 170

Factors influencing puberty

Age
Weight
Breed of animal
Health condition
Type of feed/level of feeding
Exposure to animals of opposite sex
Climatic conditions/environmental factors
PROCESS OF REPRODUCTION IN CATTLE
This is the process by which animals produce youngs. In animals the process is sexual. It requires
two (2) animals; the bull and the cow to mate.
 It involves production of gametes (sex cells) by mature cow and a bull

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  Mating introduce male sex cell (sperm) into the female’s reproductive tract for fertilisation
to take place.
 Fertilization is the fusion of male and female gametes(ovum) producing a zygote. The sex
cells contain genes which give an animal its characteristics. In this way characteristics are
passed from one generation to the next.
 After fertilization, the Zygote gets implanted through the placenta inside the cows
uterus and develop into a foetus.
 And then the end of gestation period(pregnancy) the cow gives birth to a young animal
(parturition).
THE HEAT CYCLE IN COWS
It is the interval between one heat period and another. Female animals come on heat every 21 days,
around the same time as ovulation. During this period, a series of changes occur in a cow’s body
under the control of hormones.
It is marked by;
- Development of ova
- Heat period
- Ovulation
- Preparation of the uterus to receive zygote.
- Preparation of vagina for mating
- Mating
If mating results in fertilization, the cycle stops. Otherwise it repeats every 21 days.

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HEAT (OESTRUS)
This is the time of sexual receptivity in female cattle, when a female will allow a male to mate
with her. This is controlled by the hormone Oestrogen.
Heat period lasts for about 15 - 18hours on average. During this period the egg/ovum is released
from the ovaries of a cow to the oviduct (ovulation) where fertilisation will take place.
NB Male animals can mate at any time once they have reached puberty, but females can only
accept a male when they are on heat.
SIGNS OF HEAT / OESTRUS IN A COW
- Allows a bull to mount her without running away (best sign of heat).
- Mounting of other cows from the front and allow others females to mount her .
- Cow urinates more frequently.
- Cow is restless, excitable and bellows.
- Cow may stand when others are lying down
- There is a slight rise in body temperature
- The cow has a swollen, reddish and moist vulva
- Clear mucus running out of the vulva onto the tail and buttocks
- Milk production goes down in lactating animals
OVULATION
The release of one or more ova from the ovaries into the oviduct. It occurs 12 – 15 hours after the
end of oestrus in cows. It is controlled by the production of special hormones in the cow. After
the egg has been released from the ovary, it travels through the oviduct to the uterus. If the egg
meets the sperm in the oviduct, they will join to form a zygote. The zygote will then move into the
uterus where it will develop into an embryo and then foetus

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FERTLISATION
A process whereby the sperm fuses / unites with an ovum to form a zygote. It occurs in the fallopian
tube / oviduct. The fertilised egg is transported into the uterus where it will attach itself to the
uterine walls, develop into a fully mature calf until it is born
GESTATION PERIOD
It is the period from fertilization (conception) to parturition (giving birth). Period where the cow
is pregnant. The gestation period in cattle varies from 275 to 290 days, averaging 283 days. About
9 ½ months.
Care given to a pregnant cow
 Provide nutritional feed – to support its own body needs and those of the developing
foetus. Good grazing and concentrates are required. Feed is used for maintenance, growth
and protection from diseases by both cow and the foetus. Provide correct and adequate
nutrition particularly in the last 2 – 3 months of pregnancy. This is known as STEAMING
UP. But, avoid over feeding.

 Protect against parasites and diseases – diseases and parasites make an animal to lose
weight and body condition. This will make difficult for a pregnant cow to carry foetus till
calving.

 Provide exercise – provision of good pasture is important as it exercises the pregnant

cow by walking on the pasture. It helps her to maintain her blood circulation and constant
weight.

 Provide water – clean water should always be available nearby at all times.

 Remove stress – pregnant cow should not be chased, should be provided with shade or
shelter to be protected from harsh weather conditions.

 Ensure regular check up by a Veterinary practitioner.

The following is done FEW DAYS before parturition;
 Reduce the amount of concentrate feed to avoid difficulties when calving
 They should be given wet bran to avoid constipation
 Separate pregnant animals from others so as to give them more attention
 They should be closely monitored for the signs of calving so as to provide help in case of
caving problems.
PARTURITION
It is the process of giving birth / calving by a pregnant animal.

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SIGNS OF PARTURITION
Stages involve;
1. Preparatory stage
 The cow tends to keep away from others and go to hidden places.
 The cow moves around, lies down and gets up more often
 The cow may urinate more often than usual
 It stops eating due to restlessness and discomfort
 development of hollows around her tail due to relaxation of her pelvic muscles
 The vulva become swollen, large and releases some mucus
 Teats and udder become larger, tight and swollen
 Some milk may drip or leak from the teats
 Opening of her cervix and the uterus begins to contract
 The amniotic sack breaks, releasing the amniotic fluid when the cow starts calving
2.Actual birth; contractions of the uterus continue. The contractions push the calf up into the
pelvis and continue until the calf is born. Calves are normally born with the forelegs extended with
the head between them, then the chest, body and extended hind legs.
3. Passing of foetal membranes and placenta; The foetal membranes and placenta are also
known as the AFTER BIRTH. The after birth is expelled within 12hours after calving. If the after
birth is retained for longer than 48hours, it is abnormal and the farmer should get help from the
veterinary officer. Immediately after birth, the cow licks its calf to dry and remove the mucus on
its body.
DYSTOKIA
Means when a cow is having difficulty in giving birth or prolonged parturition. It is at this time
that the cow will need assistant from the Veterinary Assistant. If she is not provided with help,
both the cow and the calf may die, be infured or disabled.
CAUSES OF DYSTOKIA
1. Abnormal presentation of the foetus: Sometimes calves may present themselves with the hind
legs first or with buttocks first.

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Abnormal positions of the calf for delivery

2. Large calf birth weight: This is the main cause of dystocia. If the birth canal is too small and
the calf is large, it will cause dystocia.
3. Weakness of mother cow: If the cow is in poor body condition due to poor nutrition, attack by
parasites or diseases during pregnancy, it may lack the energy to push out the foetus at parturition.
4. Inability of the uterus to contract enough or sufficiently
5. Too much fat around the pelvic area
6. Calf defect or disabilities

OF DYSTOCIA
 Cull heifers with small or narrow pelvic area.
 Get rid of cows that had dystocia previously since they are likely to have the same
problems in the next parturition
 Provide pregnant cows with enough balance ration so that they are in good condition at
the time of giving birth. They should not be over fed to avoid too much fat.
 Make sure that heifers are not mated by very big bulls because their offspring will have
big weight at birth
 Provide enough exercise so that the animals are fit at parturition especially those under
Zero Grazing.
 Allow heifers to develop before they are mated to allow physical body development
 Have your animals checked regularly by veterinarians
 Protect animals from parasites because they transmit diseases that weakens the cow’s
body condition

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LIVESTOCK BREEDING AND IMPROVEMENT
BREEDING: It is the process of mating selected males and females for the production of
offspring(s).
The main aim of breeding: - Produce and increase animals with qualities or characteristics wanted
by the farmer.
- Get rid of animals with undesirable or unwanted characteristics
- Improve quality and quantity of animal products (meat and milk)

SELECTION
It is about choosing animals with desirable characteristics to be future parents of an offspring.
When male (sire) and female (dam) with desirable traits are mated or bred, they may pass these
desirable characteristics to their offspring.
Factors on which Selection is based
- Age of the animal
- Body conformation and presence of physical deformities
- Growth and fertility rate
- Resistance to diseases and drought (temperament)
- Heritability of traits

Heritability is the rate at which a trait can be passed from one generation to another.
Desired characteristics in cattle when selecting
Desired characteristics in a bull Desired characteristics in cow

 The mother should be a high milk  Fertile cow

producer  Regular breeding and giving birth live
 be fertile calves
 mature quickly  A good milk producer
 Body conformation (shape) of the  Good body formation
bull  Be docile and easy to handle
 Be free from any deformity or
lameness

METHODDS OF BREEDING
1. CROSS-BREEDING
This is mating of animals of different breeds. E.g. (tswana X brahman), (simmemtal X tuli)

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 Advantages disadvantages
 The offspring that results from  Crossbreeding requires knowledge of the
crossbreeding inherits a combination of breeds that one intends to breed
traits from both parents.  Not all characteristics will shown on the
 Produce Hybrid Vigor in offsprings. offspring as expected by the farmer
Hybrid Vigor is the improved  Exotic or Improved bull that are needed for
performance of cross bred offspring crossbreeding are expensive and
above their parental average sometimes difficult to obtain.
 Crossbreeding may create new breeds  Requires keeping different breeds of bulls
and introduce variations in a herd of hence expensive
animals.  Hybrids do not bree true to type
 Results in improvement of low heritable
traits in a herd
 Results in increased production in regard
to fertility, growth rate and food
conversion ratio
 Results in establishment of new breeds
that are more productive and easy to
manage.

2. INBREEDING
It is the mating of the closely related animals e.g. mating brother and sister, brother and mother,
daughter and father.

Advantages disadvantages
 inbreeding makes it possible to develop  Inbreeding may result in undesirable
purebred animals characteristics in the offsprings
 Inbreeding can produce animals with  Inbreeding can bring about weakness within
specific, desirable characteristics that the herd
were inherited from and can be retained  Inbreeding requires skill careful observation
within a family. and the vigilant keeping of breeding records
 Desirable characteristics may be more
prominent in offspring than in the
parents who were mated
 Inbreeding can help you figure out
where undesirable characteristics came
from.

3. UPGRADING
It is the continuous mating of inferior cows or heifers with high quality (superior) bulls of
a particular breed so that eventually the calves born have the same features as those of the
bulls used.

