Drawing

Albrecht Dürer, Self-Portrait at the Age of 13

Drawing is a form of visual art in which a person uses various

drawing instruments to mark paper or another two-
dimensionalmedium. Instruments include graphite pencils, pen
and ink, various kinds of paints, inkedbrushes, colored
pencils, crayons, charcoal, chalk, pastels, various kinds
of erasers, markers, styluses, and various metals (such
as silverpoint). Digital drawing is the act of using a computer to
draw. Common methods of digital drawing include a stylus or finger
on a touchscreen device, stylus- or finger-to-touchpad, or in some
cases, a mouse. There are many digital art programs and devices.
A drawing instrument releases a small amount of material onto a
surface, leaving a visible mark. The most common support for
drawing is paper, although other materials, such
as cardboard, wood, plastic, leather, canvas, and board, may be
used. Temporary drawings may be made on
a blackboard or whiteboard or indeed almost anything. The
medium has been a popular and fundamental means of public
expression throughout human history. It is one of the simplest and
most efficient means of communicating visual ideas.[1] The wide
availability of drawing instruments makes drawing one of the most
common artistic activities.
In addition to its more artistic forms, drawing is frequently used in
commercial illustration, animation, architecture, engineering 
and technical drawing. A quick, freehand drawing, usually not
intended as a finished work, is sometimes called a sketch.
An artist who practices or works in technical drawing may be called
a drafter, draftsman or a draughtsman.

Drawing is Also an Independent Artform

In addition, as an independent stand-alone artform, drawing offers the widest possible
scope for creative expression. Bodies, space, depth, three-dimensionality, and even
movement can be made visible through drawing. Furthermore, drawing expresses the
draughtsman's personality spontaneously in the flow of the line, making it one of the most
personal of all artistic statements.
Drawing Media
Drawings can be produced using a wide variety of drawing instruments, including pen
and ink, charcoal, chalks, pastels, metalpoint, silverpoint, graphite point, coloured crayons,
as well as graver, burin or etching needle for incised types of drawing. Other alternatives
are wax or contecrayons, markers, graphite sticks, and various types of inked pens. The
most usual support (the material upon which the image is drawn) is obviously paper, but
other options include card, board, papyrus, cardboard, canvas, leather, vellum (calfskin),
textiles - even plastic or metal. Mixed-media drawings are those executed using a
combination of these materials.
Drawing Versus Painting
The line between drawing and painting has always been slightly blurred. For example,
Chinese art, performed with a brush on silk or paper, is as near to drawing as to fine art
painting (eg. Calligraphy). Some illuminated manuscripts from the Middle Ages, such as
the Utrecht Psalter, have pen-and-ink drawings of such freedom of line that they resemble
modern cartoons, and effectively serve the same function as paintings. Even so, drawing as
an independent art form did not emerge until the Renaissance art of the quattrocento (15th
century). Until then, drawing (disegno) was seen as inferior to painting (colorito). See
also: Art Evaluation: How to Appreciate Art.

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Drawing Methods
An enormous number of tools and implements can be used to draw, including slate pencils, metal styli,
charcoal, and chalks, as well as traditional pens, pencils, and brushes, fountain pens, ball-point pens, and felt
pencils; indeed, even chisels and diamonds are used for drawing. See also Automatism in Art for its automatic
drawing.
Charcoal
Partially consumed pieces of wood have been used ever since the era of Prehistoric art, when paleolithic artists
produced the amazing cave painting to be found at Chauvet, Lascaux and Altamira. The tradition was
maintained by the Old Masters, whose preparatory charcoal drawings for mural, panel, and even miniature
painting can still occasionally be seen under the pigment. Drawing charcoal typically gives a porous and not
very adhesive stroke. A pointed charcoal pencil can produce exceptionally thin lines; if used broadside on the
surface, it creates evenly toned planes. Rubbing and smudging the charcoal line results in dimmed
intermediate shades and delicate transitions. Due to its slight adhesiveness, charcoal is ideal for corrective
sketching, but if the drawing is to be preserved, it needs to be protected by a fixative.
As a medium for rapid sketches from life models, charcoal was much in use in art academies and workshops.
Difficult poses, such as Tintoretto demanded of his models, could be captured quickly and easily with the
adaptable charcoal pencil. (For more on Tintoretto's drawings, see: Venetian Drawing 1500-1600.) Charcoal
was also widely used in preparatory sketches for portraiture. In his charcoal drawing Portrait of a Lady, the
French painter Edouard Manet (1832-83) managed to capture the grain of the wood in the chair, the fur
trimming on the dress, the compactness of the coiffure, and the softness of the flesh. The 17th-century Dutch
painter Paulus Potter (1625-54) was another great exponent, as also were the great draftsmen of modern age,
such as Toulouse-Lautrec (1864-1901), Edgar Degas (1834-1917), Kathe Kollwitz (1867-1945), and Ernst
Barlach (1870-1938).
With oiled charcoal, that is, charcoal pencils dipped in linseed oil, artists obtained better adhesion and a
deeper black. Utilized in the 16th century by Tintoretto, this technique was particularly popular with Dutch
Realist artists of the 17th century, in order to set deep-black accents. However, in return for better adhesion
in the indentations of the paper, correction becomes more difficult. Moreover, charcoal crayons that have been
deeply immersed in oil leave a brownish streak alongside the lines.
Chalks
Chalks are an equally important drawing medium. Where charcoal is primarily a medium for quick correctable
sketching, chalk drawing can achieve this and more. Since the beginning of the 16th century, stone chalk, as
found in nature, has become increasingly more popular in art drawing. As a natural material, alumina chalk
has various degrees of hardness, so that the stroke varies from slightly granular to homogeneously dense and
smooth. The search for uniform quality has led to the production of special chalks for drawing; that is, chalks,
which, after being pulverized, washed, and formed into convenient sticks, allow a softer, more regular stroke
and are also free of sandy particles. The addition of pigments creates various tints from a rich black to a
brownish grey; compared to the much-used black chalk, the brown variety is of little significance. White chalk,
also found in nature, is hardly ever used as an independent medium for drawing, although it is often used in
combination with other mediums in order to achieve as individual accents of reflected light.
Starting from the 15th century, chalk has been employed increasingly for studies and sketches. Its suitability
for drawing precise lines of a given width and for creating finely shaded tints makes it especially appropriate
for modelling studies. Because of these attributes, chalk is a particularly good medium for autonomous
drawings, and there is hardly a draftsman who has not worked in chalk, often in combination with other
media. Apart from portrait drawings, landscapes have formed the main theme of chalk drawings, especially
with the Dutch. Ever since the invention of artificial chalk made from the fine, dull-black soot known
as lampblack - an invention attributed to Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) - the pictorial qualities of chalk have
been fully explored. The range of chalks extends from dry, charcoal-like varieties to the fatty ones used by

