Business Research with Statistical Applications:

Textbook and Guidebook for Doing and Writing Research

Danilo M. Te, DBA . Divina V. Sabanal, DBM
Jovelyn A. Castro, LPT, DM . Christhoffer P. Lelis, LPT, PhD
Authors
 COPYRIGHT

This is an exclusive and copyrighted property of REX Book Store Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this material shall be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods,
without the prior written consent of REX Book Store Inc.

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Chapter 1: Introduction to Business Research
Lesson Contents
• What is business research?
• Difference between qualitative research and quantitative research.
• Can quantitative and qualitative methods be combined?
• Difference between basic business research and applied business
research.
• Kinds of business research.
• Criteria for a good business research.
• Format of a business research. Other business research format.

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Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:

1. define business research;
2. understand the difference between qualitative and quantitative business
research, and the difference between basic and applied research;
3. know the kinds of business research;
4. determine the criteria for a good business research; and
5. distinguish the different format of business research.

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 What is business research?
• Business research is a type of scientific research that tries to address the
concerns of the firm and/or the industry. It offers (recommends) solution/s
to the functional area being affected (marketing, management, human
resource, finance, entrepreneurship, etc) or analysis about the perception,
preference, and behavior of the customers, employees, and other
stakeholders . The processed result of the business research (information)
becomes the basis for making decision.
• If the result of the business research is intended only for a particular
company use, then it is a contracted business research. If the result is
intended for general application and appreciation of the business, the
industry, and the academic community, then it is an institutional research.

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 Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative
Research
• Basic business quantitative research uses survey questionnaire for
collecting primary data (perception and preference of respondents),
while business qualitative research uses observation (behavior of
respondents) or depth interview (opinion and ideas of respondents)
for collecting data.
• Quantitative business research can be generalized across the
population, if the sampling method was done randomly. On the other
hand, the findings of qualitative business research cannot be
generalized across the population, as it is treated like a case study;

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 Can Quantitative and Qualitative Business
Methods be combined?
• Yes. The result of qualitative business research can be used to validate
the result of quantitative business research. The process is called
triangulation. An example of triangulation is the use of survey to
respondents and interview to another group of respondents within
the same study.

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 Difference between Basic Business Research and
Applied Business Research
• Basic business research is strict on APA compliance, whereas applied
business research is lenient and would depend on the preference of
the client.
• Basic business research is dependent on the problematic situation
identified by the researcher and the findings are expected to be
generalized across the population of the study. Applied business
research is dependent on the problem that the client would want to
be solved and the findings cannot be generalized as it is just a case
study.

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 Kinds of Business Research
• Conclusive (for quantitative business research) – designed to help
managers make decision based on the information provided by business
research. Through it the manager or decision maker makes informed
decision.
• Descriptive Research
• Correlational Research
• Causal Research
• Exploratory (for qualitative business research) – is designed to find more
information about the problem, issue, or phenomenon. It is also intended
to reduce the research options to a manageable size.
• Depth Interview
• Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
• Ethnographic Research or Observation Research

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 Kinds of Business Research
• Business Case Analysis - involves the study of a particular company,
group, or person through personal interviews and published
literature. The personality of those involved in the case (company
officers or personnel) is reflected and discussed in the case to make it
interesting. The case is written for purposes of class discussion. The
case is intended to elicit the students participation by applying
whatever concepts they have learned from the business courses they
have taken.

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 Conclusive Research
• Descriptive Research – is a kind of quantitative research that will describe
the problem or phenomenon that the researcher or client wants to
address or know. It answers the questions who, what, when, where, why,
and how in the statement of the problem.
• Correlational Research – is a kind of quantitative research that measures
statistically the relationships of variables to determine its dependence or
interdependence. It could simply be done using correlations or t-test and
ANOVA. It could also be done using some multi-variate techniques.
• Causal Research – is a kind of quantitative research that hypothesizes the
cause and effect of variables. It is intended to address the complicated
relationships of variables.

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 Exploratory Research
• Depth Interview – is a kind of exploratory research where the researcher
conducts a detailed personal interview (with guide questions that the
respondent is aware of earlier) with the respondent.
• Focus Group Discussion (FGD) – this is a kind of exploratory research
where the researcher will solicit ideas about a particular topic or problem
from the target respondents.
• Ethnographic or Observation Research – is a kind of qualitative research
where the researcher observes directly the respondent or respondents. It
is:
• 1. done through direct observation of the respondent (but telling the
respondent before hand on such observation)
• 2. done through direct observation (but without telling the respondent of
such observation).

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 Criteria for a Good Business Research
• For quantitative basic business research, it must be grounded on theory
and empirically verifiable, especially if the research model is confirmatory
in nature; if it is exploratory in nature and no existing theory is available,
then some valid explanation would suffice but subject however to
hypothesis testing and more empirical testing.
• It must contribute to the advancement of knowledge in business and
management.
• It results in scientific knowledge that is ethically neutral (not offensive).
• For qualitative basic business research, the observation could be
interpreted by the experts (psychologist, sociologist, or anthropologist).

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Format of Business Research

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WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 1
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WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 1
 Learning Activity 1.1
1. How useful is business research for a manager in any organization?
2. Which method would you prefer in research—qualitative,
quantitative, or both? Why?

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 Learning Activity 1.2
1. Why do you consider business research as scientific endeavor?
2. When is the exploratory method necessary in a research?

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 Learning Activity 1.3
1. Based on your readings, what are the criteria of a good business
research?
2. When do you use a business case study?

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 Case 1: How to start a research paper
It is the first day of school and Bianca Reyes is so excited to attend her Business
Research class because she wants to help her friend Ana, whose family-owned
business is now facing a very problematic situation, and because of which Ana may
not continue her college education in the long run. During Bianca’s conversation
with Ana, the latter narrated that for the last six months, the company has not paid
the salaries and compensations of their personnel due to its low sales. Bianca is
bent on helping Ana; and after listening to the lecture of her Professor, Mr. Legaspi,
she immediately talked to Ana and suggested that her family-owned company
would be the focus of her study. However, Bianca realized that she has yet to
prepare a lot of things, so to start the research paper, Bianca prepared several
questions to guide her as she proceeds, to wit:
1. What type of business research method is appropriate for the company? Why?
2. Which type of business research could effectively determine the dilemma of the
company? Why?
3. Who will be the right person to approach so that this research could start?

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 Questions for critical thinking
1. What is triangulation method and when is it necessary?
2. Explain why the findings of qualitative business research cannot be
generalized across the population.

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 Research activity

1. Look for a study that used the triangulation method and explain why
the researcher applied such method.

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 Key Terms
• Applied business research • Ethnographic research
• APA format • Exploratory research
• Basic business research • Feasibility study
• Business case analysis • Focus group discussion
• Causal research • Market study
• Conclusive research • Qualitative research
• Correlational research • Quantitative research
• Depth Interview • Traditional format
• Descriptive research • Triangulation

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 End of Chapter 1

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 Business Research with Statistical Applications:
Textbook and Guidebook for Doing and Writing Research
Danilo M. Te, DBA . Divina V. Sabanal, DBM
Jovelyn A. Castro, LPT, DM . Christhoffer P. Lelis, LPT, PhD
Authors
 COPYRIGHT

This is an exclusive and copyrighted property of REX Book Store Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this material shall be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods,
without the prior written consent of REX Book Store Inc.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH
Chapter 2: Research Structure and Content
 Lesson Contents
• What is your problem? Research model explained.
• How to state and discuss the macro, micro, and the problematic situation
in the background of the study.
• How to develop a conceptual framework that models the problem and sub-
problems in your study.
• How to link the conceptual framework with the theoretical framework.
• What is the reason why conceptual framework must be anchored to the
theory?
• Some theories, statistical laws, and concepts as guide in writing the
theoretical framework.

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 Lesson Contents
• How do you measure the problem and sub-problems as represented
by the conceptual frameworks.
• What is a hypothesis?
• Which problem should be hypothesized?
• How should a null-hypothesis be stated. What should be assumed in
the study?
• What should be included in the significance of the study?
• What should be included in the scope and limitation of the study?
• What should be included in the definition of terms?

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Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. determine the structure of business research;
2. Identify the problem, state the background of the study, develop the
conceptual framework, link the conceptual work with the theoretical
framework, and understand the reason why the conceptual framework
variables must be anchored to theories;
3. hypothesize problems and know how to state a null-hypothesis;
4. make the assumptions in the study;
5. determine what to include in the significance of the study;
6. identify what to include in the scope and limitation of the study; and
7. know what to include in the definition of terms.

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 Structure of Business Research
• Problem is the dilemma faced by the managers in the organization
which needs their immediate attention. This is the time where the
managers also should come up with a very crucial decision for the
success of the whole organization. Researchers and students alike
face the same problem when writing or doing business research. The
problem is the starting point
• For applied research, it is easy to formulate the problem as it comes
from the proponent or client where the request emanates. But for
basic (or academic research), identifying the problem is a formal
process and should conform with the format and content prescribed
by the American Psychological Association (APA).

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• When a student wants to write a thesis, the first thing that comes to his/her mind
is what kind of research problem should be addressed.
• One of the common errors of students in identifying the real problem is that
some of them may be confused to identify the real one amongst the numerous
concerns presented by the company manager. Therefore, it is the student’s
responsibility to diligently analyze the situation and identify which of the varied
concerns of the company should be given priority.
• It is important for students and researchers to choose a topic that they are
interested in or knowledgeable with. Also, they may look for pressing problems in
the various fields or industries in business by reading business magazines, online
news, and articles. Lastly, they may consider the research agenda of their
university or local business associations.
• Whatever is the reason or option, the student should face it objectively and begin
his/her literature buildup.
• The student or researcher should begin to scout for any problematic situation, a
situation that warrants a study since it has not been addressed before.

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 Business Research Writing Model

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 Research Model Explained
• The research should have a model to guide the researchers and the
students to understand how the components are interrelated. Without
explaining the system of interrelationships of the components through the
model, the researcher might wander around during the writing stage and
not connect all the dots.
• As observed, most undergraduate students do not connect all the
components of research when writing their thesis; thus, the readers and
the panel of examiners are lost in comprehending the research paper – as
the discussion (from the problem to the frameworks, to the measurement,
to the findings, to the implication of the findings to the frameworks and
literature considered in the study, to the conclusion of each problem, to
the recommendation of the gaps found in the findings) is not seamlessly
connected

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 Research Model Explained
• Any research would always start with a problem. The researcher, however, should
support the problem by reading any literature about it. Through reading more
literature about the problem, the researcher will also deepen his understanding
about the topic and may even crystalize some areas that are unclear before.
• Once the problem statement has been finalized, then the next step is to develop
a conceptual framework that represents the problem and sub-problems. The
framework should graphically show the interrelationships of the major variables.
• The conceptual framework should also mention how its variables are anchored to
the variables of the theoretical framework/s.
• The conceptual framework variables if proven true will validate the theory or
theories where they are anchored.
• The conceptual framework variables must be measured by the appropriate
statistical tool and such measurement tool is also modeled in the conceptual
framework (measurement model)

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 Research Model Explained
• The findings of research should be validated with the theories applied to see if
the conceptual framework variables validate or complement the theoretical
framework variables.
• The findings should also be compared with literature topics in the review of
related literature (as the topics are based on the variables of the conceptual
framework) and check if the findings of the study corroborate with the findings
of the literature in RRL.
• The implication to theory (its variables) and to literature (the variables covered)
must be stressed in the findings.
• Then, when the findings are fully discussed relative to the problem and sub
problems, each problem must have a conclusion. Each conclusion should be able
to explain how the finding for a particular problem can be generalized. Any
situation that cannot be addressed by the findings requires some intervention.
The gap found (situation not addressed in the finding) is suggested in the
recommendation section for some future action

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 How to state and discuss the macro, micro, and
problematic situation in the background of the
study
• In this part, the researcher will discuss the general background
(macro) of the problem or situation related with the problem. The
discussion should cover the factors or trends that affect or might
affect the problem. After the macro is briefly discussed, it proceeds
with the brief discussion of the specific background (micro) of the
problem.
• This is the part where a problematic situation is going to be identified
and assessed. If there are no existing studies that address the specific
problem, then the challenge of the researcher is to uncover the facts
that might lead to the assessment, analysis, and solution of the
problem.
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 How to state and discuss the macro, micro, and
problematic situation in the background of the
study
• The introduction, which starts with the background of the study should
contain substantial information to be able to present the problems or
certain gaps that the researcher is trying to address. It should not
contain any opinions or perceptions. Since this is the first part of the
research paper, the researcher should be able to excite or create
interest so that panelists and readers will be interested to scan the
succeeding pages of the research study.

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 How do you develop a conceptual framework that
models the problem and sub-problems in your
study
• The conceptual framework is considered as the backbone of the research
study. All other important parts of the research should be anchored to this,
especially the title, sub-problems, objectives, instrument, and statistical
treatment.
• The problem and sub-problems of the study are presented in the statement
of the problem. The statement of the problem must be represented in a
conceptual framework through a graphical model showing the
relationships of variables in the study. Aside from the graphical model, the
conceptual framework must state how and where the variables are
anchored in the theoretical framework (though the variables of the
theory). Then the variables used in the conceptual framework are briefly
discussed to clarify how it will be applied in the study.