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Advantages disadvantages
 Upgraded offsprings are adapted to the  For the programme to continue there must be
conditions under which they are raised a heifer in every generation
 Cheaper to upgrade poor quality  The heifer can only be mated once she has
animals than to buy high quality ones reached breeding age, so this method takes a
 Relatively economical as only bulls long time
from other breeds or even AI can be  Buying and maintaining pure bred bulls can
used for upgrading. be expensive
 Upgraded animals, hygrade, retain  Upgrading requires special management and
some proportion of their good traits. skill to attain the results you are looking for.
 It can easily be done through Artificial  Usually it is difficult to get good quality bulls
Insemination in rural areas
 Produces hybrid vigor in the upgraded
animals.
 There is no danger of developing
unwanted offspring since traits of the
offspring are known even before birth

In Botswana, a Tuli bull can be crossed with a Tswana cow for several generations. This would
result in an almost pure Tuli. The Tuli bull could be used as shown below:
* In the first generation cross
A Tuli bull is mated with Tswana cow. The calf produced fro this mating will be 50% Tuli and
50% Tswana. The characteristics of the Tswana breed can still be clearly seen at this stage
* In the second generation cross
If the calf produced in the F1 is a heifer, it is mated to another Tuli bull when it old enough to
breed. The calf from this cross will be 75% Tuli and 25% Tswana.
* In the third generation cross
If the calf is also a heifer, it is mated again to a Tuli bull resulting in an animal that is 87.5%
Tuli and 12.5% Tswana.
* In the fourth generation cross
The heifer is mated to a Tuli bull resulting in an animal that is 93.75% Tuli and 6.25% Tswana.
The offspring in this fourth generation cross will be very much like a pure Tuli in appearance
and will have the characteristics of this breed. Thus, it will be very difficult to see any of the
features of Tswana animal at this stage.

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OTHER WAYS OF ANIMAL IMPROVEMENT
- Better feeding and management.
- Embryo Transfer; that involves extraction of embryo from the reproductive tract (oviduct) of
the donor animal and then implantation into the reproductive tract (oviduct) of the recipient animal.
- Gene Transfer; involves injection of a gene from one species to another.
Methods of controlling breeding
 Castration - this is when the blood vessels and sperm ducts leading to the testicles are
cut or destroyed so that blood supply to the testicles is lost. Therefore an animal will no
more mate with cows
 Bull Separation – separation of bulls from cows and only selected ones will be brought
for mating if cows are on heat.

 Culling – this getting rid of unwanted bulls

 artificial insemination – one can decide which cows to inseminate with the semen from
which breed

MATING (insemination)
It is the act of depositing semen in the appropriate part of the female reproductive tract. This can
be done by natural and artificial means.
1. NATURAL INSEMINATION
The introduction of semen into the reproductive tract of a cow by a bull
A bull can tell that a cow is on heat by smelling her. Once a bull has detected a female on heat,
blood rushes to the penis and causes it to become stiff, or erect. The male then climbs on the
female, introduces the penis into the vagina through the vulva and ejaculates millions of sperms.
Advantages of natural insemination
- More accurate as males are the best detectors of females on heat.
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- Useful when oestrus in female is difficult to detect.
- Eliminates the need to check for heat signs in species where males are put to females during
certain periods.
- There are very few injuries to the cow or bull during natural mating.
Disadvantages of natural insemination
- Sexual diseases or parasites can easily be transmitted from one animal to another.
- Expensive to buy and maintain bulls.
- Large bulls can injure small cows
- Waste a lot of semen since semen in one ejaculation can serve several cows.
- Difficult to transport a bull to remote areas to serve cows
- The bull may become sick and die
- The farmer is not always sure of the exact date when a cow was mated and cannot prepare
accurately for the birth of the calf.
2. ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
It means deposition of semen in the uterus or cervix of a cow by hand using an inseminating
syringe/cathereter or special pippete. The cow should be on heat before introducing the semen.
Advantages of AI
- Controls or eliminates the transmission of sexual or breeding diseases
- Semen from one good bull can be used to inseminate many cows.
- Allows for more rapid genetic improvement as any farmer can have access to semen from top
quality bulls.
- Semen of a bull that has either died or is injured or is old and cannot mate naturally can be used.
- Frozen semen is readily available and can be stored indefinitely.
- Artificial Insemination is cheaper than keeping a bull that needs to be fed and managed.
- It is also cheaper to import the semen of a bull from another country that importing the bull itself.
- Easy to control breeding.
- Avoid large bulls injuring small cows.
Disadvantages of AI
- Needs for accurate detection of oestrus in cows to allow insemination at the optimum time.

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- Not so successful on females that have silent heat periods or whose heat periods cannot be
forecast.
- Requires trained and experienced inseminators to carry it out successfully.
- Storage facilities for the semen are expensive and may not be readily available.
- Harmful traits can be spread quickly by a bull to offspring of the many cows the bull serves.
- In Botswana, farmers who are not trained in artificial insemination techniques have to transport
their cattle to and from the artificial insemination centers.
SEMEN COLLECTION FROM THE BULL
Semen is usually collected by electro-ejaculation(electrical stimulation) method and artificial
vagina method
 Electro-ejaculation method – this method is practised when a bull refuses or is unable
to mount a cow. A probe or electrode is inserted in the bull’s rectum to excite it. The
increase of voltage stimulates reproductive system of a bull which leads to the erection of
penis and therefore the release of semen.

 Artificial vagina method – this artificaila vagina (AV) is designed such that the bull will
not feel any difference between it and the cow during mating. It is a firm tube lined with
thin rubber layers. Before use, warm water at temperature about 42-48˚C is placed
between the rubber layers while the inside lining of the tube is lubricated. The rubber
layers stretch just like the wall of the cow’s vagina thus provide the normal sensation the
bull experiences when mating with a cow.
Procedure
A bull is allowed to mount a dummy or teaser cow. Its penis is gently grabbed and directed into
an artificial vagina which stimulates ejaculation. Ejaculation can also be stimulated by an electro-
ejaculator. Once the semen has been ejaculated it is collected in a glass collection tube.
SEMEN STORAGE CONDITIONS
 Equipment and material – proper equipment is needed to safely store semen like ice
packs or tubes, insulated containers, thermometers, refrigerators, straws etc.

 Temperature – appropriate storage temperature is vital. Semen must be kept by freezing

in liquid nitrogen at -196˚C if is for many years but if is stored to be used within a week,
temperature should be about 5˚C.
Changes in temperature can damage sperm cells.

 Handling – before storage, semen should be diluted with egg yolk or nutritious solutions
to increase the number of cows to be inseminated with one ejaculation

 Hygiene – semen should be kept in germ free condition to avoid contamination and
damage of sperm cells.

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  Storage rooms – they should be easy to clean and disinfect, with adequate storage space
as well as easy to control temperature.
SEMEN DILUTION AND STORAGE
Requirements;
* Microscope
* Nutrient solution
* Buffer solution
* Antibiotics
* Dimethyl- sulphoxide
* Disposable straws
* Liquid nitrogen and its container.
Procedure
After collection, semen is examined microscopically to detect abnormalities in the semen and
determine its sperm count. It is then diluted using a mixture of the following.
- Nutrient solution that contains nutrients for the sperms
- Antibiotics to prevent bacterial action
- Buffer solution containing salts to maintain desirable shape and osmotic pressure.
- Dimethyl sulphoxide to prevent cellular damage during thawing.

Diluted semen is packed into disposable straws and placed in canisters within a storage cylinder
containing liquid nitrogen. Diluted semen will be stored by freezing in liquid nitrogen at -196°C
PERIODS DURING WHICH COWS ARE ARTIFICIALLY INSEMINATED IN
BOTSWANA
Cows that are accepted at artificial insemination camps should have given birth at least once. They
should not be pregnant. The veterinary officers test cows for pregnancy in September of each year.
Cows which are not pregnant are sent to artificial insemination centers in September. At the camp,
they are provided with better feed and are protected from parasites and diseases.

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  The best time to inseminate cows is when they are in good health condition.
 In summer (during the rainy season) when there is a lot of pasture and in autumn.
 From January to March therefore cows will calf from September to December when the
pastures have improved and calves are unlikely to die from cold winter. During these
months, grazing is at its best so breeding animals are in good health and condition for
mating, thus increase the chances of conception.

A.I. CAMPS IN BOTSWANA

- Morupule - Goodhope - Nokaneng West
- Sefophe - Tsatsu - Sunny side
- Dibete - Ramoalosi - Ncojane

BEEF PRODUCTION

Beef production is the practice of rearing cattle to produce meat for eating. There are three types
of cattle:
Characteristics of good beef cattle
 It has a blocky shape with a square rump (back part)
 Must have a good growth rate, grow fast and mature early.
 High fertility rate and produces healthy calves
 The animal must have more meat and relatively less bone and fat.
 It must have short, strong, well placed legs so that they can easily carry the animals large
muscular body
 It must be able to adapt easily to harsh climatic conditions
 Must have a high feed conversation ration
 Short and fleshy neck
 Udder should be small
Breeds of beef cattle
The beef breeds in Botswana can be divided into two groups; indigenous and exotic.

Indigenous breeds Exotic

-Tswana - Simmental
- Afrikaner
- Hereford

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 - Brahman
- Charolais
- Bonsmara
-Tuli.

The Animal Production Research Unit particularly recommends some beef breeds for rearing in
Botswana. The table below shows which breeds are recommended and why.
Characteristics and uses of beef breeds
Name of Characteristics
breed
Tswana  Indigenous breed of Botswana
 Present in all colours
 It is hardy and drought resistant
 Well adapted to the local harsh conditions
 Can walk long distances looking for pasture and water.
 Suitable for crossing with other breeds such as Simmental and Brahman

Tuli  Developed in Zimbabwe from cattle similar to Tswana.

 Adapted well to local conditions
 Performs better than the Tswana in terms of growth and mothering ability
 Tolerate high temperatures and dry conditions
 Can tolerate parasites and diseases fairly well
 Its colors varies from yellow, golden-brown to red
Africander  Originates from South Africa.
 Out performed by the Tswana in terms of growth rate and mothering ability.
 The male animal has a large hump and dewlap
 It has resistance to ticks, heat, drought and diseases
 It does not require much care or maintenance compared to other exotic breeds
found in Botswana
Bonsmara  Originating from South Africa
 Developed from the Shorthorn, Hereford and afrikander.
 It has advantages of both Southern African and European breeds in its
composition.
 The whole body is reddish-brown to light brown in colour
 Well adapted to heat and drought conditions
 It has a low mortality rate

Brahman  Exotic breed originating from India, a country with similar climate to Botswana.
 It has a large hump behind the neck.
 Grows very fast.
 Needs special management, particularly feeding in the dry season.