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lithographers.
Sanguine, a chalk-and-iron-oxide drawing pencil, was a popular drawing medium in the 15th century,
because of its wealth of colourful possibilities. It was popular with Michelangelo, Raphael and Andrea del
Sarto (1486-1531), while Leonardo da Vinci used it in his sketches for TheLast Supper: see also
Michelangelo's Profile with Oriental Headdress (1522, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford). Other artists who used
sanguine included the portraitists Jean Clouet and Hans Holbein, the Flemish School around Peter Paul
Rubens, and, above all, 18th-century French artists such as Watteau, Nicolas Lancret, Jean-Etienne Liotard,
Jacques-Andre Ponail, and Francois Boucher. The Scottish 18th century portraitist Allan Ramsay was an avid
user of preparatory chalk drawings for his portraits. Sanguine offered even greater colour differentiation when
used in combination with black and white chalks, on coloured paper.
Chalk drawings are also associated with modern draftsmen such as Edgar Degas, Odilon Redon, Gustave
Moreau, Jean-Edouard Vuillard, and Pierre Bonnard, as well as Expressionist artists like Edvard Munch and
Ernst Ludwig Kirchner.

  Pastels
Even greater colour refinement is possible with pastel crayons, made from
powdered pigments mixed with a minimum amount of non-greasy binder. When
the colours are applied to paper, they invariably look fresh and bright, although
they must be preserved from dispersion by being kept under glass. Pastel
colours can be applied in linear technique directly with the crayons, or to an
area of the paper directly with the fingers. Pastels originated in the north of
Italy during the 16th century, and were employed by Jacopo Bassano(1515-92)
and Federico Barocci (1526-1612). Pastel drawings were known to the
Accademia degli Incamminati no later than the 17th century, although as an art
form it did not reach its apogee until the 18th century, notably in France (with
Jean Marc Nattier, Maurice Quentin de La Tour, Jean-Baptiste Perronneau and
Jean Chardin) and in Venice (with Rosalba Carriera). Pastel chalks were
especially favoured by portraitists.
Metalpoints
The technique of metal point has been used in writing and delineation ever
since antiquity, so it needed little imagination to employ it also in drawing.
Artists use a slim tool (rod or stylus) of pure soft metal, such as lead, silver,
tin, copper as well as various lead-and-pewter alloys. The most commonly used
material was soft lead, which when used on a smooth surface produces a pale
grey line; it is not very strong in colour, and easily erasable, and is therefore
ideal for preparatory sketches.
Paper preparation was vital to the visibility of the line. During Renaissance
times, the blank page was typically brushed with layers of a liquid mixture of
finely ground chalk, bone gesso or lead white tinted with pigment and bound
with hide glue and gelatine. And all metalpoints, except leadpoint, call for a
rough working surface. One of the best early sources of metalpoint art is the
book of sketches by the 15th-century Venetian painter Jacopo Bellini (1400-70)
which contains a number of leadpoint drawings on tinted paper. The Florentine
painter Botticelli used leadpoint to sketch the outline of his famous illustrations
for Dante's Divine Comedy, afterwards retracing them with the pen.
Permanent drawing is best achieved withsilverpoint, as once applied, it cannot
be erased. Thus silverpoint drawings demand a clearer concept of form and a