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 Sample Conceptual Framework

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 How to link the conceptual framework with the
theoretical framework
• The conceptual framework variables must be anchored to theoretical
framework variables. Matching conceptual variables with theoretical
framework variables may not be easy. It might take more than one
theory to anchor the conceptual framework variables.
• The researchers must be resourceful in finding theories, laws, models,
and concepts that are related to his/ her studies.

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What is the reason why the conceptual framework
variables must be anchored to a theory?
• First let us understand what is a theory. A theory is composed of variables
that are systematically related in order to provide an explanation or
prediction. A theory is not just based on concept. A theory is empirically
tested and proven to true again and again. In other words, there is no
doubt about its capacity to explain or predict. On the hand, a conceptual
framework is composed of variables that are going to be tested through
hypothesis testing. If the conceptual testing proves the variable/s true,
then it validates the variable or variables in a theory where it is anchored.
• The conceptual framework is a candidate for a theory if proven to be true
again and again by many researchers. The joy of every researcher is to
know that his/her conceptual framework has been adopted by other
researchers.

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 Some Theories, Statistical Laws, and Concepts
(based on Disciplines) as guide in writing the
Theoretical Framework
• To guide the students in checking for the appropriate theory,
statistical law, or concept to support the problem and conceptual
framework, the following (see next slides) are suggested to be
reviewed based on the business discipline: Management, HRM,
Marketing, Finance, and Entrepreneurship.

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 Management
• 6 Bases of Power (1965) by John French and • Game Theory (1944) by John von Neumann from
Bertram Raven his book Theory of Games and Economic Behavior
(co-written by Oskar Morgenstern)
• Action-Centered Leadership (1960) by John Adair
• Generic Strategies (1985) by Michael Porter; from
• Classical organizational Theories by Taylor (1947), the book: Competitive Advantage. Free Press
Weber (1947) and Fayol (1949)
• Industry Five-Forces Model (1980) by Michael
• Contingency Theory (1958) by Joan Woodward Porter; from the book: Competitive Strategy:
• Continuum Leadership Behavior (1973) by Techniques for Analyzing Industries and
Tannenbaum and Schmidt Competitors. Free Press
• Diamond Model (1990) by Michael Porter; from • Leader-Member Exchange Theory (1975) by
the book: Competitive Advantage of Nations. Free Dansereau, Graen, and Haga
Press • Learning Organization (1990) by Peter Senge. From
• Emotional & Social Intelligence (2006 ) by Daniel the book: The 5th Discipline
Goleman from his books Emotional Intelligence • Managerial Grid (1960) by Blake & Mouton
and Social Intelligence
• Fiedler Contingency Model (1960) by Fred Fiedler

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 Management
• Path-Goal Theory (1996) by Robert House and John Antonakis • The Four Actions Framework (2005) by Kim and Mauborgne.
From the book: Blue Ocean Strategy. Harvard Business School
• Servant Leadership (1970) by Robert Greenleaf Press
• SERVQUAL Theory (1988) by A. Parasuraman, Valarie • The Inner Game (year) by Tim Gallwey
Zeithaml, and Leonard L. Berry
• The Principles of Scientific Management (1911) by Frederick
• Situational Leadership Theory (1970) by Paul Hershey and Winslow Taylor
Ken Blanchard
• Theory of Needs (1960) by David McClelland
• Systems Theory or Social Systems Theory (year ) Herbert
Spencer and Emile Durkheim • Theory X and Theory Y (1950) by Douglas McGregor
• The Chimp Paradox (2012) by Steve Peters from his book The • Transactional Leadership Theory (1981) by Bernard Bass
Mind Management
• Transformational Leadership theories by James MacGregor
Burns (1978) and Bernard M. Bass (1985)
• Transformational Leadership Theory (1978) by Macgregor
Burns
• W. Edward Deming’s 14 points on total quality management

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 HRM
• Contingency Theory (1964) by Fred • Matching Model (1984) by Fombrun,
Edward Fielder. From the article: Tichy and Devanna . Michigan School.
Contingency Model of Leadership • Resource-Based View (RBW) Theory
Effectiveness (1980) by B. Wernerfelt
• Expectancy Theory (1964) by Victor • Soft Model (1989) by Legge
Vroom
• Hard Model (1989), by Legge • System Theory (1950) by Talcott Parsons
• Harvard Analytical Framework or Gender • The Universalistic Theory (1995) by
Roles Framework (1984). Catherine Pfeffer and Huselid
Overholt, Mary Anderson, and Kathleen • Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (1959)
Cloud by Frederick Herzberg
• Hierarchy of Needs (1954) by Abraham
Maslow. From the book: Motivation and
Personality. New York. NY Harper

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 Marketing (theories and statistical laws)
• Diffusion of Innovation Model (1976). Everett • Theory of Consumer Perception (2007) by James
Rogers McNeal
• Law of Retail Gravitation (1931). William J. Reilly. • VALS Theory (1983) by Mitchell, A. Stanford
From the book” The Law of Retail Gravitation. New Research Institute (SRI)
York. Knickerbocker Press
• Wheel of Retailing Theory (1958). Malcom P.
• Law of Supply and Demand (author not known). McNair
Borrowed from Economics
• Model of Buying Behavior (2000). Philip Kotler.
From the book: Principles of Marketing
• Product Life Cycle (1979). Raymund Vernon. From
the book: The Product Life Cycle Hypothesis in a
new International Environment
• The 4 Ps in Marketing (1960) by E. Jerome
McCarthy. From the book: Basic Marketing: A
Managerial Approach

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 Finance
• Agency Theory (1970) by Stephen Ross and Barry • Liquidity Preference Theory (1936) by John
Mitnick Meynard Keynes. From the book: The General
Theory of Employment, Interest and Money
• Arbitrage Pricing Theory – Stephen Ross (1976)
• Modern Portfolio Theory – Harry Markowitz
• Baumol Model of Cash Management – William J. (1950s)
Baumol
• Pecking Order Theory by Myers and Majluf (1984)
• Capital Asset Pricing Model - William
Sharpe (1964) and John • Preferred Habitat Theory by Culbertson (1957)
Lintner (1965)
• Prospect Theory (1979) by Daniel Kahneman and
• Chaos Theory (1987) by James Gleick. From the Amos Tversky
book: Chaos: Making a New Science
• Theory of Mental Accounting (1999) by Richard
• Dividend Decision-Walter Model- James E Walter Thaler. From his journal article Mental Accounting
Matters. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making
• Gordon Model –Myron Gordon
• Unified Theory of Underreaction, Momentum
Trading and Overreaction in Asset Markets (1999)
by H. Hong and J. Stein

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 Entrepreneurship
• Locus of Control - Julian Rotter in the 1950s
• Need for Achievement Model – Henry Murray
• Psychodynamic Model - Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson and Alfred Adler
• Social Entrepreneurship (2000) by Charles Leadbeater. From the research
publication: The Rise of the Social Entrepreneur

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How do you measure the problem and sub
problem/s as represented by the conceptual
framework?
• The problems and sub problems represented in your conceptual
framework should be relevant to the issues or business dilemma you
are trying to address. In translating the relationships of variables into
research questions, you have to consider appropriate words to be
used given that you will use statistical treatment to compute for the
data that will answer each of your research problems. It is also
important to note that your research instrument should be able to
represent all the research questions.

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Examples of common technical words used in sub
problems are the following:

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 What is a hypothesis?
• Hypothesis is a statement about an educated guess on the effect of a
particular variable to other variable/s. The effect could be measured
in terms of statistical significance (p-value of .05 or less) or through
other measures where the difference can be computed or observed.
• Hypothesis can be stated in negative form (null hypothesis) or in
positive form (alternative hypothesis). Some schools would prefer to
state both forms, while others would go only for the null-hypothesis.
Statisticians would argue that it is easier to measure the null-
hypothesis as one only needs to disprove it. The alternative
hypothesis on the other hand must be proven thoroughly for its
significance to be worth its acceptance.

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 How should a null-hypothesis be stated?
• A null hypothesis is a statement explaining how it is tested negatively
by inserting the word ‘no’. For example, There is no significant
relationship between variable A and variable B. If the word ‘no’ in not
included in the statement, then it becomes an alternative hypothesis
– there is a significant relationship between variable A and variable B.
• Another way to state it:
• Variable A does not significantly relate to Variable B (null-hypothesis); or
Variable A does relate significantly to Variable B (alternative hypothesis).
• For moderating variable, the null-hypothesis is stated as follows:
• Variable Z (moderating variable) does not moderate the effect of Variables X1,
X2, X3 ,.. Xn (independent variables) to Variable Y (dependent variable).

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 What should be assumed in the study?
• The assumption of the study is a supposition about a situation that does
not require to be studied or researched anymore. Therefore, it is assumed
to be present or observed and no need for its justification through
research. This saves time as the situation will be accepted as part of study.
Normally, there is a section in chapter 1 (after the hypothesis of the study)
that allows it if there is something to be assumed. The assumption can also
be included in the background of the study; if it is, then the assumption
section is not required.
• Sample Assumptions of the Study (Te, D., 2007):
• The mall shoppers in Davao City are coming mostly from Davao City and very few
from neighboring cities. (Thus, there is no need to justify whether there are more
shoppers from Davao City than the other cities at a particular period as it assumed to
be more than the other city shoppers)
• The senior citizens above 70 are not prone to go on mall shopping. (Thus, they are
excluded from the study).

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 What should be included in the significance of the
study?
• The significance of the study is an important component of research.
If there is nothing the study can contribute significantly, then it has
little value to the study or research. If such is the case, then it is not
worth emulating by other researchers or stakeholders.
• It should be arranged either from general (macro) to specific (micro)
significance or from specific to general significance; either way is
correct. The macro level may include institutions, groups, or
associations, whereas micro may include specific individuals from
various fields who will benefit from the findings of the study. This
people may get idea from the recommendations of the researcher to
incorporate in their strategy improvements and major decision
making.
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 Sample Significance of the Study (Te, D., 2007) – arranged specific to general:
• This study can enlighten the mall operators/retailers to come up with a
correct strategy by segmenting the customers based on the factors they
valued.
• There is no formal study preceding this study on mall shoppers’
preferences in Davao City. Thus, the researchers and would be investors
can be benefit from this study.
• The academe can use the findings of this study to deepen their
understanding about consumer shopping behavior. The existing theories
about consumer behavior can be augmented and complemented by this
study.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 2

 • Moreover, some researchers want to emphasize the name of the specific
group to general and consequently state the relevance of the study for
them, for example:

Mall Operators/Retailers . This study can enlighten the mall operators/retailers to

come up with a correct strategy by segmenting the customers based on the factors
they valued.
Researchers/Investors . There is no formal study preceding this study on mall
shopper’s preferences in Davao City. Thus, the researchers and would be investors
can benefit from this study.
Academe . The academe can use the findings of this study to deepen their
understanding about consumers shopping behavior. The existing theories about
consumer behavior can be augmented and complemented by this study.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 2

 What should be included in the scope and
limitation of the study?
• The scope and limitation of the study discusses briefly what is being
covered in the study (what and who are included in the study) as well
as the limitation that is evident or might be encountered during the
data gathering phase or analysis phase. Some limitations of the study
may include the following: the number of respondents to be
surveyed, financial constraint, access to relevant information, unsafe
locations, etc.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 2

 • Example of Scope and Limitations of the Study (Te, D., 2012):
• The senior students currently enrolled in Davao City HEIs were included in the
study. The study covered 300 students coming from the different HEIs in Davao City.
The other stakeholders like parents and alumni were excluded because senior college
students are presumed to be mature enough to decide what is best for them when it
comes to education and future opportunities. Only 10 schools were included on the
study because of the technical limitation of MDS in processing more than 10 objects
(schools).
• The researcher opted to include only the major and traditional schools with college
campuses located within the 10-kilometer radius from the heart of the city.
• The study did not apply proportionate stratified random sampling; the respondents
were evenly distributed to all the participating schools, hence, the use of
disproportionate stratified random sample.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 2

 What should be included in the definition of
terms?
• The Definition of Terms includes the conceptual and operational
definition of terms used extensively in the study. The conceptual
definition is intended to clarify the meaning of a particular term
(which can be sourced easily from the dictionary) and to guide the
reader on how it is intended to be used in the study. The operational
definition is about how a term is technically used in the study and
how such term is applied to the variable/s In the study. The definition
of terms must be arranged alphabetically (and no need to separate or
group the conceptual terms from the operational terms)

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 2

 • Example of Definition of Terms (Te, D., 2012)

• Cohort – is a group of respondents who experience the same event within the
same time interval (Malhotra, 2007).
• Factor Loadings – correlation between the original variables and the factors, and
the key to understanding the nature of the factor (Hair et al., 2007)
• Higher Educational Institution – colleges and universities in the Philippines are
generically called Higher Educational Institutions (HEIs) by the Philippine
Commission on Higher Education (CHED).