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  Its colours varies from grey-reddish
 Its drooping ears are large compared to those of other breeds
 It has a good growth rate, fertility and high weaning rate
Simmental  Exotic breed that originates in Switzerland
 It is large animal that needs special management
 It grows fast
 Has good mothering ability
 Calving problems may be encountered if heifers are used.
 It is dual purpose breed.
 Its colours varies from gold to red with white. It has white markings on the face
and on the side of the belly

BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE RECOMMENDED BY THE MINISTRY OF

AGRICULTURE
- Tswana
- Simmental
- Afrikaner
- Hereford
- Brahman
- Charolais
- Bonsmara
- Tuli.
Reasons why the above breeds are recommended
 They can easily adapt to the climatic conditions of Botswana
 They are resistant to some diseases and parasites found in Botswana
 They have a good growth rate and high weaning weight
 They can easily be crossed with Tswana
 Have a high carcass quality
 They have high calving percentage
 They have good mothering ability

MANAGEMENT OF BEEF CATTLE

Systems of raising beef cattle
There are two systems of raising beef cattle in Botswana. These are
-communal

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-ranching system
1. Communal System (Moraka)
This is a traditional system of raising beef cattle. The area in which the cattle graze belongs to the
community (tribal land) and is held in trust by District Land Boards. The cattle are usually allowed
to graze whenever they want on unenclosed pastures. The herders look after the cattle every day
and direct the cattle to good pastures. The cattle find water in the area from any source like dams,
wells and rivers.
Advantages
 The number of animals to keep is not limited
 It is cheap
 Skilled manpower is not important
 Cows are served even when the farmer does not have a bull
 Animals move freely
Disadvantages
 Animals can be lost
 It is not easy to control diseases and parasites
 Animals can be attacked by predators
 Not easy to control breeding
 Low production
 Overgrazing occurs leading to soil erosion
 Weaning is not easy
 Animals can eat other people’s crops as they move around
2. Ranching system
A ranch is an area of grazing land that has been fenced for purposes of raising beef cattle. It is a
commercial system whereby the farms are fenced and divided into smaller areas called paddocks.
The paddocks are used to control the grazing so that the cattle are only grazing one area at a time,
and are moved from one paddock to the other. Boreholes can be dug on the ranch to make sure
there is always good supply of water for the cattle. The farms used as ranches usually belong to
the farmer and are called freehold farms. The farmer has an established home in the farm.
Advantages
 Animals cannot be easily lost
 Its easy to control parasites and diseases
 Animals cannot be easily attacked by predators
 Its easy to control breeding
 Farmer’s profits are usually high because of better management.
 There is no risk of soil erosion
 Some paddocks can be reserved for use in the dry season.
 Weaning can be done easily by putting cows and calves in separate paddocks.

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  Overgrazing does not occur because animals are moved regularly between the different
paddocks.
Disadvantages
 The initial costs of setting up a ranch are very high.
 The animals’ number is limited by the size of the ranch
 Skilled people are needed to manage the ranch profitably.
 The fences and equipment need to be repaired and maintained regularly.
COMPARISON OF THE SYSTEMS
COMMUNAL SYSTEM RANCHING SYSTEM
Land belongs to the community Land is owned by the farmer
Animals mixed with animals of Farm animals can not mix with animals of
neighboring farmers neighboring farmers
Stocking rate is not controlled Stocking rate is controlled
Uses less capital Uses a lot of capital
Less skill is required More skill is required

Significance of providing housing to beef cattle

Cattle are housed for the following reasons:
-To protect animals from bad weather conditions such as heat, cold wind and rain.
- To protect animals against thieves and predators such as lions and hyenas.
-For easy management practices or activities such as branding, vaccinating, dehorning etc.
-Prevents animals from going astray
-It helps in controlling mating and separating calves from their mothers if the mothers are to be
milked
TYPES OF HOUSING SUITABLE FOR BEEF CATTLE
Kraals
The form of housing provided for beef cattle is usually a kraal. Kraals are usually made of thorns
tree branches and poles. The kraal has a tree which provides shade. Sometimes there is a shelter
to provide shade. The kraal may be divided into sections so that animals can also be divided. The
kraal protects animals from predators and also makes it easy for management activities to be
carried out

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Cattle crush.
It is used when animals are being vaccinated or inspected for parasites and diseases
Calf pens
Pens house the calves at night so that they do not drink from their mothers
TYPES OF FEEDS SUITABLE FOR BEEF CATTLE
Feeding
In Botswana, beef cattle usually depend on natural pasture. Natural pasture includes grass and
other forage plants. During dry seasons, farmers should buy supplementary feeds like hay and
lucerne for their animals. Farmers can make silage from grass or sorghum to use as supplementary
feed. Cattle should also be given bonemeal and salt in the form of a mineral lick. Winter lick adds
phosphorus to the diet of the cattle, which makes their bones and teeth strong and helps to prevent
the disease Aphosphorosis.
Watering
Water is provided daily. Water is needed for many activities in the body of the animal e.g.
 Cooling the body/regulate body temperature
 Excretion of waste products
 Helps in digestion
 Water forms part of milk and blood
 Water forms part of the cells and tissues that make up animals body
 For all chemical reactions that takes place in their bodies
SOURCES OF WATER FOR BEEF CATTLE
The water used mainly is from -
-Rivers,
-Dams,
-Boreholes
-Wells
WATER CLEANING PROCESSES FOR ANIMAL CONSUMPTION
Filtration
Water is filtered to remove the debris (dirt)
Sedimentation
Water is allowed to stand for a long time so that solids settle at the bottom

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Chlorination
Addition of chlorine to water to kill the germs
Disbudding and dehorning
-Disbudding is the removal of developing horn buds from a calf.
-Calves are disbudded at about 2-4 months of age
-Dehorning is the removal of horns from an older animal.
Most breeds of beef cattle produce both animals with horns and animals without horns. Animals
without horns are known as polled animals.
Importance/significance of dehorning and disbudding
 To avoid damaging each other’s hides when they fight lowering the quality of meat and
hides.
 Dehorned animals occupy small space in feeding and watering troughs
 It is safer for the cattle if they have to be transported anywhere and allows maximum use
of space when loading
 Dehorned animals fetch high price at B.M.C.
 It is much safer to handle cattle without horns than those with horns because horned
animals cattle are usually more aggressive.
Tools used for;
disbudding Dehorning

-Scoop dehorner -dehorning iron

-Scissors -Guillotine
-Hot iron -Saw
-Caustic soda/potash -Anaesthetic
-Knife
-Dehorning wire

Weaning
It means stopping the calf from suckling or feeding on its mother.
The first milk a cow produces is called colostrum and it contains proteins, vitamins and minerals
that the new-born calf needs.
Colostrums also contain antibodies that protect the calf against diseases.
The calves of beef cattle are weaned when they are between 6 and 9 months old.

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REASONS FOR WEANING
-To allow the mother to build up her body in preparation for the next pregnancy
-Saves milk to increase sales
-Allows the calf to handle dry food
METHODS OF WEANING
-Use of a calf weaner plate
This is a specially designed plastic plate that will clip onto calves nostrils. When the calf tries to
suckle, the plate hurts the cow, so she does not allow the calf to suckle
-Separate the calf from its mother
This is done by placing the cow in separate paddock where she cannot see or hear her calf. If she
does not have contact with her calf for atleast one week, she will stop producing milk
-Applying cow dung to cow teats
The calf will not suckle because of the dung on the teats.
METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION OF CATTLE
There are different methods used to identify cattle. They include the following;
-branding (hot or freeze),
-ear-tattooing,
- ear-notching,
- ear-tagging,
-LITS (Livestock Identification and Trace-back System) –“omang”
-paint.

1. Branding
 branding
It is a method where a red hot iron is used to make a mark on the hide of an animal
on the left side of the animal covering the rump area or the hindquarter for 3 to 5
seconds.

 Freeze branding
This is a method where a branding iron is frozen and used to make a mark the
animal. It uses very low temperature to kill the cells in the animal’s skin that
produce color. If correctly done, the animal will grow white hair on the branded
site. The branding iron is made up of a material which can retain cold and is frozen
in liquid nitrogen or in dry ice and alcohol
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 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BRANDING

Hot branding Freeze/cold branding

Advantages Advantages
 Takes a short time to brand (3 – 5  Take short time for the frozen part to be
seconds) healed
 Brand is permanent and cannot changed  The brand is much more visible (clear)
 Suitable for all cattle irrespective of especially in dark coated animals
colour  Less damage cost to the hides than using hot
 The results of branding are seen iron
immediately  Is almost painless to animals compared to hot
Disadvantages branding
 Painful to animals Disadvantages
 Wound is produced, which may be  Takes time to shave hair off the area to be
infected and lead to health problems freeze branded
 Damage animals’ hides, therefore, lowers  Not clear on white or gray coloured coats
the value  Liquid nitrogen is not easy to get and also
 The hot iron can burn the person handling expensive
it  It takes 3 months before the brand can be
identifiable

2. Ear tattooing
This is a permanent mark made on the ear of an animal by puncturing letters or numbers or a
design on the inside skin of the ear and then rubbing indelible ink on the marks. The colours used
are black, green, red and white.