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 steady hand as all corrections remain visible. Three-dimensionality and
depiction of light must be represented either by dense hatching, blank spaces
or else supplemented by other mediums. Despite these difficulties, silverpoint
was very popular in the 15th and 16th centuries. Albrecht Durer used
silverpoint to sketch landscapes, portraits, and various items that caught his
attention during one particular journey to Holland. Silverpoint was also popular
with portrait artists from the 15th into the 17th century. It was later revived
during the era of Romanticism, and is still used occasionally by modern artists.
Metalpoints continued to be used well into the 18th century, notably in
architectural drawings.
Graphite Point
At the end of the 16th century, a new drawing medium appeared and rapidly
replaced metalpoint for sketching and preliminary drawing. Known as graphite
point - or "Spanish lead" after its main place of origin - this drawing medium
attracted widespread popularity, although due to its soft consistency it was
used mainly for preparatory sketches, rather than autonomous drawings. The
graphite point duly spawned the lead pencil, following the 1790 discovery by
Nicolas-Jacques of a manufacturing process similar to that used in the
production of artificial chalk. Cleaned and washed, graphite could henceforth be
manufactured in almost any degree of hardness. The pencil hard points, with
their durable, clear, thin strokes, were particularly suited to the purposes of
Neoclassicist artists. Among the greatest exponents of pencil draftsmen was the
academic painter J-A-D Ingres, who employed systematic pencil drawings as
the basis for his oil paintings.
Numerous pencil drawing techniques emerged with time. Late 19th century
painters, like Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863), favoured softer pencils in order to
boost the depth and 3-D effect of certain areas within the drawing. Georges
Seurat (1859-91) fell back on graphite in his drawings (At a European Concert,
Museum of Modern Art, New York) in which he translated his Pointillist
technique into the monochrome medium of drawing. Pencil frottage (rubbing
made on paper which is then placed over a rough surface), first explored by the
Surrealist artist Max Ernst (1891-1976), was another innovative technique.
Drawing With Pen
Of the many ways of transferring liquid dyes onto a plane surface, two are
particularly significant for art drawing: brush and pen. If the brush represents
an altogether older method, dating from Paleolithic art, the pen has been the
favourite writing and drawing implement ever since classical antiquity.
The functionality of the pen has remained almost unchanged for several
millennia. The capillary effect of the split tip, applies the drawing fluid to the
surface ground (initially parchment, papyrus, vellum, but since the late Middle
Ages, almost exclusively paper) in varying amounts depending on the
saturation of the pen and the pressure exerted by the drawing hand. The oldest
type of pen is the reed pen; cut from papyrus plants, bamboo or sedge, it
stores a reservoir of fluid in its hollow interior. Its stroke is typically powerful,
hard, and occasionally forked as a result of stronger pressure being applied to
the split tip.Rembrandt was an outstanding master of the strong, plastic
accents of the reed pen, usually supplementing it with other pens or brushes.
During the 19th century, starting with the Dutch artist Vincent van Gogh, pure

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 reed-pen drawings in an expressionist style have been created by several
artists, including the Dadaist and satirical German expressionist George
Grosz (1893-1959). See also: Illustration Art.
The quill pen offers an even wider range of artistic possibilities. Ever since the
late Middle Ages - the quill has been the most commonly used instrument for
applying liquid dyes to the drawing surface. The supple tip of the quill pen,
available in varying strengths, allows a relatively wide scale of individual
strokes - from soft, thin lines, such as those used in preparatory sketches for
illustrations in illuminated books, to energetic, broad lines. During the 20th
century, metal pens emerged to replace quills, and are now made from high-
grade steel and in different strengths.
Inks are the most common form of liquid dye used in drawing. Gallnut
ink was popular within monastic scriptoria during the medieval era
of illuminated manuscripts. Another ink which became popular was bistre, an
easily dissolved, light-to dark-brown transparent pigment obtained from the
soot of the lampblack that coats wood-burning chimneys. Its shade of colour
varies according to its concentration and on the type of wood from which it is
derived. Hardwoods (like oak) produce a darker shade than conifers, such as
pine. During the pictorially oriented period ofBaroque art, the warm tone that
can be thinned at will made bistre a popular medium for pen drawings.
Also obtained from a carbon source is India ink, derived from the soot of
exceptionally hard woods, such as olive or grape vines, or from the fatty
lampblack of the oil flame, with gum-arabic mixed in as a binding agent. This
thick black fluid preserves its dark tone for a long time and can be diluted with
water until it becomes a light grey. Pressed into sticks or bars, it used to be
sold under the name of Chinese ink or India ink. This drawing ink was favoured
in particular by German and Dutch draftsmen because of its strong colour,
which made it especially suitable for use on tinted paper. Since the 19th
century, India ink has been by far the most popular type of drawing ink for pen
drawings, displacing all other alternatives in technical sketches.
Other drawing fluids have included sepia, made from the pigment of the
cuttlefish, minium (red lead) - used in particular for the decoration of initial
letters and also in illustrated pen drawings.