• Note: the term Factor loading is an operational definition, while the terms Cohort
and Higher Educational Institution are conceptual definitions.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 2

 Learning Activity 2.1

1. What is the importance of a hypothesis in any business research?

2. Come up with your own null hypothesis.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 2

 Learning Activity 2.2

1. What are the things included in the significance of the study?

2. How do you present the background of the study?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 2

 Learning Activity 2.3

1. What is the role of a model in a particular business research?

2. Differentiate operational definition from conceptual definition.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 2

 Case 2 – Are we on the right track?
Lorna Cruz, a graduating college student, visited Company XYZ to start gathering
some information about her research paper. Company XYZ is the leading
manufacturer of cement in the country. When she approached the Information
Desk, the staff informed her that the General Manager is out of the office for a very
important meeting. She is now in a quandary on who to approach next. Later, she
managed to talk to the Human Resource Department Manager and he mentioned
about some personnel-related problems such as absenteeism, tardiness, and lack
of motivation. However, as Lorna was on her way out, she happened to meet one
of her former schoolmates, John, who is now working with the company. Lorna
explained to him the purpose of her visit. John said that one of the pressing
problems of the company is the quality of the products produced, because 5% of
the produced cement does not conform to the standards. Lorna was so delighted to
hear this vital information. She relayed it immediately to her groupmates and they
began to come up with the research problem, objectives, significance of the study,
and conceptual framework.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 2

 Case 2 – Are we on the right track?
Guide questions:
1. If you were to make a critique on the process made by Lorna and her
groupmates to start their research paper, what would it be?
2. What are the things that you can suggest to improve how they
should start their research paper the right way?
3. Come up with your conceptual framework and problem statement.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 2

 Questions for critical thinking

1. What is a hypothesis? When do you use a null or an alternative

hypothesis?
2. Why is there a need to link your conceptual framework with the
theoretical framework

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 2

 Research activities

1. Formulate your own Background of the Study using the correct

format.
2. Illustrate and explain the conceptual framework of your study.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 2

 Key Terms
• Assumptions of the study • Problem statement
• Conceptual framework • Scope and limitation of the study
• Concepts • Significance of the study
• Conceptual definition • Statistical laws
• Definition of terms • Sub-problems
• Hypothesis • Theoretical framework
• Null-hypothesis • Theories
• Operational definition
• Problem

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 2

 End of Chapter 2

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 2

 Business Research with Statistical Applications:
Textbook and Guidebook for Doing and Writing Research
Danilo M. Te, DBA . Divina V. Sabanal, DBM
Jovelyn A. Castro, LPT, DM . Christhoffer P. Lelis, LPT, PhD
Authors
 COPYRIGHT

This is an exclusive and copyrighted property of REX Book Store Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this material shall be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods,
without the prior written consent of REX Book Store Inc.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH
Chapter 3: Literature Review and Citation
 Lesson Contents
• Why are the variables used in the conceptual framework supported
by literature review and synthesized?
• How should the literature supporting the study be cited or
paraphrased in the study.
• How the writer and the article publication date should be cited.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:

1. explain how to support the conceptual framework variables with
literature review;
2. learn how to synthesize the RRL; and
3. know how to cite the sources and how to paraphrase concepts or ideas of
other writers.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 Why are the variables used in the conceptual framework
supported by literature review and synthesized?
• The RRL is composed of related literature and related studies. The
literature should focus on each of the conceptual framework
variables. It discloses some unexplored area or gap that the
researcher will focus on. The RRL may also include the background of
the industry/group being studied.
• The related studies are necessary for correlational studies to find out
the relationship/degree of influence or predictability of variables in
prior studies. A researcher may look for published journals or
repository of completed studies in the university library.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 Why are the variables used in the conceptual framework
supported by literature review and synthesized?
• Some universities have extensive subscription of online journals. Not only
that the researcher will look for the literature of variables and indicators in
different journals, but should also check the findings of those studies
seriously, and if the variables and indicators have high predictability or can
explain the dilemma or problems in the dependent variables.
• The literature about the variables covered in the conceptual framework is
discussed in this chapter. The reason for this is to validate the findings of
the study (the variables measured or described) with the existing literature
and studies, aside from validating the variables with the anchored theory.
This way, the researchers could determine if the pattern or trend has been
sustained. It would also crystalize the finding as there is a supporting
literature to back it up.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 Why are the variables used in the conceptual framework
supported by literature review and synthesized?

• Some schools/mentors would allow the discussion of the major tool

applied in the study . The discussion (literature about it) should not
be a duplication of what is being discussed in the statistical treatment
(how it is used to measure the data).
• Moreover, some schools would require a synthesis at the end of this
chapter. The synthesis is the means to capture the ideas of the
different authors/writers in a more holistic and understandable
fashion and connect the dots in the RRL. It should be brief but
interesting enough.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

How should the literature supporting the study be
cited or paraphrased in the study.
• As stated in the 6th edition of the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association (APA, 2010), researchers have to
acknowledge the words and ideas of another writer either by citing it
directly using quotation marks (where the exact words are stated) or
by paraphrasing it (summarize it, rearrange the order, and change
some words). However, the writer should take note that the
words/thoughts should not distort the original meaning of the
sentence.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 How the writer and the article publication date
should be cited.
Citing it based on the author/s (author-prominent):
• 1. If one author, cite the last name of the writer and the year the
article was written. This is especially done when the citation is part of
the sentence: Te (2007) stated that……; or at the end of the
statement, insert the author, year in a parenthesis: …. as stated in the
study of Positioning the HEIs (Te, 2012).
• 2. If there are five authors, cite all the names if cited for the first time.
Then in succeeding citations, just write the name of the first author
and attach the Latin words et al. (meaning: and others) after it: for
example: Te et al. (2012).

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 How the writer and the article publication date
should be cited.
Citing it based on the author/s (author-prominent):
• 3. If there are six authors or more, cite the name of the first author,
and attach et al. after it, even for the first citation.
• 4. If there are two or more authors with the same family name,
include their first name initial. For example: Cruz, F. and Cruz, M.
(2018)….
• 5. Join the authors with an ampersand (&). For example: Lee, Te, Tan,
& Yap (2018) in the reference list, but not when part of the sentence

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 How the writer and the article publication date
should be cited.
Citing it based on the author/s (author-prominent):
• 6. If the date is not known, then indicate it with a notation: n.d.,
meaning no date. For example: Te (n.d.) or (Te, n.d.)
• 7. If the article is not sourced directly from the main author but from
the citation of another author, state it as follows: Lim (2015), as cited
by Te (2018), posited the idea of…
• 8. If the article cited is a personal communication of someone with
authority, state it as follows: In the e-mail of Mr. X, the author of the
book (cite the book), to this researcher last November 16, 2017, Mr. X
states…
WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3
 How the writer and the article publication date
should be cited.
Citing it based on the organization/ institution or information
(organization/information-prominent):
• 1. If the author is not known, then cite the organization or institution
publishing it. For example: The Expert Organization (2018) states….
• 2. Do not use the organization/company acronym if mentioned for the first
time. Use the full organization/company name and attach the acronym
after it. For succeeding citation, the acronym can be applied. For example:
The National Economic Development Authority (NEDA) in its Davao
Regional Development Plan 2017-2022 shows…. NEDA further shows…
• 3. Do not use Wikipedia as the main source (as it is editable). Check out the
source of Wikipedia and refer to it. Just mention that it is cited by
Wikipedia (if this where you found the information). For example: Author
(year), research title, as cited by Wikipedia (year), states….

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 Learning Activity 3.1
1. What is the importance of the related studies and literature for your
research?
2. How should your supporting literature be cited or paraphrased in the
study?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 Learning Activity 3.2
1. Write a sample of citing the source of the study in a particular
paragraph.
2. How do you cite the names of two or three authors in a given study?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 Learning Activity 3.3
1. How do you write the names of the authors in the citation if there
are five of them?
2. Explain the importance of literature review in supporting the
variables of the study.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 Case 3 – They have no way of knowing it
Sonia Corpus (not her real name) is a student of marketing research class. On
day 1 of her class, she was informed by the class instructor that the final
requirement (which also serves as the final examination) is a marketing
research proposal paper (i.e., writing three chapters based on the traditional
format of research) and it will be defended before a panel of examiners
composed of three faculty members from the marketing department. The
class was also informed by the instructor that they have the option to form a
group of five or do it by themselves. Because she is not comfortable with a
group, she opted to do it on her own. During the semester, she was
preoccupied with a lot of other school activities, mostly nonacademic. When
the semester’s final examination was fast approaching, she was scampering
for literature to support her theoretical and conceptual frameworks, as well
as her RRL.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 Case 3 – They have no way of knowing it -
continuation
She was feeling stressed due to simultaneous pressures from her other
subjects. Then her thoughts came out: “I will just copy and paste the
literature I have gathered to support my theoretical framework and
some topics in the RRL chapter. It would take time to paraphrase the
articles as they are quite lengthy. After all, I have no group to contradict
my opinion, and they (panel of examiners) have no way of knowing it as
teachers are busy doing their final exam questions and checking them
afterwards. I’ll just take the risk.”

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 Case 3 – They have no way of knowing it -
continuation
Then she entertained that thought. But during the proposal defense, she was
not allowed to proceed with her presentation as one of the panel of
examiners reviewed it thoroughly and checked her sources a day before her
schedule. She was informed by the panel that she failed the exam and failed
the subject as well for reasons of plagiarism. She was also informed that she
would face the disciplinary committee for such violation. Sensing her
dilemma, she cried helplessly.
Guide questions:
1. If you were Sonia Corpus, what should have been done?
2. What lessons did you learn about this situation?
3. Was the panel of examiners right in not allowing her to proceed with the
defense?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 Questions for critical thinking
1. What is the role of the RRL in the whole study? Explain the process.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 Research Activities
1. Make your sample synthesis of the Review of Related Literature and
Studies.
2. Look for a literature and paraphrase it.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 Key Terms
• Author prominent citation
• Direct citation
• Literature Review
• Organization/Information
prominent citation
• Paraphrase
• Review of Related Literature
(RRL)
• Synthesis

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 End of Chapter 3

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 3

 Business Research with Statistical Applications:
Textbook and Guidebook for Doing and Writing Research
Danilo M. Te, DBA . Divina V. Sabanal, DBM
Jovelyn A. Castro, LPT, DM . Christhoffer P. Lelis, LPT, PhD
Authors
 COPYRIGHT

This is an exclusive and copyrighted property of REX Book Store Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this material shall be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods,
without the prior written consent of REX Book Store Inc.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH
Chapter 4: Research Methodology and
Statistical Tools
Lesson Contents
• What is the right research design for the study?
• Guidelines for using correlational research tools.
• Guidelines for using causal research tools. How should the respondents
be properly sampled?
• What is the appropriate sample size?
• Which is preferred – random sampling or purposive sampling?
• Types of random sampling.
• What is the appropriate research instrument for gathering quantitative
research data?
• Survey questionnaire design.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