Advantages Disadvantages
 It improves the permanent mark or record  Not easy to read a tattoo without
of the animal holding/handling or bringing the animal
 It can be used to identify the individual closer for inspection
animal, the year it was born and where it  The person doing the tattooing must be well
comes from. trained and competent
 Takes a long time to be done
 Some of the letters may be difficult to read
due to their small size
 Not suitable for dark-eared animal breed

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 1. Ear- notching
It is a hollow cut or slit at the edge of the ear surface of an animal. There are different types of
shapes made by different farmers.
Advantages Disadvantages
 The cut or slit made forms a permanent  It causes pain and bleeding
mark  Some notches take time to make, therefore,
 The slit or cut made is visible even at a more pain
certain distance  If a mistake is made (incorrect cutting) there
 Some cuts are easier and quick to make is no reverse
 Disinfected equipment can pass diseases
among the animals

2. Ear-tagging
This is a method of attaching a numbered or printed plastic or metal tag to an animal’s ear.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Cheap form of identification  Tags can fall out off the animal’s ear
 Easy and quick to attach the tag  Injuries may result if the tag is caught by a
 Ear tags provide an easy way of fence
identifying individual animals  The letters or numbers tend to fade away after
 Clamping the tag to the animal’s ear does many years
not cause a lot of pain  Ear tags are small, therefore , one has be
closer to read
 A thief can easily replace with his/her own
tags and claim ownership of an animal

3. LITS
It is inserting a bolus with unique information and number into the rumen of an animal. A bolus
is about a finger long.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Easy to identify the individual animal  Needs skilled and trained personnel to insert
and its owner the bolus and take readings
 Easy to trace back the animal to their  Expensive equipment is used
owners  There are frequent breakdown o the
 Helped Botswana to have access to the equipment and lack of expertise to repair it
EU market  Equipment used is not readily available
 Easy to read the bolus as it stays in the locally
same place
 Remain in the animal until death

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  Information can be used to help establish
an animal’s family tree

4. Paint
This is the use of non-toxic paint to mark the animal but it is a temporary method.
PARASITES OF BEEF CATTLE
A parasite is any organism which depends on another organism for food and shelter. A parasite
cannot live on its own but needs to live on or in a host animal. There are two types of parasites;
internal and external parasites.
Internal parasites
Internal parasites are found inside the body of an animal, especially in the intestines. Common
examples are
 tape worm
 round worm
 liver fluke
The life cycle of a beef tape worm
The adult tapeworm lives in humans. It is made up of a head (scolex) and a chain of segments.
Each segment breaks off as a sac full of eggs. The adult tapeworm lives in the intestines of humans
where it is attached by means of suckers on its head to the walls of the intestines.
Stages of the life cycle
1. The tapeworm attaches itself to the wall of the intestines of the primary host ie humans
2. Segments of the tapeworm, containing thousands of eggs, break away from the tapeworm.
3. The segments pass out of the human body in the faeces.

4. The secondary host ie cattle, eat grass that has tapeworm eggs on it.
5. The tapeworm eggs hatch in the intestines of cow.
6. The larvae of the tapeworm burrow into the walls of the cattle’s intestine and get into the
bloodstream.
7. The larvae move into the muscle tissue, where they form cyst (capsules) around
themselves. At this stage, the organism is called a bladder worm.
8. The cow is slaughtered for meat.
9. Humans buy the meat to eat, but do not cook it properly. This means that the bladder worms
are not killed.
10. The bladder worms develop into tapeworms in the intestine of the human
11. The bladder worms then grow into adult tapeworms
External parasites
External parasites live on the body of the animal, especially on the soft and hidden areas e.g. under
the tail, between the hooves and legs. Common external parasites of beef cattle are:
 Ticks

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  Tsetse flies
 mosquitoes
The life cycle of a one-host tick
 A female tick sucks blood from a cow and becomes full of blood.
 The tick drops to the ground and lays thousands on the grass.
 After a few weeks, the eggs develop and hatch into six –legged larvae, which climb up
grass leaves and wait for a cow to walk past.
 The larvae attach themselves to the cow and suck its blood.
 The larvae develop into eight legged nymphs
 The nymphs feed on the cow’s blood and develop into adult ticks, which feed on the cow’s
blood and mate.

Harm or damage caused to beef cattle by ticks and tapeworm

Ticks Tapeworms

 Cause tick poisoning  Absorb food from the cow’s body, so the cow
 Suck blood from the cow, causing may not get enough nutrients.
diseases such as anaemia  Can damage the wall of the intestines
 Can damage the ear, which then gets  Suck blood from the cow, causing diseases
infected and may become deformed. such as anaemia.
 Can cause skin irritation or itching and  Can cause diarrhea.
discomfort to cattle.  Cattle become thin or grow poorly
 Cause wound and pain
 Can spread diseases for example
Heartwater.

The control of ticks and tapeworms

Ticks Tapeworms

 Remove by hand  Ensure proper sanitation by getting rid of

 Dipping with acaricides such as human faeces carefully and safely by burying
deadline them.
 Use special medicated grease on the  Deworming of animals and workers
cow to stop ticks attaching themselves  Inspecting meat thoroughly to if it has any
to the cow’s skin. measles or cyst
 Practice rotational grazing  Fully cook the meat.
 Controlled burning of vegetation in
selected grazing areas can help kill
many ticks and their eggs

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 Diseases of beef cattle
A disease is the condition where by the system(s) is not functioning properly. A disease can be
caused by pathogens (organisms), injury and insufficiency of nutrients etc.
Diseases of cattle common in Botswana
Foot and mouth Blackleg
Botulism Brucellosis
CBPP (Contagious Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia) Bloat
Heartwater Anthrax
Contagious abortion Milk fever
Aphosphorosis
Name of Cause Common symptoms Treatment Method of control
disease
* Blisters in the mouth, * Regular annual
tongue and between vaccination.
Foot and Virus No treatment
hooves.
Mouth * Strict control of animal
* Blisters on teats and movement and products
(FMD)
*Only affect cloven udder. from areas where the
hoofed animals disease is known to
* A drop in milk
occur(cordon fences)
*Contact with production.
diseased animals. *Use of quarantine
* Difficulty in walking.
method.
* Contaminated milk,
*Saliva streams from the
saliva, urine etc. * It is notifiable disease
mouth
and its outbreak must be
* Wild relatives of reported to veterinary
*Develops high
cattle like buffaloes personnel, police or kgotla.
fever(high temperature)
and antelopes are
carriers. *Loss of appetite leading * Killing and burning
to loss of weight affected animals

Heart Rickettsia . * High fever Use of

water antibiotics at an
* Twitching of legs, * Control bont ticks by
early stage such
head, ears, tongue and dipping, spraying
as tetracycline,
jaws.
sulphurdimidine *Practice rotational
and liquamycin grazing

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 * The bont tick which * Animal moves in * Vaccinate against
is the intermediate circles. Heartwater.
host
*When the animal falls
down it kicks its legs in
the air and experience
difficulty in getting up
* Loss of appetite
*Post mortem analysis
show excessive fluid in
the body cavity around
the heart, and congested
lungs.

Methods of marketing beef cattle

 Selling straight to the BMC in Lobatse, Francistown and Maun where BMC is seen as the
chief buyer of beef cattle. To sell to BMC, farmers apply for the quota. The quota helps the
BMC to arrange for the arrival and slaughter of cattle. Once the BMC has processed and
approved the applications, it then tells the farmer when they must send the animals to the
abattoir. Farmers transport their cattle to the abattoirs in trucks or on foot.
 Selling through the cooperative societies
Farmers sell cattle to BMC through cooperatives. The cooperative will obtain a quota from
the BMC and transport and trekking cattle to the BMC abattoirs and receive payments on
behalf of the farmer. Cooperatives charges about 3-5% of the price obtain from the sale for
the service they provide.
 Selling to butcheries or local people:
Cattle farmers can sell their animals to butcheries that are located near their cattle post or
ranches
 Selling through the livestock agencies
Cattle agents assist farmers to get quotas for their cattle at BMC, transport the cattle to
abattoirs and collect payments on behalf of the farmer. Agents charge a fee of about 2.5%
of price obtained from sales.
 Sell through cattle auction
 Sell through speculators
NB: A QUOTA is the number of cattle a farmer or agents is allowed to deliver to BMC
abattoir at any time.

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Recommended weight and age of selling beef cattle
Fast growing beef breeds reach their market weight of 450 kg at the age of 2-3 years, while slow
growers may take about four years. The growth rate depends on the breed of cattle.
Common grades used by the BMC
Grade Comments on quality Market price Use
Prime Excellent Highest Fresh meat
Super Fresh meat
Grade 1 Fresh meat
Grade 2 Fresh meat
Grade 3 Fresh meat
Grade 4 Fresh meat
Canning/grade M Canned beef
Condemned Unfit to use for meat Lowest Rejected

Prime
This is the highest grade that an animal can get. There are two prime grades;
- Prime Zero tooth refers to cattle aged up to 20 months (1year 8months)
- Prime Two tooth refers to cattle aged between 21 and 25 months (1yr 9months and 2yrs
1mnth)
It has zero to two permanent incisor teeth
Good conformation with very tender and well-muscled carcass
Light fat content
Super
This is the second highest grade that an animal can get.
- It has 3-4 permanent incisor teeth with 3 years old or less
- Meat is tender and well muscled with enough fat
Grade 1
- It has 5-6 permanent incisor teeth with 4 years old or less
- Well muscled and tendered meat
Grade 2
- It has 8 permanent incisors with four years and above
- Meat is quite tendered with reasonable fat content
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 -
Grade 3
- It has aged teeth (they have eight permanent incisors which are now worn out) with more
than 5 years
- Beef is of fair quality but it is not very tendered fair amount of fat
Grade 4
- This beef is of poor quality
- Poorly muscled and has less fat than beef of the other grades.
- It is a little tougher than grade 3 beef.
Canning
- Older cattle with thin muscles normally produce manufacturing or canning grade beef
- This meat is quite tough
- M grade beef fetches the lowest price of all grades
Condemned
- Carcass is highly infected with measles or other diseases.
- The carcass cannot be treated for these problems and is not suitable for human consumption
- Farmers only receive small fee for condemned carcass
Beef cattle by-products
By-product Uses
Skin Bags, shoes, mats, belts, jackets
Horns Buttons for shirts and blouses
Dung Fertilizers for improving the soil
Bones Bonemeal for feeding livestock
Blood Used for blood meal
Tallow (animal fat) Used for making soap and candles