  Alongside written manuscript texts, pen drawings are among the oldest artistic
documents. Classical texts were illustrated with strong contours and sparse
interior details; medieval marginal drawings and book illustrations were
typically pre-sketched, if not actually executed, with the pen. In book painting,
styles emerged in which the brush was also employed in the manner of a pen
drawing: for example, in the Reims School of Carolingian art, noted for its
production of the 9th century Utrecht Psalter, and also in south Germany,
where a separate illustrative genre using line drawings was closely associated
with the Biblia Pauperum - low-cost biblical picture books used to instruct large
numbers of people in the Christian faith. The thin-lined outline sketch is also
characteristic of the earliest autonomous drawings of the early Renaissance. In
the 16th century, pen drawing reached its apogee. Leonardo was noted for the
particularly precise stroke of his scientific drawings; Raphael produced more
regular, graceful sketches, while Michelangelo drew with short strokes
reminiscent of chisel work; Titian used intricate hatching to denote light and

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 dark, while among the Northern Renaissance artists, Durer mastered all the
possibilities of pen drawing, from a purely graphic, delineatory approach to a
spatial and plastic modelling technique.
During the 17th century, pen drawing became less popular than other combined
techniques such as wash (a sweep or splash of colour) applied with the brush.
An open style of drawing whichmerely suggested contours, coupled with
contrasting thin and powerful strokes, endowed the line itself with expressive
qualities. In his drawings, Rembrandt in particular achieved a complete mastery
of ink-and-wash drawing, exhibiting highly subtle 3-D effects through the use of
different stroke layers obtained through a combination of various pens and
brushes.
The thin-lined drawing method of the early Renaissance regained its popularity
during the era of Neoclassical art and Romanticism during late-18th and early-
19th century. Both the Nazarenesand Romantics, for instance, achieved
exceptional 3-D plastic effects by purely graphic means.
Another more pictorially oriented phase followed, culminating in the late 19th
century work of artists like Aubrey Beardsley (1872-98) who applied the direct
black-white contrast to planes, while in the 20th century the French masters
Henri Matisse (1869-1954) and Picasso reduced the object to a mere line
without any depth or other spatial illusion. Many illustrators, as well as
cartoonists favour the clear pen stroke. Other 20th century innovators of pen
drawing include the American oriental artist Mark Tobey (1890-1976) who was
famous for his 'white writing' style of calligraphic paintings; the German
artist Wols (Alfred Otto Wolfgang Schulze) (1913-51), noted for his hair-thin
graphic seismograms; and Agnes Martin(1912-2004), noted for her delicate
hand-drawn minimalist grids.
Drawing With a Brush
The brush is ideal for applying pigments to a flat surface (painting) but it has
also been used in drawing since prehistoric times. In addition to the above-
mentioned drawing inks - all of which have been used in conjunction with brush
as well as pen - brush drawings have also been created with combinations of
fluids. One of the most common artistic techniques in use from Classical Greek
art to the Baroque was Sinopia, the normal preliminary sketch for a
monumental mural painting. Executed with a brush, it has all the characteristics
of a preparatory drawing.
In general however, few drawings were done exclusively with a brush, although
it played a major role in landscapes, in which, by tinting of varying intensity, it
offered a complete spectrum of spatial depth and strength of lighting. The
Venetians Vittore Carpaccio (c.1465-1525/6) and Palma il Giovane (1544-
1628), as well as Parmigianino (1503-40), the great pioneer of Mannerism,
were all noted exponents of the technique. Some Dutch genre painters, like
Adriaen Brouwer (1605-38), Adriaen van Ostade (1610-84), and Jan Steen
(1625-79) used the brush to create a number of watercolour-style drawings.
During the 18th century, the brush drawings of Jean-Honore Fragonard (1732-
1806) and the Spaniard Francisco Goya (1746-28) raised the art to a new
height, while in England artists like Alexander Cozens (1717-86), John
Constable (1776-1837), and J.M.W, Turner (1775-1851), took advantage of
brush drawing for their landscape studies.

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 Pen and Brush
A popular combination is that of pen and brush, with the pen delineating the
contours that denote the object and the brush providing spatial and colour
values. The simplest combined application of this was manuscript illumination,
where the shapes were drawn in pen and duly filled with colour, using the
brush. Other examples of brush-and-pen include the application of white
pigment to drawings on tinted paper, the accenting of illumination (how light
falls on objects), and, of course, washes. The method of combined pen and-
brush drawing was especially popular with the draftsmen of Germany and the
Netherlands, especially in the circle around Durer and the south German
Danube School.
Drawing Aids
Mechanical aids are generally much less important for art drawing than for
other art forms. Those that have been employed include the ruler, triangle, and
compass, especially in constructionist and perspectivist works of early and High
Renaissance vintage. The graticulate frame was used to assist in the creation
of correct perspective, while mirrors with reducing convex mirrors or concave
lenses were also used (especially in the 17th and 18th centuries) as drawing
aids as was the camera obscura. (See Art Photography Glossary.) True-to-
scale reductions or enlargements can be made with the aid of a tracing
instrument known as a pantograph. More specialist tasks could be
accomplished with the aid of elliptic compasses, curved rulers, and stencils.