Lesson Contents
• Sample cover letter.
• Sample close-ended question. Sample Likert scale question. Sample
ranking question. Paired comparison question. Semantic differential
question.
• Sample open-ended question.
• Recoding negative stated item. What ethical issues should be avoided in
research?
• How should the statistical treatment be reported?
• What should be tested statistically?
• Sample statistical treatment .
• Tips on how to gather primary data through a survey questionnaire.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. determine what is the right research design for the study;
2. learn how to sample the respondents;
3. know what is the appropriate sample size;
4. identify what is the appropriate research instrument;
5. learn how to validate the survey questionnaire;
6. develop a cover letter;
7. develop close-ended questions, scales, rating, and ranking questions.
8. determine the ethical issues in business research ; and
9. learn how to report the statistical treatment.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Research Methodology
• Research methodology is a detailed outline of how an investigation
will take place. It will typically include how data are to be collected,
what instruments will be employed, how the instruments will be
used, and the intended means for analyzing data collected. Chapter 4
of the research manuscript is labeled as Research Methodology. It
comprised the following components: research design, sampling plan,
research instrument, and statistical treatment of data.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 What is the right research design for the study?
• This is a question that always haunts inexperienced researchers. They may
come up with a problem and the supporting frameworks, but solving it with
the right research design may require certain research skills level. Others who
are used to their research design would be reluctant to take a research
challenge that would mean a different research design, because the
switching cost is high (meaning it would take time for them to learn the tools
needed for a particular research design).
• For most studies, descriptive research design is the right choice. Even if the
research would entail a complicated research design, there is still the
element of descriptive research that would be needed.
• If the problem would require measurement that cannot be covered by
descriptive research design, then other research designs could be used:
correlational research design and causal research design. The difficulty level
of these research designs increases as the skills of the researchers in using
them are also expected.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Guidelines for using correlational research tools
• 1. If the problem involves hypothesis testing, then decide on:
• Hypothesis of relationships (between variables) – use Pearson R correlation
(for parametric data), or Kendall’s tau B, Spearman’s rho, or chi-square (for
non-parametric data). This is discussed in Chapter 5.
• Hypothesis of difference – use:
• b.1 Paired t-test – for comparing a pair of variables (interval scaled or
ordinal)
• b.2 Independent samples t-test – for comparing a variable (interval or ratio
scaled) with a nominal variable with two categories only. This is discussed
in Chapter 5.
• b.3 One-way ANOVA – for comparing a variable (interval or ratio scaled)
with a nominal variable with at least three or more categories.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Guidelines for using correlational research tools
• 2. If the problem is to know which factors/variables are valued by the
respondents, then the right technique is a multivariate technique called
Factor Analysis. If the researcher would like to know which variables are
important and the unimportant ones will be eliminated (data reduction), then
the right technique is still factor analysis. This is discussed extensively in
Chapter 7.
• 3. If the problem is to know which of the variables (called independent
variables) would explain or predict a particular variable (called dependent
variable), then the right technique is another multivariate technique called
Multiple Regression Analysis. This is discussed extensively in Chapter 8.
• 4. If the problem is to know how to group (segment) the respondents based
on their preference and profile them by cross-tabulating their demographic
data, then the right technique is Cluster Analysis. Cluster analysis is not
covered in this book.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Guidelines for using correlational research tools
• 5. If the problem is to know how to measure the perception of the
respondents and show the results visually through a two- or three-
dimensional perceptual map, then the right technique is either:
• a. Multidimensional scaling (MDS) – used if the data are based on
paired comparisons (interval or ratio scaled);
• b. Multidimensional unfolding (MDU) – used if the data are based on
ranking (ordinal);
• c. Correspondence analysis – used it if the data are based on multiple
options (nominal).
• Note: the above tools are not covered in this book.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Guidelines for using correlational research tools
• 6. If the problem is to determine which in the list of valued factors
would result into the best combinations for the respondents to choose
from, then the right technique is Conjoint Analysis. Conjoint analysis
should be complemented with cluster analysis. This technique is not
covered in this book as well.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Guidelines for using causal research tools
• 1. If the problem is to test the existing theoretical framework and
validate its measurement variables for research application, then the
right technique is Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). CFA is also a
very good validation tool.
• 2. If the problem is complex and characterized by complex
relationships (which cannot be solved by either of the following:
multiple regression analysis, factor analysis, cluster analysis, and
conjoint analysis), then the right technique is either Covariance-
Based Structural Equation Modeling (CB-SEM) or Partial Least
Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM).
• Note: the above tools are not covered in this book.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 How should the respondents be properly
sampled
• Students and researchers have to decide on the right sample size.
Some schools have the standard sample size for the students to
follow or adhere to. Sample sizes are based on the margin of error
and confidence level. For example, undergraduate students are
expected to have the famous 100 sample size (based on 9.78% margin
of error and 68.3% confidence level); for the graduate school
students, it is 377 (based on 5% margin of error and 95% confidence
level).
• Try using Raosoft sample calculator (www.raosoft.com). In fact, when
you are done with your sampling, you can now measure your actual
sample size with Raosoft calculator and see the final margin of error
and confidence level easily
WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4
WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4
 Slovin’s Formula

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Cochran’s Formula

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 What is the appropriate sample size?

• As to the appropriate sample size, it depends on the school, the panel

of examiners, or the contracted researcher. It should, however, be 100
or more. The problem with a big sample size is the cost and time
involved: it becomes so expensive and it requires a much longer
period to gather the data.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Which is preferred — random sampling or
purposive sampling?
• If the objective of the study is to generalize the result across the
population, then use random sampling. If the objective of the study is
to determine the target market for a particular organization and is not
necessary to generalize it across the population (because the purpose
is like a case study), then use purposive sampling. Purposive sampling
starts by qualifying the respondents first, then selecting them once
qualified by quota method.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Types of Random Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling – if the population is known

2. Stratified Random Sampling – if the population is known
3. Random sampling based on Poisson Distribution – if the population
is not known

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Simple Random Sampling

• To sample the population using simple random sampling, the

researcher has to have a sampling frame. A sampling frame is the list
of the target population (especially if the target population is not
large enough). From the list of respondents included in the sampling
frame, the researcher will draw the sample randomly.
• A good randomizer is available on the internet. Just go to
www.randomizer.org. It has an instruction on how one can draw a
sample from the target population.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Randomizer

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Stratified Random Sampling
• Another way to do random sampling is through stratified random
sampling. Here, if the target population has a natural grouping and
some groups may have more respondents than the other groups,
then the right random sampling approach is to stratify the sample
based on the population distribution.
• For example, if we will use the generational age as basis for
stratification, then let us identify the population for each group. Here
in Davao City: Millennial (575,152 or 33.3% as of 2017); Generation X
( 248,714 or 14.4% as of 2017); and Baby Boomers (126,084 or 7.3%
as of 2017). If we use the three strata for sampling purposes
(assuming the sample size is 377), then the stratified distribution is as
follows (see next slide)

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4
 Poisson Distribution
• In some cases, the population is not known. If this is the case, can we
still do random sampling without any sampling frame? The answer is
yes. Just use Poisson distribution and the need for a sampling frame is
substituted.
• Here is how it works. For example, this writer wanted to study the
mall shoppers in Davao City. However, there is no list of mall shoppers
in Davao City to use as a sampling frame. So, the writer has to go to
the mall and intercept the shoppers as they go on shopping. How
could they be randomly selected? Prior to going to the malls, the
writer has a guide for selecting them based on selected days and
selected hours where the shoppers most likely frequent the mall.
See next slide

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4
 Poisson Distribution ..continued
• The enumerator (research assistant) will be guided by the sampling procedure in
selecting the respondents randomly. Here, the enumerator will wait at the
specific mall entrance and approach the shopper for survey questionnaire
participation at the specific time. If the shopper declines, then the enumerator
will approach the next shopper, and another shopper, until there is a taker for a
particular time guide. Once there is a taker who is willing to fill up the
questionnaire, the enumerator will thank the respondent and wait for the next
period (another period based on the guide). But the next time, the enumerator
will move to another entrance (to simulate randomness) and select the second
respondent.
• The sampling procedure would take several days until all the respondents in the
guide are accounted for; it can even be done simultaneously through the
different malls at the same time with the help of more enumerators. This process
of random sampling is based on Poisson distribution and mall intercept.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 What is the appropriate research instrument
for gathering quantitative research data?
• In general, quantitative research would need just a survey
questionnaire as the research instrument. In some cases, depth
interview is applied to complement the survey questionnaire. There
is, however, some problem when the two research instruments are
used in one study – the qualitative result (using depth interview) may
contradict with the quantitative result (using survey questionnaire).
However, in some cases, the depth interview would provide some
insights that may not be captured in the survey questionnaire, and
thus enhance the study.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 What is the appropriate research instrument
for gathering quantitative research data?
• The research instrument should be designed to address all the
questions in the problem statement, and no unnecessary
question/item should be inserted. The research instrument question
and instruction should be easy to follow.
• As much as possible, answering the research instrument (survey
questionnaire) should not take more than 15 minutes; and, if
possible, the filling up the survey questionnaire should be supervised
by the enumerator to minimize missing data or erroneous entry.
• If the questions in the survey questionnaire are adopted from an
existing study, it is called standardized survey questionnaire. The
researcher should ask permission to use it from the author.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 What is the appropriate research instrument
for gathering quantitative research data?
• If the questions in the survey questionnaire are developed by the
researcher, it is called self-developed survey questionnaire. There is a
need to have it validated by experts. Some schools would require
three experts. These validators will evaluate the statement and items
in each of the variables, and may provide recommendations for the
improvement of the survey questionnaire.
• A self-developed survey has to go through reliability and validity tests.
The scales reliability test will evaluate the suitability of items in each
variable. You may consider 30 or more respondents for the reliability
tests, but these individuals should not be included in your actual
respondents as you proceed with your study.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Survey Questionnaire Design

• The research instrument is an important tool for addressing the

problem and for measuring the problem and subproblems. For
quantitative research, the research instrument is normally the survey
questionnaire. For qualitative research, the research instruments
could be depth interview, focus group discussion, or observation.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Cover Letter
• The survey questionnaire should have a cover letter that states who is
the researcher, what is the purpose of research, and the assurance
that the data will be treated with confidentiality.
• The cover letter could be in a separate sheet of paper or it could be
integrated in the questionnaire. The questionnaire should also be
arranged in the sequence of questions, starting with the difficult
ones. The questions about the demographic data of the respondents
are better presented at the last part, so the respondents can
accomplish them easily.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Questionnaire Design
• When designing a survey questionnaire, avoid the open-ended questions
as much as possible. An open-ended question would require much of the
respondent’s time, as he/she would think first before he/she could come
up with the answer. Chances are, the respondent would just skip the
question.
• As much as possible, go for close-ended questions, where the options are
listed for the respondent to choose from. However, include an option –
others (please specify) _____________ ; this will address whatever is
missed in the options listed.
• If the question is about rating, be sure to specify the range and the value at
each point or the value at the extreme points.
• If the question is about ranking, be sure to specify what is first (normally 1),
what is second (2), what is third (3), and so on.

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 Recoding negatively stated item
• A negatively stated item can be combined with a positively stated
item if its direction is the same (meaning, an item with some negative
words results in an ideal situation and another item [positively
worded] also has the same direction [ideal situation]). If such is the
case, then there is no need to recode the item with some negative
words

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 What ethical issues should be avoided in
research?
• Research should be grounded on ethics. The researcher should be
transparent with the research process and findings, even if it would mean
not meeting his/her research objective. The reader of the research paper
should not be misled. Any misrepresentation is unethical. If students are
involved in doing data gathering, the school policy about it should be
observed; otherwise, it is unethical. If a researcher is doing a contracted
research for a particular company, he or she should not accept a research-
related activity from the company’s competitors; otherwise, it is also
unethical.
• Ethical consideration should be observed in the entire research process. As
one prepares for the research proposal, which contains the Chapters 1–3,
ethical considerations must be placed on the integrity of the study and
included on the last part of Chapter 3 (as practiced by some schools).
WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4
 What ethical issues should be avoided in
research?
• As the researcher proceeds with the data gathering, it should start by
securing permission from the management of the institution being studied.
• Respondents must be informed of the purpose of the study, and how they
are going to answer the survey questionnaire. The researcher must respect
the respondent if he/she chooses not to participate in the data collection.
• The researcher should also assure the respondent that the data provided
will be treated with confidentiality.
• Claiming the works of other researchers as one’s own is not only unethical
but also illegal; there is a stiff penalty for plagiarism. Copying and pasting
the works of other researchers is a form of plagiarism if it is not properly
cited or paraphrased.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 How should the statistical treatment be
reported. What should be tested statistically?
• In the statistical treatment part, the researcher will report the
statistical tools he/she applies in measuring the data. It should
include how the data will be processed by the statistical software
either by frequency, percentage, ratio, descriptive statistics, and other
quantitative measurements (such as multivariate techniques). If the
major measuring tool is based on multivariate data analysis, the
statistical process (treatment) must be discussed briefly.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Learning Activity 4.1
1. What are the ethical practices in the conduct of a business research?
2. Which method would you pursue, purposive or random sampling?
Why?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Learning Activity 4.2
1. What is the appropriate instrument for a business research?
2. Calculate your sample using Slovin’s formula.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Learning Activity 4.3
1. When do you use the Poisson distribution in your study? Explain.
2. How do you come up with the appropriate sample of your study?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Learning Activity 4.4
1. Where can you find or how can you access standardized
questionnaire?
2. Are there disadvantages in using a standardized questionnaire?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Learning Activity 4.5
1. What type of question is ideal for a correlational research design that
uses regression or factor analysis as statistical treatment?
2. What is the ideal number of questions (items) for each variable being
studied?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Learning Activity 4.6
1. Is it necessary to ask permission from the top management of the
organization when proceeding to data gathering, given that the
questionnaire has a cover page?
2. If one of the goals of the research is to identify the employees’ rating
on the salary and benefits provided by the organization, what response
anchor should you use?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Case 4.1 – Does it matter?
James Lee has had experiences in research, especially as an enumerator. He
started earning as an enumerator during his senior year in college. He got
paid PhP 75.00 per respondent, plus transportation and meal allowances.
Now his asking rate is PhP 120.00 per respondent, plus meal and
transportation allowances. Lately, he was asked to do a purposive survey on
respondents based on their generational age (millennial [born 1981–1999],
generation X [born 1965–1980], and baby boomers [born 1946–1964]). He
was also informed that, for legal purposes, those below 18 should not be
included in the survey. The number of respondents assigned to him is 200.
Because he had prior experiences in administering a survey questionnaire,
researcher Danny Reyes opted not to give him a prior orientation and
training on data gathering.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Case 4.1 – Does it matter?..continued
He was assigned to four malls where he will give the survey questionnaire.
He will allocate evenly the 200 respondents to four malls. Based on his
interpretation, he should not worry about doing a random sampling because
this is a purposive survey. Besides, for him, there is no sampling frame to
base the random survey from. So, in his survey, he will just meet the
prospective respondents and qualify them based on their generational age.
Earlier, he was informed that he will do the survey on the malls during
Wednesday, Friday, Saturday, and Sunday of a particular week.
During day one of the survey (it was a Wednesday), James had other
thoughts. He was in a hurry to finish the survey in one day instead of four
days as there was another offer for him to do research and this one has more
respondents, so he planned on doing it in just one day. Because it will be
difficult for him to do it in one day, considering the four malls are far apart
from each other, he subcontracted his three friends to cover the three malls.
He offered PhP 80.00 per respondent plus transportation allowance. He did
not inform Danny Reyes about this arrangement.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Case 4.1 – Does it matter?..continued
For his part, he was done in just three and a half hours. In fact, the last
respondent (the 50th) was himself. He reasoned he is also a millennial and
qualified to answer the survey questionnaire.
When he collected the 150 survey questionnaires from his friends, he
noticed that there were many missing data (unanswered or skipped by the
respondents). He was worried because he was instructed by Danny Reyes to
supervise the respondents in filling up the questionnaire to minimize the
missing data. To correct the situation (with a lot of missing data), he had to
fill up many questionnaires based on his judgment of what would be the
likely answer of the respondents.
Although with some discomfort, he gave the completed 200 survey
questionnaires to Danny Reyes and hoped that what he did would not
matter or affect the research findings.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Case 4.1 – Does it matter?..continued
For his part, he was done in just three and a half hours. In fact, the last
respondent (the 50th) was himself. He reasoned he is also a millennial and
qualified to answer the survey questionnaire.
When he collected the 150 survey questionnaires from his friends, he
noticed that there were many missing data (unanswered or skipped by the
respondents). He was worried because he was instructed by Danny Reyes to
supervise the respondents in filling up the questionnaire to minimize the
missing data. To correct the situation (with a lot of missing data), he had to
fill up many questionnaires based on his judgment of what would be the
likely answer of the respondents.
Although with some discomfort, he gave the completed 200 survey
questionnaires to Danny Reyes and hoped that what he did would not
matter or affect the research findings.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Case 4.1 – Does it matter?..continued
Guide questions:
1. Was James Lee unethical in doing this? Explain your answer.
2. If you were the enumerator instead of James Lee, what would you do
in gathering the data from the respondents?
3. Would you recommend a random survey instead of purposive
survey? How and why?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Case 4.2- The use of connections
Spencer Cruz chose to research a topic that he is very interested with. He
completed the necessary chapters for him to be legible to proceed to
proposal defense. As he prepared for the data gathering after the successful
proposal, he obtained a list of companies from the Business Bureau of his
city. He realized that those establishments where his respondents are
employed are all located in far-flung areas. As he has concerns with regard to
expenses to be incurred in the data gathering, he remembered that some of
his neighbors work in those companies. He contacted them immediately so
that they will be the ones to hand the survey questionnaires to their
colleagues. Because of the busy activity of distributing questionnaires, and
people answering them, it has affected the productivity and output in one of
the companies being studied. The middle management caught Mr. Cruz’s
neighbor and immediately implemented a sanction for such activity.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Case 4.2- The use of connections
Guide questions:
1. What is unethical about the data gathering of Mr. Cruz?
2. What should be done first before proceeding to actual data
gathering?
3. Who should be liable to the management of the company? How
should Mr. Cruz save his neighbor in the sanction given to him/her