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 GOAT PRODUCTION

Breeds of goats kept in Botswana

 Tswana
 Boer
 Saanen
 Angora
 British alpine
 Toggenburg

Breed Products Characteristics

Boer Meat  Exotic breed from South Africa.
 White body with dark brown head
 High fertility rate (twins and triplets are common)
 Good mothering ability
 Adults weigh between 55-65 kg.
 Respond well to concentrate feeding.
Angora Mohair  Exotic breed originating from Turkey
 Commonly found in Lesotho
 Body covered with long shiny and wavy hair called mohair
 Can produce 2 to 3 kg of hair per year.
 Fairly adapted to our local conditions
 Has low fertility rate
 Has heavy and droopy ears and spiral horns which point backward
away from the head
Toggenburg Milk  Exotic breed from Switzerland
 Brown body with two stripes down its face and white legs, ears and
tail
 May naturally be horned or polled
 Needs good management to be productive
 Adults weigh between 50 to 65kg
Saanen Milk  Exotic breed from Switzerland
 Completely white or cream body
 Does are usually polled and bucks horned
 Does have well developed udders which yield 1-3 litres of milk
 Has good temperament and thus easier to handle
 Ears erect and pointing forward
 Good growth and fertility rate
 Adults weigh between 65 -75kg

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 Tswana Milk,  Indigenous to Botswana
Meat  Body colour varies and can be white, black, brown or combination
 Adapted to local conditions can withstand harsh weather condition
such as drought and high temperature
 Adults weigh between 30 to 45kg
 Males have beard
British Milk  Exotic breed from the Britain
alpine  Has a shiny black body with white or creamy markings on the face,
ears, legs and under the tail.
 Do well under cool climatic conditions
 Grows well and have a good fertility rate
 White stripes on the head and ears

OTHER BREEDS OF GOATS

- Anglo Nubian
- Kalahari red
CLASSIFYING GOATS ACCORDING TO THEIR USES
CLASS OF BREED BREED PURPOSE

Meat Tswana Meat

Boer
Saanen
Milk Toggenburg Milk
British alpine

Fibre Angora Mohair

Dual purpose Tswana Meat and milk

Goat breeds differ in the following characteristics;

 Place of origin
 Colour of hair
 Size
 Presence or absence of horns

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Importance of housing in goat management
 Protects goats from adverse weather conditions e.g. intense heat, cold, heavy rain and
strong winds.
 Protects goats from predators such as lions, jackals and hyenas and thieves
 Facilitates general management of goats e.g. vaccination, hoof trimming, dosing, ear
marking and easy to observe goats for diseases and parasites.
 Manure production; a good amount of quality kraal manure can be collected from goat
houses.
 Used to separate sick animals with infectious diseases from the healthy ones so as to
prevent the spread of the disease.
 Prevents goats from going astray
 Housed goats do not cause damage in crop fields
Importance of feeding goats
 To maintain goats in strong and healthy conditions at all times
 To increase fertility, hence rate of conception in breeding stock.
 To maintain high milk production in lactating goats.
 To allow for rapid growth of foetus.
 Produces fast growth rate
 Reduces mortality among young ones
 Improves resistance to diseases and parasites

Types of feeds for goats

Adult goats
1. Roughage
Browsing and grazing from natural pastures e.g. hay, silage, lucerne, crop residues etc.
2. Concentrates
Usually fed to lactating goats e.g. carcass meal, wheat bran, sorghum bran.
3. Supplementary feeds
 bone meal and salt
 mineral licks
The feeds should provide energy, proteins, minerals and vitamins for;
 growth
 development
 maintenance
 production
 protection from diseases

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Feeding kids
Kids must be allowed to suckle colostrum from their mothers. In milk production, kids must suckle
colostrum for five (5) to seven(7) days. Kids may be fed on cows’ milk after this period. This can
be done using a bottle or kids are taught to drink from pans. Kids should be introduced to grass or
pasture or concentrates at three weeks of age. At three months kids must be weaned. For meat
goats, kids must be allowed to run with their mothers until they are weaned.
Watering
Goats require about five litres of quality water per day. Goats pick up most of their internal
parasites by drinking from rivers, dams and grazing in wetlands. To control possible infestations,
goats must be kept away from such areas and only allowed to drink clean water from troughs.
Importance of providing water regularly to goats
 Forms and maintains shapes of body cells.
 A medium for chemical reactions in the body
 Regulates body temperature
 Aids in the excretion of waste products
 Forms 60-70% of the animal’s body
 Forms part of the cell body fluids
 Essential for the proper digestion of food
 For high milk production in lactating does
 Prevents death due dehydration

Management practices
Some of them are castration, identification, hoof trimming, deworming and vaccination.
1. Castration
It is the removal or destruction of testes to prevent a male animal from breeding.
Reasons for castration
 To control unwanted breeding
 It makes male animals docile
 Improve meat quality as unpleasant smell is eliminated
 To avoid fighting in the herd
 To help bucks to grow fast
Methods of castration
a) Using a burdizzo
It is a bloodless method in which a burdizzo is used to crush the spermatic cords, one at a time.

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HOW IT IS DONE:
 Restrain the goat
 Hold the testicles in the scrotum and clamp an open burdizzo midway around the spermatic
cords one at a time.
 Close the burdizzo by squeezing it tightly around the spermatic cord until they are crushed
 Open the burdizzo jaws when the spermatic cords have been crushed and take it off.
b) Using a rubber ring (elastrator)
This method is suitable for a buck that is less than 4 months old.

HOW IT IS DONE
 Restrain the goat
 Place the rubber ring on a n applicator that helps to fit it around
the scrotum
 Hold the testicles in the scrotal sac and place the applicator with
the ring around the scrotum above the testicles.
 Release the rubber ring above the testicles (It will squeeze the spermatic cords and blood
vessels supplying the testes so tightly that the there will be no blood flow to the testicles)
 Let the goat go away with the rubber ring around the scrotum above the testicle.
 After a few weeks, the testicles will die off.
c) Using a scalpel/knife
Using a knife / scalpel is a surgical method of castration. This causes a
lot of bleeding and flies will be attracted to the wound. This method is
very painful and dangerous for the young animals. It is carried out when
kids are 2-3 days old.
HOW IT IS DONE:
 Restrain the goat
 Hold one of the testicles and press it against the scrotum
 Using a knife, cut an opening at the bottom of the scrotum (slit is
cut on the lower third of the scrotum)
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  Squeeze the testicles out of the cut.
 Cut the cords attached to the testicles so as to remove it out of the scrotum.
 Do the same for the other testicles
 After removing the testicles, mop off the blood and apply antiseptic to avoid infection.
2. Deworming
It is treating animals with drugs (anthelmentics) that will kill internal parasites. It is usually done
by oral administration, which means the animal has to swallow the drug. The drugs are usually
in liquid form and are given using a dosing gun which places the liquid drug down the animal’s
throat. Deworming drugs include anthelmentics such as Benzaldehyde (piperazine), copper
sulphate, Lintex, Ripercol and Tramisol. These kill internal parasites such as roundworms,
tapeworms and liver fluke. Animals infected with internal parasites often eat more than normal but
cannot put on weight, and they can easily catch diseases. This is because the parasites are feeding
on the host (goat), therefore deworming needs to done to allow goats to grow fast and gain weight.

Reasons for deworming

 Ensure maximum production of good quality products
 Ensure animals grow well, faster and attain maturity quickly.
 Prevent spread of worms to other animals or people.
 Improve resistance of goats to
diseases.
Tools used for deworming
 Dosing gun or drenching gun

Deworming procedure
A goat is backed in a corner, head held up and drug is placed at the back of the throat using a
dosing gun.
 Restrain the animal
 Fill the dosing gun with the drug
 Put your hand under the jaw of the animal and insert the gun into the corner of the animals
mouth.
 Squeeze the gun and deliver the medicine over the animals tongue at the back of the mouth.
 Remove the gun from the mouth when the animal has swallowed all the medicine
3. Hoof trimming
It is re-shaping or reducing the size of elongated or overgrown hooves of animals.
Reasons for hoof trimming
 To allow goats to walk without difficulties
 Control the disease foot rot
 Prevent build up of dirt and parasites between hooves
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  Prevent lameness and stress in goats.
Tools used in hoof trimming
 hoof trimmer
 knife
 rasp
Procedure of hoof trimming
Restrain a goat, clean the hooves and cut overgrown parts of hooves with great care to avoid cutting
into live tissue and causing bleeding. After trimming, the hooves are washed in a disinfectant.
Restrain the animal
Remove any dirt, manure, stones, or any material from the hooves.
Lift the foot to be trimmed and assess the condition of the hoove
Using a knife or hoof cutter, cut any excess growth from the walls of the foot, the toe, the
heel and the sole
 Continue cutting or trimming excess growth until the hoof is flat or of the right size and
shape.
VACCINATION
It is the administration of vaccines (antibodies) in the body so as to produce immunity against
certain diseases.
Reasons for vaccinating goats
 To help protect animals from getting the diseases for which they are vaccinated against
 Vaccination can be done as a cost effective method of preventing the spread of infectious
diseases.
 To keep animals healthy and productive by providing immunity for certain period of times.

HOW VACCINATION IS DONE

 Retrain the animal
 Draw into the syringe the amount of vaccine you want to inject into the animal
 Hold the syringe firmly and insert the needle under the fold of skin. Push the plunger to
release the vaccine until the syringe is empty
 Pull the syringe with the needle out of the fold of skin and put these away.
 Massage the injected area for the vaccine to be absorbed.
4. Identification
It means giving each goat a mark or number to distinguish it from all the other goats.