Types of Drawing
By far the largest number of art drawings in the Western world deal with the human figure.
Portraits
Portrait drawings typically involve the pure profile and the three-quarter profile. Examples include 15th-
century portraits by Pisanello or Jan van Eyck, as well as Durer's drawing of the emperor Maximilian. The
works of Jean and Francois Clouet in France and of Hans Holbein the Younger in Switzerland and later in
England, bestowed a special autonomy on portrait drawing, especially when completed in chalk of various
colours. In the 18th century, Quentin de La Tour, Francois Boucher, and Jean-Baptiste Chardin were noted
exponents of chalk portraiture. More drawn to the psychological aspects of portrait art, late 19th- and 20th-
century portraitists favoured the softer crayons that more readily reflected their artistic impulses. Leon Bakst,
the famous set and costume designer for Diaghilev and the Ballets Russes, was another superb draftsman.
Landscapes
By the 15th century, landscape, too, had also become an acceptable subject for a stand-alone drawing, as
indicated by Jacopo Belllini's 15th-century sketchbooks. However, not until the advent of Durer at the end of
the century was landscape fully respected as a theme of its own without reference to other works. His
drawings of his two Italian journeys, of the region of Nuremberg, and of his journey to the Netherlands,
represent the earliest pure landscape drawings. Centuries were to pass before such "pure landscape" drawings
occurred again. Landscape elements also appeared in 16th century German and Dutch drawings and
illustrations, notably those by members of the Danube School like Albrecht Altdorfer and Wolf Huber.
The Netherlandish Renaissance painter Pieter Bruegel the Elder also drew topographical views as well as free
landscape compositions, in both cases as independent works. In the 17th century, the landscape drawings of
the Accademia degli Incamminati (those of Domenichino, for instance) mixed classical and mythological
themes with heroic landscapes. In addition, the Rome-based French classicists Claude Lorrain and Nicolas

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Poussin also produced idealized Arcadian landscape drawings. In 18th-century Italy, the topographically-exact
landscape drawing attained a highpoint with the advent of the Vedutisti, the "view-painters", like the
Venetians Canaletto (1697-1768) and Bernardo Bellotto (1720-80), and the Roman Giambattista Piranesi
(1720-78). Landscape drawings reached a second flowering in England during the early 19th century thanks to
works by JMW Turner and Alexander Cozens, while in France the tradition was exemplified by Camille
Corot and, later, Van Gogh.
Figurative Genre Works
Of far less importance to autonomous drawing than portraiture and landscape, figure drawings are typically
closely connected with what was happening to painting in general. Thus for example drawings of genre scenes
were relatively prevalent during the 17th century Dutch Realism School, in 18th-century France and England,
and in 19th century France (Honore Daumier).
Still Lifes
Still life drawings, notably the representations of flowers, like those of the Amsterdam artist Jan van Huysum
(1682-1749), have been popular ever since the 17th century. In some of these works the similarity to painting
is very close; take for example the pastels of the 19th century French artist Odilon Redon (1840-1916), or the
work of the 20th-century German Expressionist Emil Nolde(1867-1956), both of which cross the dividing line
between drawing and painting.
Fantasy Drawings
Drawings depicting imaginary, surreal or visionary themes, such as the fantastic compositions of Hieronymus
Bosch, have long been popular. See also the grotteschi of Raphael in the 16th century, the allegorical peasant
scenes by Pieter Bruegel, and the carnival etchings of the 17th-century French artist Jacques Callot. Others
artists whose drawings fall outside landscape and portraiture include: the 18th-century Italian engraver
Giambattista Piranesi, the Anglo-Swiss artist Henry Fuseli (1841-1925), the 19th-century English illustrator
Walter Crane (1845-1915), the influential French Symbolist artist Gustave Moreau (1826-98) and the 20th-
century Surrealists.
Illustrations
The illustrative drawing does not perhaps go beyond a simple pictorial explanation of a piece of text, yet even
so it may still satisfy the highest artistic demands. Again and again, great artists have illustrated biblical texts
as well as literature of all kinds. Famous examples include Botticelli's illustrative drawings for Dante's Divine
Comedy and Durer's marginal illustrations for Emperor Maximilian's prayer book. Some artists have achieved
more as illustrators than as autonomous draftsmen. Such individuals include the 18th century German
engraver Daniel Nicholas Chodowiecki (1726-1801), the 19th century caricaturist Honore Daumier (1808-79),
the 19th century graphic artist Wilhelm Busch (1832-1908) best known for his rhyming picture stories (Max
und Moritz), and the 20th century Austrian Blaue Reiter painter and illustrator Alfred Kubin (1877-1959).
Caricatures
Associated with illustrative drawing is the art of caricature, which, by exaggerating the visual traits of a person
or situation, creates a powerfully suggestive picture. This type of figurative drawing is exemplified by such
luminaries as Annibale Carracci (1560-1609) - who first coined the word caricatura - Leonardo da Vinci, Durer,
and the Baroque artist Bernini, as well as by social commentators like the 18th-century Italian artist Pier
Leone Ghezzi (1674-1755), the 18th century English artist William Hogarth (1697-1764), the English
caricaturist Thomas Rowlandson (1756-1827) who worked mainly in ink and watercolour wash, the 19th-
century Frenchman Jean-Ignace-Isidore Gerard, known as Grandville (1803-47), and perhaps the greatest
caricaturist of all, Honore Daumier.

Emotive Drawing

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Similar to painting, emotive drawing emphasizes the exploration and expression of different emotions,
feelings, and moods. These are generally depicted in the form of a personality.

Analytic Drawing
Sketches that are created for clear understanding and representation of observations made by an artist
are called analytic drawings. In simple words, analytic drawing is undertaken to divide observations into
small parts for a better perspective.

Perspective Drawing
Perspective drawing is used by artists to create three-dimensional images on a two-dimensional picture
plane, such as paper. It represents space, distance, volume, light, surface planes, and scale, all viewed
from a particular eye-level.

Diagrammatic Drawing
When concepts and ideas are explored and investigated, these are documented on paper through
diagrammatic drawing. Diagrams are created to depict adjacencies and happenstance that are likely to
take place in the immediate future. Thus, diagrammatic drawings serve as active design process for the
instant ideas so conceived.