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 Case 4.3 – What to ask
Roland and his groupmates were in a dilemma as to what Response
Anchors they should be adopting in their self-developed survey
questionnaire, considering that their problem dwells on measuring the
“Factors that Affect the Level of Satisfaction of Customers in Café
Blanco.” The independent variables applied are the following: price,
place, product, service, and promotion. Café Blanco is situated at the
heart of the city and offers a wide array of coffee and sweets.
Guide question:
1. How will Roland and his colleagues come up with their self-
developed survey? (Apply the appropriate response anchors to the
questionnaire. Provide at least three indicators for each variable.)

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Case 4.4 - Unethical
Miss Madison is a candidate for graduation. Part of the requirements in
her senior year is to pass the thesis subject. She passed the final
defense with minor revisions. Part of the revisions required by the
panel members is for her to do a validity test on the questionnaire
because it was mentioned in the discussion of the research instrument
and yet the validation of experts was not reflected in the appendix.
What happened before was, after passing the proposal defense, she
immediately proceeded to data collection without having her
questionnaire checked for validity by experts.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Case 4.4 – Unethical … continued
Following the requirements of her panelists, she identified around three persons as
experts who would give a validity test to her questionnaire.
Case/Situation:
Given that you are knowledgeable about her research topic, she approached you
and requested that you will be one of the expert validators of her survey
questionnaire. She immediately gave you her survey questionnaire, validation
sheet, and PhP 2,000 as fee. Miss Madison informed you that the purpose of the
validity test was for compliance with the contents of the appendices, so your
comments and suggestions will not be subjected to the scrutiny of the panel
members or any researcher.
Guide questions:
1. What will be your response to Ms. Madison’s request?
2. What are the important research protocols that the panelists missed in the
proposal defense?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Case 4.5 - Uncooperative
The Department of Interior and Local Government approved the
conduct of a research in the identified government sectors under its
administration. However, when the researchers went to one of these
offices, the Department Head refused the research team on account
that he did not agree with the decision of the DILG Regional Officer.
Guide questions:
1. As a researcher, what will you do?
2. Given that this situation will affect your sample size and the findings
of your study, how will you report this incident?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Questions for critical thinking
1. What is the significance of a research design in business research?
2. Why is the result of using Cochran’s formula identical with using
Slovin’s formula?
3. What are the ethical considerations when adopting standardized
questionnaire for one’s study?
4. Why is it necessary to limit the questionnaire to five pages only?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Research activities
1. Determine the Cronbach’s alpha of your research.
2. What is the statistical treatment of your study? Explain.
3. Look for a survey questionnaire on the internet.
4. Compare it with the framework and subproblems of your research.
Communicate with the author to ask for permission to use it.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Key Terms
• Causal research • Sampling plan
• Cochran’s Sampling Formula • Slovin’s sampling formula
• Correlational research citation • Stratified random sampling
• Direct citation • Statistical treatment of data
• Cover letter • Survey questionnaire
• Ethical issues • Random sampling
• Likert scale • Research design
• Plagiarism • Research instrument
• Poisson distribution • Research methodology
• Purposive sampling

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 End of Chapter 4

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 4

 Business Research with Statistical Applications:
Textbook and Guidebook for Doing and Writing Research
Danilo M. Te, DBA . Divina V. Sabanal, DBM
Jovelyn A. Castro, LPT, DM . Christhoffer P. Lelis, LPT, PhD
Authors
 COPYRIGHT

This is an exclusive and copyrighted property of REX Book Store Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this material shall be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods,
without the prior written consent of REX Book Store Inc.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH
Chapter 5: Research Measurement, Applications,
and Interpretations
Lesson Contents
• Measuring the problem. Types of variables.
• Need for statistical analysis.
• Performing statistical data analysis.
• Specifying statistical test.
• Typical descriptive research measuring tools.
• Typical correlational and comparative research measuring tools.
• Descriptive research tools.
• Steps to generate the descriptive statistics using SPSS.
• Guidelines for using level of interpretation.
• Guidelines on how to use the correlational measuring tools.
• Correlations.
• T-Test.
• ANOVA.
• Cronbach’s Alpha.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:

1. know the measuring tools of descriptive research – descriptive
statistics, frequency tables, charts and graphs, mean interpretation;
and
2. know the measuring tools of correlational research – correlations, t-
test, ANOVA, scales reliability test.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Measuring the problem
• Defining the problem exactly is vital to obtain accurate data about it.
It is very hard to gather data without a clear definition of the
problem. Problem must be translated into specific questions or
objectives and be expressed in terms of variables. As an integral part
of research, these variables are subjected to measurement. Unless
the variables are measured in some way, we will not be able to test
our hypotheses and find answers to research problems.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Types of Variables
• 1. Variables that lend themselves to objective and precise
measurement such as:
• those objects that can be physically measured by some calibrated instruments
• Example: blood pressure, body temperature, height and weight
• those data representing several demographic characteristics of the
individuals:
• Example: length of service, marital status, educational attainment

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Types of Variables
• 2. Variables that do not lend themselves to accurate measurement
because of their subjective nature as these pertain to people‘s
subjective feelings, attitudes, and perceptions.
• Example: job satisfaction, work commitment
• For the latter type of variable, one way to develop its index of
measurement is to tap the behaviors associated with a concept. This
is done by defining the concept operationally through reduction of its
abstract notions into two or more behavioral dimensions, or
properties denoted by the concept, and then translate them into
observable and measurable elements. This is illustrated in the
following diagram (see next slide).

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5
 • Example: Concept: Customer satisfaction in online ordering system.
• Dimensions:
1: CONVENIENCE
Elements:
1.1. Information is found with a minimum of clicks.
1.2. The best deal online is easy to find.
1.3. Detailed information is available while shopping online.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 • Example: Concept: Customer satisfaction in online ordering system.
• Dimensions:
2: SECURITY
Elements:
2.1. Online shopping protects my security.
22. The website has adequate security features.
2.3. I feel secure in giving out credit card information when shopping
online.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 • Example: Concept: Customer satisfaction in online ordering system.
• Dimensions:
3: VARIETY OF PRODUCTS
Elements:
3.1. It displays a wide range of products.
3.2. All the information provided matches with actual product
specification.
3.3. I It is easy to make a comparison with other products.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 • Example: Concept: Customer satisfaction in online ordering system.
• Dimensions:
4: DELIVERY
Elements:
4.1. Delivery is always on time as the company promised.
4.2. It offers cheap shipping fees.
4.3. I can track the delivery.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Need for statistical data analysis
1. Research, especially in the field of business, greatly involves
collection of “observation.” Observations are almost always subject to
random error. Hence, statistical methods have to be employed to
collect as well as analyze the data.
2. Statistical data analysis is used to examine the gathered and
organized data in terms of the characteristics, patterns, trends,
differences or similarities, and relationships, with the aim to answer
research questions or address study objectives.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Performing statistical data analysis

• Performing data analysis usually involves four basic steps:

1) diagnose the problem;
2) specify the statistical test;
3) perform the specified test to generate results; and
4) interpret data analysis results.
• This section offers discussion on the first two steps of data analysis
procedure. The other two remaining steps will be discussed in the
succeeding chapters.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Diagnosing the problem

• In diagnosing the problem, the following questions will be

considered:
1. What are the questions to be answered?
2. What is the analysis required by the question?
3. What is the type of data involved?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 General classifications of research questions
based on analysis
1. Descriptive. These are research questions that ask for the profile or
relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest from the respondents.
Examples are as follows:
a. What is the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of the
percentage of members who are in their senior and junior years, sex
composition, age groupings, number of semesters left until graduation, and
number of business courses taken?
b. What is the level of satisfaction of customers on service-related factors in
online ordering system in terms of convenience, service quality, variety of
products, delivery time, and security?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

General classifications of research questions based
on analysis
2. Comparative. These are inferential questions that ask for the
difference on the characteristics of certain variables of interest
between groups of respondents usually categorized according to their
profile. Examples are as follows:
a. Is there a significant difference in the average sales of the product before and
one week after the advertising campaign in the television?
b. Is there a significant difference in the levels of work efficiency of commercial
bank employees when analyzed by each of the profile: sex, age, civil status, and
position?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 General classifications of research questions based
on analysis
• 3. Correlational. These are questions that ask about the relationship
between variables of interest in the study. Examples are as follows:
a. Is there a significant relationship between service/product-related factors
and willingness to dine in coffee shops?
b. Which job satisfaction factor can significantly predict the level of job
performance?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Types of data and measurement scales
• Data are specific observations that describe certain variable gathered on
or from individuals. For instance, the data for sex of the employees
could be male or female whereas the data for grades of students in a
business major course could be 88, 90, 84, etc. These data are generally
classified according to their nature as quantitative and qualitative.
Moreover, data derived from various means of measurement are
categorized as nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
• As depicted in the diagram (see next slide), data at nominal and ordinal
scales are qualitative; meanwhile, data at interval and ratio scales are
quantitative. Further, the diagram illustrates that the degree of
information that the scales possess increases progressively as we move
from the nominal to the ratio scale. That is, information on the variables
can be obtained in greater detail when we employ an interval or a ratio
scale than the other two scales.
WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5
WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5
 • Qualitative data is information derived from a variable that is
categorical in nature; meanwhile, quantitative data is information
derived from a variable that is numerical in nature.
1. Nominal. It is the lowest level type of data, such that its category is
represented by number only for labeling, classification, or
categorization, without making value statement about them. For
example, with respect to the variable of sex, respondents can be
grouped into two categories—male and female, which can be assigned
code numbers 1 and 2. These numbers simply differentiate one
category from the other, nothing else. Hence, 1 does not connote
greater or lesser than 2.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 • 2. Ordinal. It is higher than the nominal level. Numbers used for these
data do not only group respondents into categories, but it also rank-
orders the categories in some meaningful way. Larger numbers
indicate more (or less) of the characteristic measured, but not how
much more (or less). For instance, in the aspect of educational
attainment, respondents can be categorized as elementary, high
school, college, and graduate level, and will be coded 1–4,
respectively. These numbers do not only indicate a category label but
also a rank, so, in this particular case, number 4 indicates higher
educational attainment as compared to the other assigned code
numbers.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