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Types of identification
 Ear tags
 Ear notches
Reasons for identification
 To facilitate record keeping
 Prevent theft of stock
 Facilitate sorting out of animals
Tools used
 Ear tag applicator
 Ear notcher

Ear tagging
a) Metal tags
These must be non-corrosive and be easy to apply. They should be applied to the centre of the ear
with the number on the outside.
b) Plastic tags
These are often larger than metal tags as a result they can be read from a distance.
Ear tagging procedure
A small numbered strip of metal or plastic (ear tag) is attached to the ear of every kid using an ear
tag applicator.
 Identify the animals to be tagged.
 Decide which ear to be tagged
 Position the ear tagger on the area of the ear to be tagged.
 Squeeze the ear-tagger firmly so as to clamp.
 Release the ear-tagger and check if the tag has been properly clamped to the ear.
Ear notching procedure
It is a method of goat identification in which a particular cut is made on the ears of the goat. Small
pieces of an ear are clipped on using an ear notcher.
An ear notch is a hollow cut or slit made at the edge or on the surface of the ear of an animal.
Ear – notching is when making a cut or slit in the animal’s ear for the purpose if identification.
A sharp knife, clippers, pliers or punching tools can be used.
PROCEDURE
 Get the tool that you want to use for notching.
 Restrain the animal with the help of an assistant

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  Make the notch of the shape you want on the ear of the animal.
_ if it is a cut or slit at the edge of the ear, a sharp knife would.
_If a hole is to be made on the ear, a special punching tool should be used.
Parasites of goats
A parasite is an organism that depends on other organisms for food, its host (goat). There are two
types of parasite; internal and external parasites.
a) Internal parasites
There are parasites found inside the body of animals, especially in the intestines. They survive by
absorbing food swallowed by the animal or sucking blood from the walls of the intestine. Common
examples are;
 Roundworms
 Tapeworms
 Liver flukes
Liver flukes
They are flat and live in the liver of their host. The flukes have both male and female sexual organs
within them, they are hermaphrodite. They suck blood from the liver of the goat, damaging the
liver and eventually killing the host.
The life cycle of a liver fluke
The stages are;
 Eggs of the liver fluke live in grass for a few months and then hatch into larvae.
 After about two weeks the larvae invade the bodies of water snails.
 Eventually the larvae leave the water snails, and move up the stems of grass
 The larvae attach themselves to the grass stems and enter a resting stage as cysts.
 Goats feed on the grass with cysts, and the cysts enter the animal’s body.
 The cysts hatch into adult flukes and move through the host’s body to the liver.
 The flukes live in the liver of the host and lay eggs
 The eggs pass out of the host’s body together with the faeces
 After a couple of months in the grass, the eggs hatch into larvae
Effects of liver flukes on goats
 Liver fluke damages the liver of goats by sucking blood.
 The animal suffers from diarrhoea, but in some cases they become constipation
 The animal may have anaemia or be weak because the flukes suck blood.
 The animal loses weight
 Slow growth of the goat
 Fall in milk production
 Poor quality meat
 Post mortem examinations show many liver flukes in the bile tubes of the liver.

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Control of liver flukes
 Dosing animals with anthelmintics such as thiabendazole and tetramisole
 Avoiding grazing goats in swampy and very wet areas
 Using rotational grazing, because the eggs will eventually die if no hosts are grazing the
grass (breaking the life cycle of the parasite).
 Draining wet and swampy areas to kill the water snail that is the liver fluke’s secondary
host
External parasites
There are parasites which live on the body of the animals, especially on the soft and hidden areas
e.g. under the tail, between the hooves. They survive by sucking blood from the host. Common
external parasites of goats are;
 Ticks
 Lice
 Mites
 Fleas
 Maggots
External parasites, such as ticks, mites and lice can be controlled by immersing the goats in a
dipping tank that contains an acaricide (chemical that kills ticks). Alternatively, goats can be
treated with tick grease, which is applied to the affected areas.
Diseases of goats
Goats suffer from many diseases such as
 Contagious abortion Pulpy kidney
 Heart water Foot rot
 Brucellosis Blackquarter (quarter evil)
 Pasteurellosis Bloat
 Anthrax Aphosphorosis
Name Cause Symptoms Treatment Control and prevention
of
disease
Foot Bacteria * Lameness and * In the early stages * Trim the hooves regularly
rot difficulty in walking of the diseases, foot
* Avoid grazing goats in wet
rot can be treated
* Eventually the areas
with antibiotics like
animal may loose its
penicillin or * Keep kraals dry
hoof
oxytetracycline.
* Practice rotational grazing
* Unpleasant pus
* The hooves must be
between the hooves * Use a foot bath containing
kept clean using a
25-30% copper sulphate
solution

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 *The area between the disinfectant and treat * Isolate all infected animals
animals hooves with gentian violet.
* Inspect the animal’s hooves
become red and moist
regularly and keep them
*Because walking is trimmed to prevent cracking.
difficult, infected
animals become thin
and lose condition
very quickly.
*Infected animal may
graze while kneeling.

THE PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS OF GOATS

Products Use of product
Meat  Used as food that provides proteins, minerals and vitamins
 BMC slaughter goats and exports some of this meat to other
countries
 Converted into yoghurt and sour milk

 Boiled for drinking

Milk

 Processed to make food products such as cheese and butter

Mohair  Processed to make woolen garments and blankets

By-products of goats
By product Use of by-product
Bones ( bonemeal) Supplementary livestock feed
Blood ( blood meal) Supplementary livestock feed
Skins Processed to make leather shoes, bags, mats and garments
Manure Used as organic fertilizer in crop fields or vegetable garden
Horns Processed to make buttons, knife handles, combs, bag handles
Fat (tallow) Used in making glue, cosmetics, soap, candles
Tail ( hair at tip of tail) Paint brushes

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PROCESSING GOAT PRODUCTS
Processing meat
1. Stunning
The goat must first be stunned to make it unconscious. The goat must be stunned in the middle of
the top of its head
2. Bleeding
The throat of the goat is slit with a sharp knife and the animal is kept upside down so that the blood
drips down.

3. Skinning
To skin the carcass, tearing the animal’s skin is called ripping. Skinning is done along the proper
ripping lines. This process is done right after killing when it is easy to peel off the skin. The skin
is removed mostly by fisting; this means that we push our fists between the skin and the carcass to
lift the skin.
4. Weight Recording
This is done to determine the price the carcass is worth
5. Inspection
This is done to see whether the carcass is suitable for human consumption. It is inspected for any
signs of diseases and parasites.
6. Grading
After inspection the carcass, grading is done from highest to lowest grade according to its quality.
7. Cutting
The meat is then chilled before it is cut, because it is easier to cut when it is cold. Cutting must be
done such that bones will not puncture the plastic packaging and to present the meat in
manageable portions. The insides may be completely removed or packaged and sold separately as
Offals.
8. Packaging
The final step before we send the meat to the retailer as weighed portions

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Processing of Goat Milk
The following table shows how to make goat milk cheese
What you will need Method
Stainless steel sauce pan 1. Pour the goat milk into a stainless steel saucepan. You
may add buttermilk for extra creaminess
2. Heat the milk mixture to a temperature of at least 85ºC, or
Goat milk butter milk to a medium heat. Stir the milk frequently while you are
heating it. Allow it to simmer and watch carefully that it
does not boil over or burn
3. Remove the milk mixture from the heat. Allow the milk
2tsp lemon or juice or mixture to cool to about room temperature before
vinegar proceeding.
4. Add lemon juice or vinegar to the milk and buttermilk
mixture. This is to coagulate the cheese. Stir only enough
Ladle for it to mix. Do not over stir.
5. Stir frequently until the curds separate from the whey.
During this period the mixture curdles into clods.
Cheesecloth or good muslin 6. Once the mixture has separated, ladle the mixture into
several layers of cheesecloth and hang over bowl that will
cloth
catch the whey for a few hours. Alternatively, line a sieve
or colander with cheesecloth and ladle the mixture into
this.
Colander or sieve Throw away the whey that goes through the sieve or use
it in cooking or as a drink. Squeeze out the rest of the whey
from the cheesecloth.
Bowl

7. Keep the curd in a refrigerator for about a day before

seasoning testing
8. Put the curd into bowl and season to taste. You can also
add some herbs or other flavourings

The following table shows how to make goat milk cheese

What you will need Method
A sauce pan and a pot for 1. Pour milk into a sauce pan and place the saucepan in a
double boiling larger pot containing water
2. Heat the pot until the milk starts to froth
3. Cool the milk down by placing in a pot containing cold
8 cups (2litres) goats milk water
4. Allow starter yoghurt to warm up to room temperature

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 5. Add the powdered milk to the goat milk
6. Add starter yoghurt to this mixture and stir it until
½ cup starter yogurt everything has been dissolved
7. If you would like sweetened yoghurt, add syrup or honey
to taste
⅓ cup powdered milk 8. Pour the mixture into some clean container and cover
tightly
9. Keep the container in an oven at about 38ºC for about
seven hours.
10. After seven hours, take out the yoghurt and keep it in a
refrigerator for a few hours before serving

Processing Mohair
Shearing
The first step is shearing the Angora goats. They are usually sheared twice a year, in early spring
and early autumn. Kids and wethers (castrated males) produce the best fleece.
Scouring
The shorn fleece must be washed gently in a hot water. If the wool is going to be used for knitting
or weaving, it is dyed.
Carding
During carding, the fleece fibres are untangled and aligned to be straight and parallel to one
another. This makes it easy to spin.
Spinning
The fleece is spun according to what the end product is going to be. In other words, the more
durable the end product need to be, and the tighter the mohair must be twisted. Looser twists tend
to be more lustrous but are not as durable and strong. After spinning the yarn, it is washed again
and prepares it for commercial use.
Mohair is highly versatile and durable fibre with many uses. Depending on the grade of mohair, it
can be used for making baby and adult clothes. It can be made into crafts such as knitting,
crocheting and weaving. Other uses are; attractive winter clothing, saddle blankets for horses,
bedding blankets, upholstery, carpets and rugs.
Marketing of goat products and by- products
1. Meat
Goat meat can be sold live or they can first be slaughtered and the meat sold.
Live goats can be sold to;
 BMC

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  Local butcheries
 Individuals
2. Skins
 It can be used in the leather book binding, sporting goods and luxury items e.g gloves and
boots
 Leather tanneries and leather goods factories
3. Milk
 Goat milk can be sold to other households
 It can also be sold to dairies that will process it into products such as cheese or to the
cosmetics industry for making creamy soaps and skin – care products
Products
Goats can provide the following products:
1. Meat
2. Milk 3 Mohair

Factors considered before starting a goat production enterprise

1. Method of production to adopt
2. Climate
3. Incidence of diseases and parasites
4. Demand of goat meat and other products
5. Distance to markets, slaughter and processing centres
6. Availability of ;
Land for browsing
 Permanent water source
 Drugs and supplementary feeds
 Labour
 Credit
 Suitable goat breeds
Supply and demand situation
Demand is greater than the supply, especially in cities, towns and big villages. There are still not
enough goats and goat meat readily available on the market for individuals to purchase. Not enough
goats are available for slaughter at Botswana Meat Commission (BMC).