Geometric Drawing
Geometric drawing is used, particularly, in construction fields that demand specific dimensions.
Measured scales, true sides, sections, and various other descriptive views are represented through
geometric drawing.

Types of Ground
One can draw on almost anything that has a plane surface - level or not -
including papyrus and parchment, cloth, animal skin, wood, metals and glass.
However, since the mid-15th century, paperhas been the most common and
most popular ground.
The method of paper manufacturing has remained practically unchanged for the
past 2,000 years. A fibrous pulpy remnant of mulberry bark, bast, hemp, and
linen rags is pressed, and dried in flat molds. (The introduction of wood pulp in
the mid-19th century was not aimed at art paper, because paper with a large
wood content yellows quickly and is therefore ill-suited for drawing purposes.
Originally, to give the paper a sufficiently smooth and even surface for writing

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 or drawing, it was rubbed with bone meal, or gypsum chalk in a very thin
solution of glue and gum arabic. But since the late 15th century, the same
effect has been achieved by dipping the paper in a glue or alum bath. Pigments
and dyes, too, were added to the pulp, with blue "Venetian papers" being
especially popular. The 17th century favoured half tints of blue - or grey,
brown, and green varieties; the 18th preferred warm colours like beige or ivory,
along with blue. Since the 18th century, drawing papers have been produced in
almost every conceivable colour and shade, while quality has also greatly
increased.
Granulated and softer drawing implements, such as chalk, charcoal, and
graphite are not as dependent on a particular type of paper (as, watercolours,
pastels or pen and ink); but, because of their slight adhesiveness, they often
need a stronger bond with the foundation as well as some kind of surface
protection.

11
 Rendering

Rendering is the process of drawing or painting a detailed subject. You might be given an
assignment or a commission where you are to render something in pen and ink, or colored
pencil, in marker, stipple, or watercolor

Rendering is a common term for architects or designers, in technical drawings, and illustrators.

12
13
14
Coloring = Colored "in the lines", or put color in the areas they belong.
Rendering = Making the image really pop, by adding shading and
details so it looks more polished and professional.

Like this:

There is another key difference between coloring and rendering. If you

color, obviously you need to use color to define the area, but

15
rendering you do not need to use color to shade your sketch or pen
drawings. If you use hatching, cross hatching and other types of ways
to shade using patterns you are not coloring but making lines, yet you
can still make something look three-dimensional.

RENDERING TECHNIQUES FOR LINE DRAWINGS

In this  section, we focus on a subgoal of realism: showing 3D depth relationships on a 2D 

surface. This goal is served by the planar geometric projections defined in Chapter 6 
 

Multiple Orthographic Views

The easiest projections to create are parallel orthographics, such as plan and
elevation views,  in  which  the  projection  plane  is  perpendicular  to  a  principal 
axis.   Since  depth information is discarded, plan and elevations are typically shown
together, as with the top, front, side views of a block letter "L" in Fig. 14.4. This
particular drawing is not difficult to understand;  however,  understanding  drawings 
of complicated  manufactured parts from a set of such views may require many
hours of study. Training and experience sharpen one's interpretive powers, of
course, and familiarity with the types of objects being represented hastens  the 
formulation  of a  correct  object  hypothesis.  Still,  scenes  as complicated as that of
our "standard scene" shown in Color Plate 11.21 are often confusing when shown in
only three such projections. Although a single point may be unambiguously located
from three mutually perpendicular orthographics, multiple points and lines may
conceal one another when so projected.

In axonometric and oblique projections, a point's z coordinate influences its x and 

coordinates in the projection, as exemplified by Color Plate 11.22. These projections 
provide constant foreshortening, and therefore lack the convergence of parallel lines and the 
decreasing size of objects with increasing distance that perspective projection provides. 
 

16
  
 

17
Perspective Projections
In perspective projections, an object's size is scaled in inverse proportion to its
distance from the viewer. The perspective projection of a cube shown in Fig. 14.5
reflects this scaling. There is still ambiguity, however; the projection could just as
well be a picture frame, or the parallel projection of a truncated pyramid, or the
perspective projection of a rectangular parallelepiped with two equal faces. If one's
object hypothesis is a truncated pyramid, then the smaller square represents the
face closer to the viewer; if the object hypothesis is a cube or rectangular
parallelepiped, then the smaller square represents the face farther from the viewer.

Our interpretation of perspective projections is often based on the assumption that a 

smaller object is farther away. In Fig. 14,6, we would probably assume that the larger house 
is nearer to the viewer. However, the house that appears larger (a mansion, perhaps) may 
actually be more distant than the one that appears smaller (a cottage, for example), at least 
as long as there are no other cues, such as trees and windows. When the viewer knows that 
the projected objects have many parallel lines, perspective further helps to convey depth, 
because the parallel lines seem to converge at their vanishing points. This convergence may 
actually be a stronger depth cue than the effect of decreasing size. Color Plate 11.23 shows a 
perspective projection of our standard scene.