• 3. Interval. This is a numerical type of data that contains ordinal properties with an
addition of having equal differences between scale points. It does not only group
respondents according to certain categories and taps the order of these groups, but also
measures the magnitude of the differences in the attributes among the individuals.
However, this type of data does not possess absolute zero, which means that the zero
value does not imply total absence of the attribute being measured.
• One good example is the intelligence quotient (IQ) of a respondent, which is measured
by his/her score in an IQ test. If the respondent got an IQ score of zero, it does not
necessarily mean he/she has no intelligence. Further, arithmetic operation on these data
is meaningless; that is, 2 is not necessarily half of 4, and 10 does not mean twice of 5. For
instance, consider the variable IQ, of which respondent A has an IQ score of 100,
whereas respondents B and C both obtained an IQ score of 50. Respondent A does not
absolutely mean twice smarter than respondent B.
• Moreover, the combined intelligence of respondents B and C will not equate to the
intelligence of respondent A, that is, summing up their IQ score does not have meaning
at all.
• 4. Ratio. This is the highest level of data as it contains interval scale properties with an
inclusion of the absoluteness of zero point and significance of arithmetic operation. One
example is the variable weight. There is no respondent who does not have a weight. In
addition, if respondent A weighs 45 kg whereas respondent B weighs 90 kg, then it can
be said that respondent B is twice heavier than respondent A.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

• Specifying statistical test
Your choice of statistical analysis should be made prior to the conduct of the
study. You can use the flowchart as your guide in choosing what statistic to use.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

• Question # 1. What is the demographic profile of the respondents in terms
of the percentage of members who are in their senior and junior years, sex
composition, age groupings, and number of business courses taken?
• Type of Analysis: Descriptive
• Type of Data Involved: Categorical (Nominal and Ordinal)
• Statistics to be Used: Frequency Distribution
• Question # 2. What is the level of satisfaction of customers on service-
related factors in online ordering system in terms of convenience, service
quality, variety of products, delivery time, and security?
• Type of Analysis: Descriptive
• Data involved: Level of Satisfaction
• Type of Data Involved: Interval/Ratio
• Statistics to be Used: Mean and Standard Deviation

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 • Question # 3. Is there a significant difference in the average sales of the product
before and one week after the advertising campaign in the television?
• Type of Analysis: Comparative
• Data to be Compared: Average Sales of the Product
• Type of Data Involved: Interval/Ratio
• Nature of Comparison: Means Coming from the Same Sample/ Group
• Statistics to be Used: Paired Sample t-Test
• Question # 4. Is there a significant difference in the levels of work efficiency of
commercial bank employees when analyzed by each of the profile: sex (male or
female), age (21–24, 25–29, 30 and above), and civil status (single or married)?
• Type of Analysis: Comparative
• Data to be Compared: Work Efficiency
• Type of Data Involved: Interval/Ratio
• Nature of Comparison: Means Coming from the Different Samples/ Groups
• Statistics to be Used: Independent Sample t-Test (for sex and civil status
grouping); One-way ANOVA(for age grouping)
WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5
 • Question # 5. Is there a significant relationship between service/product-
related factors and willingness to dine in coffee shops?
• Type of Analysis: Correlational – Non-dependence Relationship
• Data to be Correlated: Service/Product-related Factors and Willingness to
Dine
• Type of Data Involved: Interval/Ratio
• Statistics to be Used: Pearson r
• Question # 6. Which job satisfaction factor can significantly predict the
level of job performance?
• Type of Analysis: Correlational – Dependence Relationship
• Data to be Correlated: Job Satisfaction (Independent Variable), Job
Performance (Dependent Variable)
• Type of Data Involved: Interval/Ratio
• Statistics to be Used: Regression Analysis
WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5
 Typical descriptive research measuring tools
1. Descriptive statistics
2. Frequency table (with frequency and percent)
3. Charts (pie chart, bar chart, histogram, etc.)
4. Mean interpretation table (with the scale, its range for measurement
purposes, scale description, and the mean interpretation)

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Typical correlational and comparative research
measuring tools

1. Correlations (Pearson [parametric data], Kendall’s tau, Spearman,

chi-square [nonparametric data])
2. t-Test (paired samples, independent samples t-test) – for
independent samples t-test, the grouping variable should be two
categories only.
3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) – post hoc (Tukey [equal variance
assumed] or Tamhane [equal variances not assumed]) and
homogeneity of variances test (Levene statistic). For post hoc, the
factor should have at least 3 categories.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Typical correlational and comparative research
measuring tools
• 4. Scales reliability test (interval or ratio scaled data) – Cronbach’s
Alpha
• 5. Factor Analysis – to be discussed in Chapter 7
• 6. Normality Test – to be discussed in Chapter 8
• 7. Multiple Regression Analysis – to be discussed in Chapter 8

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Steps to generate the descriptive statistics using
SPSS
1. Open the dataset, then click Analyze on the menu; click Descriptive
Statistics and Frequencies (Analyze > Descriptive Statistics > Frequencies).
2. Enter the variables you want to show the descriptive statistics in the
Variable box (in this case, Quality Education, Qualified Faculty, and Better
School Facilities). Note that by default, the Display frequency table is ticked.
If you untick it, the frequency tables will not be shown as an output. For this
purpose, we need the frequency tables.
3. Click the Statistics button; then tick Mean, Median, Mode, and Sum in the
Central Tendency; tick Std. deviation, Variance, Range, Minimum, Maximum,
and S.E. mean in Dispersion; and tick Skewness and Kurtosis in Distribution

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Steps to generate the descriptive statistics using
SPSS
4. Click the Continue button; then click the OK button. See the
descriptive statistics output.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 • To add the chart, perform the following steps:
1. From the output (assuming the dataset is still open), click the icon
“recently used dialogs,” then click the last activity on the list.
2. Click Frequencies; click Charts button; tick Pie charts in Chart Type and
Percentages in Chart Values.
3. Click Continue; click Ok.
4. Point your mouse to the pie chart output, right click it (using your mouse).
Then go to Edit content > In Separate Window; on the tentative output, click
Show Data Labels. The percentage per pie is reflected.
5. Close it and the chart pie is updated. You can copy and paste the tables
and charts to your Microsoft Office files

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Guidelines for using level of interpretation

• If the researcher would opt to use the mean of the variable and
measure it based on its level of interpretation, he/she should
construct a table of interpretation from the scale used in the
questionnaire. However, the table of interpretation is anchored on
the scales used in the questionnaire. For example, the questionnaire
has items that can be answered using a scale of 1–5, where 5 is highly
agree, 4 is agree, 3 is neutral, 2 is disagree, and 1 is highly disagree.
• The interpretation table is developed to aid the researcher in
interpreting the data gathered. This table should be included in the
discussion of research instrument.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 • To obtain the width of interval of scores as in the table presented, the
following formula can be used: (n-1) / n, where n is the number of
point score in a scale.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 • These are applied in the presentation of findings as follows

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Guidelines on how to use the correlational
measuring tools
1. Correlations
• The variables of the study may be measured through their correlations.
Normally, two variables are measured at a time (bivariate) for their
correlation. That is why in stating the correlations of more than two
variables, the word “between” is used instead of “among” because the
correlation is measured between variables at a time (bivariate). For
example (null hypothesis): There are no significant correlations between
Quality Education (variable 1), Qualified Faculty (variable 2), and Better
School Facilities (variable 3). Although it may appear to be grammatically
wrong, it is technically correct. Business research writing is about technical
writing.
• The variables to be correlated must be parametric (interval or ratio-scaled
variables) or nonparametric (ordinal and nominal variables).

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Guidelines on how to use the correlational
measuring tools
• The Pearson r (Pearson product moment correlation coefficient r) is
commonly used to test the relationship between variables that are
quantitative in nature (either interval or ratio scale). Meanwhile,
Spearman rho or Kendall’s tau are common statistical tools used to
measure relationship between variables at the ordinal scale.
• For nominal variables, chi-square test is commonly used for
significance of relationship. However, Phi and Cramer’s V are
alternative statistics if one wants to know not only the significance
but also the strength of relationship between two nominal data

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Steps in using Pearson correlation through
SPSS
1. Open the SPSS file. Click in the SPSS menu: Analyze > Correlate
>Bivariate.
2. Enter the variables to be correlated in the Variables box. By default,
Pearson is ticked in Correlation Coefficients and Flag significant
correlations is also ticked. If the flag significant correlations are ticked,
the correlation output will place an asterisk to any significant variable.
It will aid the researcher in finding the significant variable easily,
although the P value is still shown as part of the output. For test of
significance, two- tailed is the default. The one-tailed can be opted.
3. Then click Ok. See the correlation table output (see next slide)

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5
 • The correlation output must also be interpreted in terms of sign
(positive or negative correlation) and intensity of correlation (very
strong, strong, moderate, and weak).

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Correlation Interpretation
• From the correlation table (Table 5.7), it can be noted that the P
values (Sig. two-tailed) are all 0.000 between Quality Education and
Qualified Faculty; Quality Education and Better School Facilities; and
Qualified Faculty and Better School Facilities. These imply that the
variables are significantly related to each other. Furthermore, their
corresponding coefficient values are found to be: 0.765 for Quality
Education and Qualified Faculty, 0.676 for Quality Education and
Better School Facilities, and 0.767 for Qualified Faculty and Better
School Facilities. Based on Table 5.8, these results signify strong and
positive relationships between the variables tested.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 2. t-Test
• t-Test can be applied to two parametric variables (interval or ratio
scaled) at a time (paired samples t-test) or to the measurement of
two categories of a nominal variable (known as grouping variable)
with an interval-scaled variable (metric). The latter is called
independent samples t-test. The one-sample t-test is not covered in
the discussion

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Steps in using paired samples t-test through SPSS
1. Open the SPSS file. Click in the SPSS menu: Analyze > Compare
Means > Paired Samples T-Test. Enter the variables in Paired Variables
box. Start with first pair (Pair 1) and enter the variable in Variable 1 and
another variable in Variable 2. For example, enter T2 Taste to variable 1
and T3 Taste to Variable 2.
2. If there are more pairs to be entered, enter the variables to Pair 2,
and so on. For this example, we just compare 1 pair. Then press Ok. See
the output of paired samples t-test

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 • Based on the null hypothesis (there is no significant difference
between T2-Taste and T3-Taste), the result shows that the P value
(.625) is not significant. Thus, the null hypothesis is accepted.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Steps in using independent samples t-test through
SPSS
1. Open the SPSS file. Click in the SPSS menu: Analyze > Compare Means >
Independent-Samples T Test. Enter the variable (interval scaled or ordinal
variable) in the Test Variable box. Then enter in the grouping variable, a
nominal variable with two categories only (note: independent samples t-test
cannot process more than two categories). Then click the Define Groups
button. Enter 1 to Group 1; enter 2 to Group 2.
2. Then click OK.
3. For example, enter Quality Education (interval scaled) to Test Variable Box
and Sex (nominal variable) to Grouping Variable. Enter 1 (code for male) to
Group 1 and 2 (cod for female) to Group 2. See the Output

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5
 Independent Samples t-test Interpretation
• The results of the analysis show that the mean quality education for
male is 7.54, which is lesser than the female with mean = 7.66. Based
on Levene’s test for equality of variances, the F test is not significant
for Equal variances assumed. Thus, the null hypothesis for Equal
variances assumed cannot be rejected. When tested for t-test for
Equality of Means significance, it reveals that their quality education
does not significantly differ (P value = 0.527). This means that male
and female have relatively the same level of quality education.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
• ANOVA or one-way ANOVA is the tool applied if the measure is about
one interval or ratio scaled variable compared to three or more
categories of a nominal variable. Note that ANOVA will not be
processed if there are only two categories. For example, let us apply
one-way ANOVA with the null hypothesis: There is no significant
difference in employee performance based on their age.
• In this ANOVA test, Age Bracket (20–30 years old, 31–40 years old,
41–50 years old) is a categorical variable and Employee Performance
is an interval scaled variable.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Steps in using one-way ANOVA though SPSS
1. Open the SPSS file. Click in the SPSS menu: Analyze > Compare
Means > One-Way ANOVA. Enter the variable (interval scaled or ordinal
variable) in the Dependent List box. Then enter in the Factor box the
nominal variable with three or more categories (note: one way ANOVA
will not process two nominal categories in the Factor box). Then click
the Post Hoc button and tick Tukey in Equal Variances Assumed and
tick Tamhane’s T2 in Equal Variances not Assumed. Click the Continue
button.
2. Click the Options button and tick Descriptive and Homogeneity of
variance test. Click Continue. Then click Ok. See the ANOVA output .