Strategies adopted by the government to improve goat production

1. Provides financial assistance through grant schemes such as;
CEDA – Citizen Entrepreneurial Development Agency
NDB – National Development Bank
SLOCA – Services to Livestock Owners in Communal Areas

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2. Extension services
The ministry of Agriculture deploys technical staff country wide such as agricultural
demonstrators and veterinary assistants to provide technical advice and support to small stock
producers.
3. Farmers are also educated through seminars, workshops, radio programmes and agricultural
shows or fairs.
4. Animal Production Research Unit (APRU)
This unit of the Ministry of Agriculture continually conducts experiments (researching) to find
better ways of raising small stock.
5. Agriculture curriculum taught in schools covers small stock. The aim is to equip pupils with
adequate knowledge on all aspects of stock farming.
Problems limiting goat production in Botswana
1. Diseases and parasites
Goats are easily attacked by internal and external parasites. A lot of farmer’s small stock can die
from parasites and diseases.
2. Predators
Predators such as jackals, hyenas, wild.
4. Lack of drugs and vaccines
Drugs and vaccines are not readily available. Livestock Advisory Centres, which are the main
distributors of drugs and vaccines, are located only in towns and big villages and are not accessible
to most farmers in small villages.
5. Harsh climate
Temperatures in Botswana can reach extremes. The winters are very cold, with temperatures
sometimes below 0˚c. Summers can be very hot, with temperatures above 36˚c. Very low
temperatures can kill kids and low rainfall leads to poor pasture which means lower rate of
production.
6. Lack of management skills
Most farmers in rural areas do not have knowledge on good breeds and management systems to
increase the productivity of their stock.
7. Distance to abattoirs
Most abattoirs (BMC) are far from where goats are kept (rural areas). So this makes it difficult to
take goats to the abattoir by tracking.

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Solutions to the problems
1. Diseases and parasites
The animals should be dewormed with anthelmentics drugs to control internal parasites. They
should be treated with chemicals in a dip and greased to control external parasites. Goats should
be vaccinated against contagious abortion and pulpy kidney.
2. Predators
Serious predators must be reported to the wild life department and be eradicated.
3. Poor breed
Farmers should buy good breeds to cross breed them with the Tswana e.g. Boer and Saanen goats.
Lack of drugs and vaccine
Drugs and vaccines should be made available through agricultural extension offices in villages
through out the country.
5. Harsh climate
Shelter should be provided for young stock so that they keep warm. Boreholes should be dug to
provide enough water all year round; supplementary feeds should be given to the stock when
pastures are poor.
6 Lack of management skills
Extension officers employed by the government can go out to rural areas and teach farmers better
management systems.
Methods of production
 Extensive
 Intensive
 Semi-intensive
1. Extensive system (free range)
Goats are allowed to graze and browse natural pastures without fencing. The goats are housed or
kraaled in the evening and let out of their kraals in the morning.
2. Intensive system (zero grazing)
It involves continuous housing and zero grazing. The goats are permanently restricted to pens;
food and water are brought to them. They are fed on cut forage, supplemented by kitchen waste
and other crop residues.
3. Semi- intensive system (Rotational)
It combines grazing and feeding in pen with adequate housing.

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Concentrates may be given as supplements and grazing can be controlled by fencing and tethering.
Preparations made before acquiring goats for an enterprise
 Prepare a project plan and a budget
 Acquiring knowledge and skills in goat production.
 Acquire the needed labour and train them.
 Fencing and paddocking of rangeland.
 Construction of goat house, dipping or spraying facilities
 Securing enough funds for buying goats
 Surveying the market and marketing structure
 Purchasing enough drugs and vaccines
 Purchasing of feeds

Preparing a budget for a goat enterprise

The budget is a plan that shows the expenses, income and profit
Expenses items will include purchase of breeding stock, cost of construction of kraal or house,
dip tank, cost of drugs and vaccines, labour, supplementary feeds and miscellaneous expenses.
Income items will include sale of goats, sale of culls and manure.
Goat products
 Cooperative societies
 Individual people
The animals are sent to abattoirs by truck or train or even trekked.

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 DAIRY PRODUCTION
Dairy breeds
Friesian
Jersey
Brown Swiss (dual purpose)
Ayrshire
Guernsey
Friesian / Friesland
It is black and white in colour and on average a mature cow weighs around 550kg. The Friesian
produces more milk than other breeds, and can produce 3000-5000 litres of milk per year. The
udder has a large capacity. The butter fat of the milk is 3.5%. It has very short horns and under
good management, will calve at about at 2.5 years of age. It is docile/mild temperament, it is a
poor grazer of pastures & requires high standard of management.
Jersey
This is a light breed that is brown to light brown in colour/ yellowish brown (fawn). It has a black
nose bordered by a white muzzle, its hooves are black. A mature cow weighs 350-450 kg. Jerseys
are hardy but they produce less milk than the Friesians. However, their milk is yellowish, rich in
protein, high butterfat content of 5% & minerals (eg; calcium). They are very docile animals and
easy to work with.
Guernsey
This is a medium-sized breed that varies from light brown to red in colour. It may have white
markings on the face, legs, switch and flank. Mature cows weigh 450-500 kg and they produce up
to 3000 litres of milk per year. The milk has a butter fat content of about 4.5 %. A fairly good
grazer, good temperament.
Brown Swiss
Large sized breed that is usually dark brown in colour with a dark nose & a creamy white muzzle.
Its horn tips, switch & nose are black. It is one of the largest dairy cattle breeds. Mature cows can
weigh up to 700 kg on average under good management. Compared to other breeds, they are more
resistant to parasites and diseases, and survive better when feeding on natural pastures. Breed well
suited to Botswana conditions. It is easy to manage & handle during milking.
Ayrshire

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It is red with white markings or white with red markings. A medium sized breed, mature cow
weighs about 500kg under good management, it is a good feed converter into milk. They are
renowned for their perfect udders.
Characteristics of a good & a bad dairy cow
A Good Dairy Cow A Bad Dairy Cow
A good dairy cow has an udder that is large & Small & poorly developed udder which is
well attached to the body. It does not hang pendulous from the abdomen.
loosely from the abdomen.
Its skin flesh to touch, the teats are small &
The udder’s skin is soft & supple, the teats are close together or unevenly spaced.
large, firm & placed well apart (7-8 cm long)
The stomach is large & rounded with a lot of Small flat stomach without enough room for a
space for storing food & water, especially for lot of food & water.
milk production.
The legs & hooves must be strong so that the The legs & hooves are weak with narrow hind
cow can walk well, the hind legs are wide & quarters which do not accommodate the
well set to accommodate the large udder & well development of a large udder.
spaced teats.
The cow’s body is angular/wedge shaped, it A blocky body that is well fleshed.
carries little flesh.
It is tame, calm & restful. This is important Has an aggressive nature or becomes nervous
since the cow is handled twice in a day during easily which makes it difficult to handle her at
milking without her getting upset or nervous milking times.
which can lead to less milk being released or
milk contamination.
Has a large, prominent milk vein on the udder Small invisible milk vein.
Fertile & able to produce a calf each year, this Infertile with irregular calving & short
is important since for milk to be produced, the lactating periods.
cow should have given birth. She should have
long lactating periods.
Healthy & grows well. Tolerant to diseases, Sickly & grows poorly, prone to diseases,
parasites & ambient (high) temperature. parasites & ambient temperature.

Shelter for dairy cows

Shelter is very important for protecting dairy cattle from the harsh environment in Botswana.
Cows must not suffer from too much heat or too cold.

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Shelter is also needed for milking the cows because milking should not be done outside.
If milking is carried out in the open air, dirt and flies can get in the milk and contaminate it.
The types of buildings and shelters commonly found in dairy enterprises include kraals, milking
parlours, calf pens, crushes, cold rooms and storerooms.
*Kraals : Simply constructed shelters to house cows overnight ( refer to beef production)
* Dairy / Milking shed & Milking parlour
Milking Shed: It is used on small dairy farms. It is a roofed structure & inside the shed there are
stalls in rows & each cow stands in her own stall at milking.
Milking Parlour: Used in intensive commercial dairy farming. Like a shed, it has a roof, good
ventilation, food troughs, concrete floor & a furrow for carrying urine , dung & cleaning water.
A parlour is usually smaller than a shed, can hold from 2-8 cows at a time. However it has
automatic milking machines. When a cow is let into the parlour,she goes into a stall & eats feed
on a trough in front. While she is eating, the automatic milking machine is used to milk her. I front
of the stall is a gate & as soon as milking is finished,the gate opens & the cow walks out.
Both the shed & parlour should have the following features:
 Must be built on a well drained area
 Be built down wind from homesteads
 In an area with a good water supply
 Floor be made of concrete, bricks & have a furrow to carry urine,dung & cleaning water.
 Roofed, preferably with corrugated asbestos, to keep it cool.
 Be well ventilated
Holding pens
Cows can be kept in holding pens before milking them.
A holding pen is made of treated poles. It may also have a roof, preferably corrugated asbestos.
Calf pens
When dairy cows give birth,the calves are first kept with the mothers for a week, then weaned.
Weaned calves are kept in calf pens where they are managed. The floor of the pens may be covered
with litter, especially concrete floors to act as bedding. Wet litter should be replaced with dry one.
It is important to keep the pens clean, dry & well ventilated keep it free of germs.
Crushes
Crushes can be used to restrain the animals while carrying out management activities such as
inspection, vaccination, spraying, etc…..
They are made of treated poles & must be strong enough to detain the animals.