18
19
Depth Cueing
The depth (distance) of an object can be represented by the intensity of the image:
Parts of 
objects that are intended to appear farther from the viewer are displayed at lower
intensity 
(see Color Plate 11.24). This effect is known as depth cueing. Depth cueing exploits
the fact 
that distant objects appear dimmer than closer objects, especially if seen through
haze. 
Such effects can be sufficiently convincing that artists refer to the use of changes in
intensity 
(as well as in texture, sharpness, and color) to depict distance as aerial perspective.
Thus, 
depth cueing may be seen as a simplified version of the effects of atmospheric
attenuation.

  
In vector displays, depth cueing is implemented by interpolating the intensity of the 
beam along a vector as a function of its starting and ending z coordinates. Color graphics 
systems usually generalize the technique to support interpolating between the color of a 
(primitive  and  a  user-specified  depth-cue  color,  which  is  typically  the  color  of the 
 background. To restrict the effect to a limited range of depths, PHIGS+ allows the user to 
specify front and back depth-cueing planes between which depth cueing is to occur. A 
separate scale factor associated with each plane indicates the proportions of the original 
Color and the depth-cue color to be used in front of the front plane and behind the back 
plane. The color of points between the planes is linearly interpolated between these two 
values. The eye's intensity resolution is lower than its spatial resolution, so depth cueing is 
not useful for accurately depicting small differences in distance.  It is quite effective, 
however, in depicting large differences, or as an exaggerated cue in depicting small ones. 
 

Depth Clipping
Further depth information can be provided by depth clipping. The back clipping
plane is 
placed so as to cut through the objects being displayed, as shown in Color Plate
11.25. 
Partially clipped objects are then known by the viewer to be cut by the clipping
plane. A 
front clipping plane may also be used. By allowing the position of one or both planes

20
to be 
varied  dynamically,  the  system  can  convey  more  depth  information  to  the 
viewer. 
Back-plane depth clipping can be thought of as a special case of depth cueing: In
ordinary 
depth cueing, intensity is a smooth function of z', in depth clipping, it is a step
function. 
(Color Plate 11.25 combines both techniques. A technique related to depth clipping
is 
(highlighting all points on the object intersected by some plane. This technique is
especially 
effective when the slicing plane is shown moving through the object dynamically,
and has 
even been used to help illustrate depth along a fourth dimension [BANC77].

21
22
Texture

Simple vector textures, such as cross-hatching, may be applied to an object. These textures 
follow the shape of an object and delineate it more clearly. Texturing one of a set of 
otherwise identical faces can clarify a potentially ambiguous projection.  Texturing is 
specially useful in perspective projections, as it adds yet more lines whose convergence 
and foreshortening may provide useful depth cues.

Color
Color may be used symbolically to distinguish one object from another, as in Color
Plate 
1.26, in which each object has been assigned a different color. Color can also be used
in 
line drawings to provide other information. For example, the color of each vector of
an 
object may be determined by interpolating colors that encode the temperatures at
the 
vector's endpoints.

Visible-Line Determination
Tbe last line-drawing technique we mention is visible-line determination or hidden-
line 
removal, which results in the display of only visible (i.e., unobscured) lines or parts of
lines. Only surfaces, bounded by edges (lines), can obscure other lines. Thus, objects
that
are to block others must be modeled either as collections of surfaces or as solids. 
Only surfaces, bounded by edges (lines) can obscure other lines. Thus, objects that
are to block others must be modelled either as collections of surfaces or as solids.

Color Plate 11.27 shows the usefulness of hidden-line removal. Because hidden-lins- 
removed views conceal all the internal structure of opaque objects, they are not necessarily, 
the most effective way to show depth relations. Hidden-line-removed views convey less 
depth information than do exploded and cutaway views. Showing hidden lines as dashed 
lines can be a useful compromise.                                                                 I

23
24
RENDERING TECHNIQUES FOR SHADED IMAGES           I
The techniques mentioned in Section 14.3 can be used to create line drawings on
both 
vector and raster displays. The techniques introduced in this section exploit the
ability of 
raster devices to display shaded areas. When pictures are rendered for raster
displays,. 
problems are introduced by the relatively coarse grid of pixels on which smooth
contours 
and shading must be reproduced. The simplest ways to render shaded pictures fall
prey to 
the problem of aliasing, first encountered in Section 3.17. In Section 14.10, we
introduce 
the theory behind aliasing, and explain how to combat aliasing through antialiasing. 
Because of the fundamental role that antialiasing plays in producing high-quality
pictures, 
all the pictures in this section have been created with antialiasing.

Visible-Surface Determination
By analogy to visible-line determination, visible-surface determination or hidden-
surface 
removal, entails displaying only those parts of surfaces that are visible to the viewer.
As we 
have seen, simple line drawings can often be understood without visible-line
determination. 
When there are few lines, those in front may not seriously obstruct our view of those
behind 
them. In raster graphics, on the other hand, if surfaces are rendered as opaque
areas, then 
visible-surface determination is essential for the picture to make sense. Color Plate
11.28 
shows an example in which all faces of an object are painted the same color.