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5
WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5
• As shown in the example, the null hypothesis of no difference in the performance
of the employees when they are grouped according to their age bracket is tested.
As the ANOVA test shows an F value of 5.312 and a P value of .006, the null
hypothesis is rejected.
• When ANOVA shows a significant result, there is a need for a follow-up test to
probe this difference in pairs. We call this post hoc test, which analyzes multiple
pair comparison to support ANOVA results. Note that this post hoc test is only
needed when significant difference is found in ANOVA.
• There are various post hoc tests that can be used and are classified as those that
assume equal variances and those that assume no equal variances. This
assumption can be checked at the last right column Sig., under the table of Test of
Homogeneity of Variance. If Sig. is greater than the desired alpha (usually 0.05),
then equal variance is assumed; otherwise, it is not. Therefore, from the table
results with a P value of 0.634, it indicates that the equal variance is assumed.
Hence, from the two chosen tests above (Tukey HSD and Tamhane) , the results
of Tukey will be considered instead of Tamhane.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 ANOVA Interpretation
• The employee performance of 20–30 years old is significantly different (P value
.004) from the 31–40 years old; the employee performance of 20–30 years old is
not significantly different (P value .683) from 41–50 years old; and the employee
performance of 31–40 years old is not significantly different (P value .829) from
41–50 years old.
• Thus, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in employee performance:
• between 20–30 and 31–40 years old is rejected.
• between 20–30 and 41–50 years old is not rejected (or accepted).
• between 31–40 and 41–50 years old is not rejected (or accepted).
•
• In particular, 20–30 years old have better performance than 31–40 years old

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 4. Test of scales reliability using Cronbach’s alpha
• The scales used in the questionnaire, interval or ratio, should be tested for
its reliability. The survey questionnaire with scales should be pretested
with at least 30 respondents. The reliability test to be conducted on survey
questionnaire pretesting would tell the researcher whether the
respondents understood the survey questionnaire or not. If the result of
the scales reliability test is poor (0.50 or below), then there is a need to
revise the questionnaire, especially in scale construction.
• The common reliability test is done through the Cronbach’s alpha test.
Ideally, the result of the Cronbach’s alpha should be 0.70 or higher. The
scales should also be tested post hoc, which means that the scales of the
final data set are collected.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Steps in scales reliability test through SPSS

1. Open the SPSS file. Click in the SPSS menu: Analyze > Scale >
Reliability Analysis. Enter the item variables (interval scaled or ratio
scaled) in the Items box. In the Model, Alpha is the default. Click the
Statistics button.
2. Tick Item and Scale if item deleted. Click Continue. Click Ok. See
output.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 • The result of the Cronbach’s alpha (0.970) post hoc is highly
satisfactory.
WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5
 Learning Activity 5.1
1. Why do we have to measure the skewness and kurtosis of the data?
2. When do we need to measure the data based on t-test or ANOVA?
Correlations?
3. Why and when should the scales be tested for reliability?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Learning Activity 5.2
1. Construct an interpretation table (scale range interpretation) using a
7-point scale.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Case 5 – What is the data telling me?

Ma’am Beauty, as fondly called by her students, challenged her

business research class to interpret the output of the SPSS descriptive
statistics. She wants to test what they learned in the course Statistics,
which they took in the previous semester. Then, she asked them,
“What is the data telling me?”

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Statistics
Sex Age Civil Status Course Taken

N Valid 300 296 293 295

Missing 0 4 7 5
Mean 1.687 1.3615 1.0307 3.6034
Std. Error of Mean .0268 .04121 .01120 .06519
Median 2.000 1.0000 1.0000 4.0000
Mode 2.0 1.00 1.00 4.00
Std. Deviation .4646 .70907 .19164 1.11970
Variance .216 .503 .037 1.254
Skewness -.809 2.740 6.861 -.634
Std. Error of Skewness .141 .142 .142 .142
Kurtosis -1.355 9.448 51.967 .431
Std. Error of Kurtosis .281 .282 .284 .283
Range 1.0 4.00 2.00 5.00
Minimum 1.0 1.00 1.00 1.00
Maximum 2.0 5.00 3.00 6.00
Sum 506.0 403.00 302.00 1063.00

Guide questions:
1. What is the meaning of “missing”?
2. Which variable/s is/are skewed to the left or skewed to the right?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Questions for critical thinking
1. Can the nominal or ordinal data be tested for scales reliability?
Justify your answer.
2. What would happen to your research if the Cronbach’s alpha test
result is 0.50 or less?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Research Activity
1. Search the internet for any research paper that applies t-test or
ANOVA in the study. Present and discuss it.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Key Terms
• Categorical variable • One way ANOVA
• Comparative research • Ordinal
• Correlation • Paired comparison t-Test
• Correlational research • Pearson r
• Cronbach’s Alpha • Qualitative research
• Dependence relationship • Quantitative research
• Descriptive statistics • Ratio
• Descriptive research • Scales reliability test
• Frequency distribution • T-Test
• Independent samples t-Test • Variable
• Interval
• Nominal

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 End of Chapter 5

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 5

 Business Research with Statistical Applications:
Textbook and Guidebook for Doing and Writing Research
Danilo M. Te, DBA . Divina V. Sabanal, DBM
Jovelyn A. Castro, LPT, DM . Christhoffer P. Lelis, LPT, PhD
Authors
 COPYRIGHT

This is an exclusive and copyrighted property of REX Book Store Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this material shall be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods,
without the prior written consent of REX Book Store Inc.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH
Chapter 6: Presentation of the Demographic Profile
and the Descriptive Findings
Lesson Contents

• Respondents’ demographic profile.

• Other demographic findings – preferences , ranking.
• Level of interpretation.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:

1. learn how to present the demographic profile of respondents; and
2. know the method of presenting the descriptive research findings –
preferences, ranking, and level of perception.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

 Presentation of descriptive research output
• When presenting the output of descriptive research, it normally starts
with the presentation of the respondents’ demographic profile and
then followed by the major findings of the study. To give context to
the reader, the presentation is preceded with some discussion on
how the data were gathered and the supporting activities that
resulted in the successful data gathering. When presenting, start with
a descriptive discussion before the frequency table or pie chart is
presented.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

 Presentation of output
• After the demographic profile of the respondents, the researcher will
discuss the other results of the data gathered. The sequence of
presenting the discussion and table should be based on the
subproblems found at the statement of the problem in Chapter 1. The
findings should also be supported with an RRL, which may support or
oppose the findings of the study.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

 Sample Demographic Profile
• The respondents’ profile included age range, sex, civil status, and classification
of courses taken. The proportion of the respective age ranges of respondents is
shown in Table 6.1. Based on the table, 214 respondents or 71.5% belong to the
18–21 age bracket, followed by 70 respondents or 23.3% (22–25 age bracket), 7
respondents or 2.3% (26–29 age bracket), 4 respondents or 1.4% (34 and above
age bracket), and 3 respondents or 1% (30–33 age bracket), respectively.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

• Table 6.2 shows the proportion of the female respondents with
the male respondents. Female respondents are twice the number
of male respondents. Two hundred five (205) respondents or
68.3% are female, whereas 94 respondents or 31.3% are male.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

• Two hundred eighty-five (285) single respondents or 95% dominate
the HEIs heavily, whereas there are seven married respondents or
2.3% (see Table 6.3).

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

• On courses taken, 180 respondents or 60% took Business/Commerce
courses, followed by 40 respondents (13.3%) for Arts and Sciences
courses, 31 respondents (10.3%) for Education courses, 19
respondents (6.4%) for Engineering and Architecture courses, and 18
respondents (6%) for Health-related Sciences courses, respectively
(see Table 6.4).

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

 Other Descriptive Findings
• Preferences
• When it comes to store preference, the respondents often visit the
main and specialty stores as shown in Table 6.5. Of the main stores,
86.5% of the respondents visit the department store, followed by
85% for grocery store, and 60.5% for movie houses, respectively. For
specialty stores, 75% of them visit the fast-food/restaurants, followed
by 60.5% for shoe stores, 56.5% for bookstores, 52% for cellphone
shops, 46.4% for men’s/women’s apparel stores, and 23% for
hardware stores, respectively.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6
 • Ranking
• As shown in Table 6.6, the respondents ranked the malls based on
mall atmospherics. The result reveals that SM City Ecoland Davao is
ranked number 1 in atmospherics, followed by NCCC Mall of Davao
(2), Gaisano Mall of Davao (3), Gaisano South Citimall (4), and Victoria
Plaza (5), respectively.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

 • Level of interpretation
• As shown in Table 6.7, the HRM practices on the selection of
employees of DOT-accredited Hotels, Resorts and Apartment Hotels
in Davao City are interpreted as follows:

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

 Learning Activity 6.1
1. Why is the demographic profile important in the presentation of
results and findings?
2. Aside from the frequency table, what other visual representations
can you think of?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

 Learning Activity 6.2
1. What type of research typically needs the income/salary as part of
the demographic profile?
2. What is the ideal sequence on the presentation of your findings?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

 Case 6 – Demographic data presentation
• After data gathering, the students tabulated the following:
• Sex: male = 24; female = 22
• Age: 18–21= 10; 22–25 = 13; 26–29 = 15; 30 and above = 8
• Civil Status : Married = 11; Single = 35
• Years in Service: less than 1 year = 15
1–3 years = 14
3–5 years = 10
More than 5 years = 7

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

 Case 6 – Demographic data presentation
Guide questions:
1. How will you present the following data in a tabular form?
2. Present your interpretation of data after the table is generated.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

 Question for critical thinking
1. Is it necessary to provide RRL for the findings of your study? Justify
your answer.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

 Research activities
1. Go to the library’s repository section of thesis. Identify what are the
important subtopics and discussion that are supposed to be added to
your Chapter 4, which is the results and findings.
2. Did you discover certain discussions that will reveal the value or
meaningfulness of your data?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

 Key Terms
• Demographic profile
• Level of interpretation
• Preferences
• Ranking

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

 End of Chapter 6

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 6

 Business Research with Statistical Applications:
Textbook and Guidebook for Doing and Writing Research
Danilo M. Te, DBA . Divina V. Sabanal, DBM
Jovelyn A. Castro, LPT, DM . Christhoffer P. Lelis, LPT, PhD
Authors
 COPYRIGHT

This is an exclusive and copyrighted property of REX Book Store Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this material shall be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods,
without the prior written consent of REX Book Store Inc.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH
Chapter 7: Factor Analysis
Lesson Contents

• Definition of Factor Analysis.

• Application of Factor Analysis in business research.
• Application of Factor analysis using Principal Component Analysis.
• Steps in processing Factor Analysis.
• Interpretation of the Factor Analysis Output.
• Writing the analysis of Factor Analysis.
• Factor Analysis validation

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. define what is factor analysis;
2. know how to measure KMO-MSA, Barlett’s test of spherecity
3. determine what is the total variance explained; communalities; scree plot;
rotated factor loadings;
4. know the guidelines for significant factor loadings;
5. learn the applications of principal component analysis;
6. know how to use SPSS in processing factor analysis;
7. determine how to interpret and report the output of factor analysis; and
8. learn how to validate factor analysis.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

 What is Factor Analysis?
• Factor Analysis (FA) is also known as Exploratory Factor Analysis
(EFA). It is called EFA to differentiate it from Confirmatory Factor
Analysis (CFA), a technique based on co-variance based structural
equation modeling (CB-SEM).
• FA or EFA is a major technique in multivariate statistics. FA and CFA
are based on interdependence techniques. In interdependence
technique, the variables are not referred to as independent,
dependent, or moderating. The variables are not labelled and their
relationships are manifested with a line with two headed arrows.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

 What is Factor Analysis?
• FA is processed by forming the variables into a structure called
factors. These variables come from the item-indicators or item-
questions that describe the factor, which is initially called pseudo-
factor.
• The pseudo factor is just a temporary label for the variables (item-
questions) to be grouped in the survey questionnaire. Once the
structure is formed through FA, the factors will be renamed based on
the attributes of the variables that comprise each factor.
• The variable/s with higher factor loading will influence in labelling the
factor. Thus, the final factor labelling is subjective and dependent on
the researcher’s preference for the appropriate attribute-label.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

 What is Factor Analysis?
• Based on variance, FA can be further categorized into Principal
Component Analysis and Common Factor Analysis. Most researchers
would prefer Principal Component Analysis.
• Regarding the sample size in FA, a sample size of 100 (observations)
or larger is preferable (although FA can factor analyze at least a
sample size of 50). It should be 200 or higher, if you will split the
samples for validation purposes.
• As a general rule, the minimum is to have at least five times as many
observations as the number of variables to be analyzed, and the more
acceptable sample size would have a 10:1 ratio (Hair et. al, 2014).

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

 Interpretation of FA based on the ff:
• Measure of Sampling Adequacy (MSA) through Kaiser-Myer Olkin (KMO)
Test and Barlett’s Test of Spherecity.
• KMO measures the sampling adequacy. It should be greater than .50 for a
satisfactory factor analysis to proceed (Burns, B. & Burns, R., 2008). The measure
can be interpreted with the following guidelines: .90 or above, marvelous; .80 or
above, meritorious; .70 or above, middling; .60 or above, mediocre; .50 or above
miserable; and below .50, unacceptable (Hair et al., 2014).
• Total Variance Explained.
• The cumulative variance explained should be 60% or higher to make it valid and
reliable. The cumulative variances for the unrotated (extraction sums of squared
loadings) and the rotated (rotation sums of squared loadings) have the same final
value. However, for this study, the latter is the one being applied for easy
interpretation.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

 Interpretation of FA based on the ff:
• Communalities of Variables.
• Communality below .50 is interpreted as failing to explain the other variables.
• A communality of below .50 is a candidate for deletion. However, if it falls below .50, but not
below .40, it is the researcher’s discretion not to delete it if it has a significant factor loading
and there is a theoretical support regarding its importance in the study. If it is below .40,
delete it, and then run again the factor analysis
• Scree Plot
• The scree plot is a graphical presentation of the factors as they are shown based on its
eigenvalue. Ideally for a factor to be considered significant, it should have an eigenvalue of
greater than 1 (Kaiser criterion) .
• Below eigenvalue of 1, the factors are not considered anymore in the analysis. Normally, the
scree plot would show a steep first factor and the remaining factors would drop drastically
down to eigenvalue 1 (called the elbow of scree plot as it looks like an elbow) and
gradually goes further down (below eigenvalue 1)to the last factor.
• The scree plot normally depicts the distribution of un-rotated factors. When the factors are
rotated, the high eigenvalue of the first factor will be shared to the other factors, thus
tapering its height.