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Feed storage space
Feeds should be stored in a clean dry place. This is to ensure they stay fresh & safe from germs. It
also preserves their taste. Feed exposed to adverse weather conditions loses taste & quality.
Ways of storing feeds include:
A simple roof for roughages such as hay
A pit/silo can be used to store silage to keep it moist & away from the air
Strong bags / metal tanks are ideal for storing concentrates, these should be stored where
they will stay dry & safe from rats, mice & other pests.
Fenced area / Paddock
Fenced grazing areas are provided for cows to move around / exercise. The size of each paddock
will depend on the size of the herd, management style & carrying capacity.
Part of the fenced area can be used to grow fodder. Paddocks facilitate rotational grazing &
grouping of animals according to age.
Feeds for dairy cows
They include the following:
1. Roughages
These are feeds high in fibre, some of these are:
Pastures
Pure grass pastures can be planted or mixtures of grass and legumes. Examples of grass species
that can be grown include Rhodes grass and legumes such as stylo.
Hay
This is dried grass that is usually kept in storage. It is usually lower in proteins, minerals and
vitamins than fresh feed. Animals fed on hay need a supplementary feed to balance their ration
Silage
Silage is succulent roughage which can be made from cereals, grasses and legumes. As it has a
strong smell, it is best to feed it to dairy cattle after milking and not before.
2. Concentrates
These are feeds high in protein and energy, and are primarily made from grains and by-products
of grain, oilseed and animals. They are normally given concentrates as an extra feed ration to cattle
during milking.
Significance of good nutrition in dairy production
Good nutrition means having the right kinds of feeds with nutrients needed by the body.
Dairy cows need good nutrition for the following reasons:

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  To be able to grow healthy & produce more milk. Poor nutrition will lead to low milk
production.
 Good nutrition strengthens the cow’s immune system. Poor nutrition can lead to nutritional
diseases such as milk fever & ketosis.
 Good nutrition is needed for normal growth & development of the body. It helps to repair
body cells & tissues.
 It is necessary to keep the cows in good health condition for the next mating, pregnancy &
parturition. During pregnancy, it is needed for to support the foetus & its mother.
 It provides the cows with energy & keeps them active.
Weaning
This is the separation of the calf from the mother so that they can completely stop suckling milk
from them.
Reasons for weaning
It allows the cow to recover from the stress of lactation
It helps the cow to prepare for the next calving
So that the farmer can get more milk from the cow without having to share it with the calf.
For the calf to start feeding on solids which encourages development of the rumen
For ease of operations carried out on calves
Why is the calf allowed to suckle colostrum?
Colostrum is the first milk produced by the cow in the first five to seven days after parturition. It
is fed to calves because:
 It contains antibodies that kick-starts the immune system of the calf, protecting it from
diseases.
 It has a mild laxative effect, hence helps in the removal of foetal dung
 It is rich in nutrients: protein, vitamins, minerals, etc..
 It is easily digested by calves
Length of time a calf should stay with its mother before weaning
On commercial dairy farms, calves are taken from their mothers 5-7 days (a week) after birth.
Care of calves after weaning
 Housing in calf pens; this provides protection & makes management activities easy to carry
out.
 Feeding them with milk replacers, tender natural pastures, silage, hay & concentrates
(supplementary feeds); good nutrition is necessary for health & to avoid stress experienced
by the calf due to separation from its mother which may lead to weight loss or a drop in
growth rate after weaning.
 Controlling parasites through deworming, spraying & dipping.
 Regular vaccination to protect them against diseases
 Providing them with plenty clean uncontaminated water
 Selection of those with desirable traits to serve as breeding stock & culling those not
suitable for dairy.
Diseases of dairy cattle

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Dairy cows may suffer from the following diseases:
Diseases & their causes
Diseases Causes
Foot & mouth disease
Anthrax
Heart water
Quarter evil
Bovine Tuberculosis
Lumpy skin
Mastitis
Milk fever
Brucellosis
Black quarter
Bloat

Name of disease Cause Symptoms Treatment Prevention and

control
Mastitis * Bacteria- * Teats are swollen * Administer * Use strip cup to
this is the and painful. antibiotics such detect mastitis
inflammation as penicillin, before milking.
* Milk may be blood
of the tetracycline.
stained. * Milk affected
mammary
animals last.
glands. * Milk has clots.
* Clean and
* Milk becomes
disinfect dairy
watery.
equipment.
* Drop in milk
* The udder must be
production.
dipped in an iodine
* In serious cases the solution.
milk will be greenish
with a very bad
smell.

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 Milk fever * Low in * Dullness. * Inject * Give mineral
blood calcium animals mixture which
It occurs 12-27 after the * Difficulty in
intravenously includes Ca, P and
birth of a calf. When the moving (paralysis).
with calcium salt at all times.
cow start calving, it will
* Loss of appetite in gluconate
produce a lot of milk. *Give large dose of
early stages. solution. The
This will mean that a lot vitamin D to cows
dose is
of calcium is secreted * Constipation. before parturition.
sometimes
into the milk and the
* Animal may get in given with a
body is left with low
a coma. dose of vitamin
calcium level in the
D. The animal
blood. * Death may occur. will recover
within an hour.

Milking
Great care has to be taken before, during and after milking to make sure that the milk is not
contaminated in any way.
There are two methods of milking cows;
Hand milking and machine milking
Hand milking
The method is very common in Botswana. Calves are allowed to suckle from their mothers for a
few minutes, so that she starts to lactate. The calf is then moved away from the mother and the
farmer starts to milk. Alternatively a salve cream can be applied to the teats of the cow to stimulate
milk production. When milking, the teat is held between the thumb and the pointing finger, and
then it is pressed down.
Advantages of hand milking
 It is cheap
 It is easy to learn how to do it.
Disadvantages of hand milking
It is slow therefore not suitable for large scale producers.
Milk remains exposed for longer periods increasing the chances of contamination.
Incorrect milking techniques may damage the teats or cause the cows to hide the milk.

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Machine milking
The machine has cups that fit onto the teats and it applies a suction force to the teats to start
lactation. The movement of the rubber linings of the teat cups is like the suckling of a calf and
stimulates the cow to release the milk. The milk is sucked out of the teat cups into tubes. After
milking, the cow’s teats are dipped in a disinfectant.
Advantages of machine milking
 It is quick and efficient; many cows can be milked in a short time.
 It ensures minimum handling of milk and less exposure, so this reduces the chances of the
milk getting contaminated.
Disadvantages of machine milking
 It is very expensive and therefore mainly suitable for large scale producers.
 It needs skills to operate properly and to carry out maintenance.
 Cleaning the machine needs skill as it has to be dismantled and reassembled.
 Electricity is needed to run the equipment.
Before milking starts, the farmer needs to make sure that:
 The milking area is clean
 All the equipment is clean
 All equipment is working properly
 Feeding troughs have been filled so the cows can eat during milking
 The cows are checked for obvious signs of disease before they enter the milking shed –
they must not be milked if they show signs of disease and should be separated from the
other cows.
 Cows are lactating
How milk should be handled after milking
After milking, the milk must be treated with care to prevent bacteria from contaminating it. Milk
can perish very quickly and easily, it needs to be kept cool by storing it in a cold room. It then has
to be treated so that the bacteria in the milk are killed. This means the milk is safer for human
consumption and lasts longer before going bad.
There are two ways of treating milk; sterilization and pasteurization. These two treatments alter
the way the milk tastes. Some people prefer the taste of sterilized milk and others the taste of
pasteurized milk.
Sterilization
This is heating milk at a temperature of 110˚c for 30 minutes. This effectively kills all
microorganisms in the milk, but also destroys some nutrients in the milk such as proteins and
vitamins. This reduces the quality of the milk and alters its taste. Sterilized milk can stay for
months before going bad e.g. long life and ultramel.
Pasteurization

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Milk is pasteurized by being heated to 72˚c for about 15 to 20 seconds and then cooled to a much
lower temperature of about 10˚c. The heating of the milk kills microbes but it does not change the
quality and taste of the milk. Pasteurized milk can stay for 3 to 5 days before going bad e.g. fresh
milk.
Making of sour milk
Sour milk or madila is a very popular milk product in Botswana.
To prepare sour milk, keep fresh milk in a container. Curdling of the milk will occur. Curdling is
the process by which liquid milk changes into solid substance curd (madila). Curdling occurs
because the bacteria in the milk react with lactose (milk sugar) and change it to lactic acid. The
bacteria in the lactic acid then cause the milk to curdle (go rema). This results in the formation of
milk solids (madila) and watery part (whey). The watery part is largely water but contains a few
nutrients. Finally, the whey is separated from the madila.
Marketing of milk and milk products
Milk can be sold to;
 Households
 Restaurants
 Shops
 Schools
 Hotels
 Hospitals
Milk is usually sold to people immediately after milking when still fresh and untreated.
It is also sold as pasteurized or sterilized milk.
Milk is sometimes fermented and sold as sour milk.
Condensed milk is made by evaporating a lot of moisture out of the milk. It is very sweet, thick,
milk that is used in tea.
Milk powder is produced by removing all of the moisture from the milk by evaporation. Milk
powder can be stored for a long time, and water can be added to it to make liquid milk when
needed.
Cheese is a solid by product of milk that is usually produced at dairy processing plants. It made by
adding lactic acid to milk. This makes the milk to be solid clumps, and the whey is drained off and
the solid part (curd) is pressed to make hard cheese.
Yoghurt is made from milk by fermenting it with bacteria.
Butter is produced from milk by separating the fat from the milk and processing the fat so that it
forms a solid a solid.

Cheese, yoghurt and butter are sold in shops. END OF FORM 3 NOTES

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