25
Illumination and Shading
A problem with Color Plate 11.28 is that each object appears as a flat silhouette. Our
next 
step toward achieving realism is to shade the visible surfaces. Ultimately, each
surface's 
appearance should depend on the types of light sources illuminating it, its properties
(color, 
texture, reflectance), and its position and orientation with respect to the light
sources, 
viewer, and other surfaces. 
In many real visual environments, a considerable amount of ambient light impinges 
from all directions. Ambient light is the easiest kind of light source to model, because
in a 
simple lighting model it is assumed to produce constant illumination on all surfaces, 
regardless of their position or orientation. Using ambient light by itself produces
very 
unrealistic images, however, since few real environments are illuminated solely by
uniform 
ambient light. Color Plate 11.28 is an example of a picture shaded this way.
A point source, whose rays emanate from a single point, can approximate a small 
incandescent bulb. A directional source, whose rays all come from the same
direction, can 
be used to represent the distant sun by approximating it as an infinitely distant point
source.

Modeling  these  sources  requires  additional  work  because  their effect  depends  on  the
surface�s orientation. If the surface is normal (perpendicular) to the incident light rays, it is
illuminated; the more oblique the surface is to the light rays,  the less its illumination. This
variation in illumination is, of course, a powerful cue to the 3D structure of an object. Finally, a
distributed or extended source, whose surface area emits light, such as a bank of fluorescent
lights, is even more complex to model, since its light comes from neither a single direction nor a
single point.  Color Plate 11.29 shows the effect of illuminating our scene with ambient and point
light sources, and shading each polygon seperately.

26
27
Interpolated Shading
Interpolated shading is a technique in which shading information is computed for
each 
Polygon vertex and interpolated across the polygons to determine the shading at
each pixel. 
This method is especially effective when a polygonal object description is intended to
approximate a curved surface. In this case, the shading information computed at
each vertex is  based      on      the      surface's actual orientation at that point and is
used for all of the polygons that  share  that  vertex.  Interpolating  among  these 
values  across  a  polygon approximates the smooth changes in shade that occur
across a curved, rather than planar, surface.

Even objects that are supposed to be polyhedral, rather than curved, can benefit from 
interpolated shading, since the shading information computed for each vertex of a polygon differ,
although  typically much  less dramatically  than for a curved object.  When shading information
is computed for a true polyhedral object, the value determined for a polygon's vertex is used only
for that polygon and not for others that share the vertex. Color Plate II.30 shows Gouraud
shading, a kind of interpolated shading discussed in Section 16.2.

Material Properties
Realism is further enhanced if the material properties of each object are taken into
account when its shading is determined.  Some materials are dull and disperse
reflected light about equally in all directions, like a piece of chalk; others are shiny
and reflect light only in certain directions relative to the viewer and light source, like
a mirror. Color Plate 11.31 shows what our scene looks like when some objects are
modeled as shiny. Color Plate 11.32 Phong shading, a more accurate interpolated
shading method (Section 16.2).

28
29
Modeling Curved Surfaces
Although interpolated shading vastly improves the appearance of an image, the
object 
geometry is  still  polygonal.  Color  Plate  11.33  uses  object  models  that  include 
curved surfaces. Full shading information is computed at each pixel in the image.

30
31
Improved Illumination and Shading
One of the most important reasons for the "unreal" appearance of most computer
graphics 
images is the failure to  model  accurately  the  many  ways  that  light interacts  with
objects. 
Color Plate 11.34 uses better illumination models. Sections 16.7-13 discuss progress
tovn 
the design of efficient, physically correct illumination models, resulting in pictures
such 
Color Plates 111.19-111.29 and the jacket of this book (Color Plate 1.9).           ;

Texture
Object texture not only provides additional depth cues, as discussed in Section
14.3.6,! 
also can mimic the surface detail of real objects. Color Plates II. 35 and II. 36 show a
variety 
of ways in which texture may be simulated, ranging from varying the surface's color
(as is 
done with the patterned ball), to actually deforming the surface geometry (as was
done with 
the striated torus and crumpled cone in Color Plate 11.36).

32
33
Shadows
We can introduce further realism by reproducing shadows cast by objects on one
anoti 
Note that this technique is the first we have met in which the appearance of an obja 
visible surfaces is affected by other objects. Color Plate 11.36 shows the shadows
cast by 
lamp at the rear of the scene. Shadows enhance realism and provide additional
depth ci 
If object A casts a shadow on surface B, then we know that A is between B and a
direci 
reflected light source. A point light source casts sharp shadows, because from any
point i 
either totally visible or invisible. An extended light source casts "soft" shadows, si 
there is a smooth transition from those points that see all of the light source,
through th 
that see only part of it, to those that see none of it.

Transparency and Reflection

Thus far, we have dealt with opaque surfaces only. Transparent surfaces can also be
us< 
in picture making. Simple models of transparency do not include the refraction
(bendi 
of light through a transparent solid. Lack of refraction can be a decided advantage,
hovw 
if transparency is being used not so much to simulate reality as to reveal an object's
in 
geometry. More complex models include refraction, diffuse translucency, and 
attenuation of light with distance. Similarly, a model of light reflection may simulate 
sharp reflections of a perfect mirror reflecting another object or the diffuse
reflections i 
less highly polished surface. Color Plate 11.37 shows the effect of reflection from the
floor 
and teapot; Color Plates 111.7 and 111.10 show transparency. 
Like modeling shadows, modeling transparency or reflection requires knowledge 
other surfaces besides the surface being shaded. Furthermore, refractive

34
transparency is 
first effect we have mentioned that requires objects actually to be modeled as solids
ral 
than just as surfaces! We must know something about the materials through which
ali 
ray passes and the distance it travels to model its refraction properly.

 
  
 

35
36