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 Interpretation of FA based on the ff:
• Un-rotated or Rotated Factor Loadings
• The researcher can opt for unrotated factor loading when interpreting it.
However, based on the advise of statisticians and researchers, it is better to
rotate it as it would make the interpretation easier. Generally, the favorite
rotation technique is orthogonal. If the researcher is using SPSS, the favorite
orthogonal rotation is Varimax.
• Factor loadings should be interpreted in terms of its significance, which is also
linked to the sample size. See the guidelines below for the sample size and
the significant factor loading.

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Guidelines for Identifying Significant Factor Loading
based on Sample Size
Factor Loading Sample Size needed for
Significance (at the .05
level)
.30 350
.35 250
.40 200
.45 150
.50 120
.55 100
.60 85
.65 70
.70 60
.75 50

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 Steps in Processing Factor Analysis
• In the SPSS environment, click Analyze > Dimension Reduction >
Factor (and shows Factor analysis dialog box.
• Enter all variables (scales) into Variables box .
• Then press Descriptives button.

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• Tick statistics (initial solution) and correlation matrix (coefficients,
significance levels, determinant, KMO and Barlett’s test of sphericity).
Or you can tick them if you want to see all the results. Then press
Continue button.

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• Press Extraction button and tick Un-rotated factor solution (however,
you can omit this if you just want the rotated factor solution) and
Scree plot.

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 • Press Continue and then Rotation button. Tick Varimax (None is the
default). Tick Rotated solution and Loading plot. Note Maximum
iterations for Convergence is 25 (default). If you cannot find
significant convergence, then increase it to, say 50 or 75.

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• Press Continue and then press Options button. The default is Exclude cases
listwise (meaning it will remove the data with missing values). If you want
the data with missing values to be replaced with mean values, tick Replace
with mean. Tick Sorted by size (so that the variables will be arranged from
greatest to least value). Tick Suppress small coefficients and enter the
value of significant factor loading based on sample size (in this case .40 as
the sample size is 200. When everything is included, you can press Ok
button to start FA processing.

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 FA Output
Table 7.2. KMO and Bartlett's Test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .832

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 4157.947
df 666
Sig. .000

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 Table 7.5. Rotated Component Matrixa

Component

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Med GS Price .853
High GS Price .842
Med DS Price .826
Low DS Price .797
Low GS Price .787
HIgh DS Price .776
Entertain Live .774
Entertain Facilities .756
Promo VM .720 .413
Promo Ads .702
Promo Billboard .700
Entertain AV .694
Entertain Social .694
Promo Sale .606
Atmos Lighting .815
Atmos CR Location .754
Atmos Color .737
Atmos Escalator .709
Atmos Benches .631
Atmos Music .543
Atmos Aircon .480
Product Variety DS .818
Product Assort GS .795
Product Assort DS .781
Product Variety GS .772
Service Guards .829
Service Clerks .784
Service CAC .766
Atmos GS Crowded .817
Atmos DS Crowded .759
Access Publictrans .795
Access Location .625

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 Interpretation of Factor Analysis
• The researcher applied the KMO’s measure of sampling adequacy
(MSA) and the Bartlett test of sphericity to determine whether the
data is appropriate for exploratory factor analysis. The MSA result
(.832) showed it is meritorious. On the other hand, the Barlett’s test
of sphericity at .05 significance level showed that the variables are
all highly significant at .000 significance level. Thus, all the variables
are fit for exploratory factor analysis.
• For determining the number of factors to be extracted, the researcher
opted for latent root (eigenvalue) criterion of ≥ 1 and cumulative
percentage of variance, which should account for 60% of the total
variance to be satisfactory. There are 9 factors extracted. The
cumulative percentage of variance is 69.855, which is higher than .60.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

• As far as the communalities are concerned, all variables, except Atmos
Music, have values greater than .50, thus, are capable of explaining the
variances. Atmos Music (.447) is considered, although slightly less than
.50, as its factor loading is .543 (higher than .40, factor loading significant
for 200 samples, see Table 7.1). Based on existing literature review, music
is an important mall atmospherics.
• In interpreting the significance of factor loadings, the researcher used the
guidelines for identifying significant factor loadings based on sample size.
Since this study sampled 200 respondents, a factor loading of .40 based on
a .05 significance level was considered significant.
• The Varimax method of rotation (a popular orthogonal method) was
employed for easier interpretation.
• The nine (9) factors derived from factor analysis using principal component
analysis showed that all the thirty-seven variables have significantly high
factor loadings. The variables that have factor loading of. 50 or higher are
interpreted as practically significant.

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• For Factor 1 (labelled as Mall Reasonable Prices), Med GS Price (.853),
High GS Price (.842), Med DS Price (.826), Low DS Price (.797), Low GS Price
(.787), and High DS Price (.776), respectively, are interpreted as practically
significant;
• For Factor 2 (labelled as Mall Promotion and Entertainment), Entertain
Live (.774), Entertain Facilities (.756), Promo VM (.720), Promo Ads (.702),
Promo Billboard (.700), Entertain Social (.694),and Promo Sale (.606) are
interpreted as practically significant;
• For Factor 3 (labelled as Mall Atmospherics and Comfort), Atmos Lighting
(.815), Atmos CR Location (.754), Atmos Color (.737), Atmos Escalator
(.709), Atmos Benches (.631), Atmos Music (.543), and Atmos Aircon
(.480), respectively, are interpreted as practically significant (except for
Atmos Aircon, which is below .50; the basis for interpreting it as practically
significant is if the factor loading is .50 or higher);
• For Factor 4 (labelled as Mall Product Variety), Product Variety DS (.818),
Product Assort GS (.795), Product Assort DS (.781), and Product Variety GS
(.772) are interpreted as practically significant;

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

 • For Factor 5 (labelled as Mall Service), Service Guards (.829), Service Clerks
(.784), and Service CAC (.766), respectively, are interpreted as practically
significant;
• For Factor 6 (labelled as Mall Density), Atmos GS Crowded (.817) and Atmos DS
Crowded (.759) are interpreted as practically significant;
• For Factor 7 (labelled as Mall Accessibility to Public Vehicles), Access Publictrans
(.796) and Access Location (.625) are interpreted as practically significant;
• For Factor 8 (labelled as Mall Accessibility to Private Vehicles), Access Near Park
(.728), Access Private Park (.571), and Atmos CR Clean (.416), respectively, are
interpreted as practically significant (except for Atmos CR Clean, which is below
.50;) and ;
• For Factor 9 (labelled as Mall Smell), Atmos Odor (.683) and Atmos Wetmarket
(.617) are interpreted as practically significant.
• Thus, the 9 factors derived from exploratory factor analysis, that accounted for
69.9% of the total cumulative variance, showed that all 37 variables are highly
significant and important.

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 Factor Analysis Validation
• The validation of factor analysis was done internally using split sample
method. The sample was split into two equal groups using SPSS.
• Run the split samples files using SPSS. The results of factor analysis
validation for split 1 and split 2 are compared with the main FA result.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

 Steps in Validating FA using split samples through
SPSS
1. Open the main file (where you use for Factor Analysis) – SPSS file

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

 2. Go to Data menu and click Select Cases

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

 3. On the select cases box, click Random sample of cases. Set the
parameters by clicking Sample…

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4. Select Exactly. On the first box, input the number of desired random
cases to be extracted. On the second box, the total number of cases in
your dataset. In this example, tick Exactly 100 cases (for split 1) from
the first 200 cases. Then click Continue.

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 5. On the Output options, select Copy selected cases to a new dataset.
Enter the desired name of the split sample 1. Then press Ok.

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 6. A new window opens – Malls_Split1. Save the data file for Split 1
(Malls_Split1).

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 7. For the second split sample (Split2), go to Data menu and click Select
Cases. Just change the Dataset name (in this example - Malls_Split2). Click
Ok.
8. A new window opens – Malls_Split2. Save the data file for split 2
(Malls_Split2)

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 Comparison of the Main FA with Split 1 and Split 2
Main FA Split 1 Split 2 FA
n=200 FA n=100 • Based on the validation of
n=100
split samples, the results
are stable within the two
Cumulative % Variance 69.855 73.189 74.135 samples (but do not expect
the data (results) to be
Kaiser-Meyer-Oilkin Measure of .832 .702 .723 very identical; the only way
Sampling Adequacy to have this kind of result is
when the split samples are
Barlett’s Test of Sphericity Approx. 4154.947 253.736 2279.316 taken directly from the
Chi-Square population, which is
d.f 666 666 666
tedious if the population is
large) and therefore, the
Sig. .000 .000 .000 data structure can be
generalized across the
Number of Factors 9 9 10 population.
Number of Significant Variables (factor 37 37 36
loadings >.40)

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH
 Learning Activity 7.1
1. Why it is necessary to have an MSA of .70 or higher? Would you
accept a factor analysis that has an MSA of .50 or less? Why?
2. Try to interpret the factor analysis result using un-rotated facto
loadings; then compare it with result of rotated factor loadings.
Discuss the difference. Which do you prefer? Why?
3. Why should the sample size be greater than 200? What would be
the difficulty if you split the sample size of 100?
4. What is the significant factor loading for the following sample sizes:
a) 175
b) 225

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Case 7– How to interpret Factor
Analysis
Ms. Sonia Baluca, the business teacher of School X, was taken aback
when she saw the factor Analysis output of her student. The student
had surveyed 100 respondents (10% margin of error).She is reviewing it
again and contemplating whether to comment or not on the output as
shown below.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7
 Guide Questions:
1. What is your Interpretation on the factor analysis output?
2. Is it acceptable?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

 Questions for Critical Thinking:
1. Why do we differentiate factor analysis from confirmatory factor
analysis?
2. Could we use factor analysis in conjunction with other multivariate
technique
3. Why do we use pseudo factors in the conceptual framework?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

 Research Activities:
1. Check in your school library and list the thesis that applies factor
analysis as the main multivariate tool for research.
2. Check for 1 journal article found on the internet that uses factor
analysis and discuss briefly the findings of factor analysis.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

 Key Terms
• Confirmatory factor analysis • Rotated factor solution
• Common factor analysis (CFA) • Scree plot
• Barlett’s test of sphericity • Split sample method
• Eigenvalue • Unrotated factor solution
• Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) • Varimax
• Factor analysis
• Factor loading
• Measure of sampling adequacy
• Principal component analysis

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

 End of Chapter 7

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 7

 Business Research with Statistical Applications:
Textbook and Guidebook for Doing and Writing Research
Danilo M. Te, DBA . Divina V. Sabanal, DBM
Jovelyn A. Castro, LPT, DM . Christhoffer P. Lelis, LPT, PhD
Authors
 COPYRIGHT

This is an exclusive and copyrighted property of REX Book Store Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this material shall be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods,
without the prior written consent of REX Book Store Inc.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH
Chapter 8: Multiple Regression Analysis
Lesson Contents

• Definition of Multiple Regression Analysis.

• Application of Multiple Regression Analysis in business research.
• Application of Multiple Regression Analysis using Stepwise method.
• Steps in processing Multiple Regression Analysis (MRA).
• Interpretation of the MRA Output.
• How to apply the moderating variable.
• MRA validation.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:

1. define what is multiple regression analysis;
2. learn how to test normality, collinearity, homoscedasticity, sufficiency of
observation;
3. know how to use SPSS in processing multiple regression analysis and
moderation analysis using dummy variable;
4. know how to interpret and report the output of multiple regression
analysis and moderation analysis; and
5. learn how to validate multiple regression analysis.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 What is Multiple Regression Analysis?
• Multiple Regression Analysis (MRA) is a multivariate tool based on
dependence technique which will explain or predict the relationships
of the independent variables and the dependent variable. The
independent variables are called predictors or explanatory variables
while the dependent variable is called the criterion variable or
explained variable.
• If there is only one independent variable, then this is a simple
regression, while multiple regression is the term used when multiple
independent variables are involved.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 Assumptions
• Because MRA is a parametric technique, it assumes strictly that the data are
normally distributed. To test Normality, the standardized residuals must be tested
using Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests.
• Another important assumption in MRA is Collinearity. It means that the independent
variables should not be highly correlated (a correlation of .80 is considered high). To
test the independent variables for collinearity, its VIF (variance inflation factor)
values should be 5 or less. A value higher than 5 would indicate the presence of
collinearity.
• The MRA assumption of Homoscedasticity should also be observed. The data that
shows a diamond pattern or a triangle pattern (whether to the left or right) indicate
the presence of heterocedasticity (the opposite of homoscedasticity).
• Lastly, the assumption of Sufficiency of Observation must be adhered. Here the
parameters to be measured (all variables) must have sufficient observation (which
equates with the sample size). The ideal ratio is 10 observations per parameter
(variable) estimated.
• However, if any of these assumptions is violated, the researcher should be
transparent and report the violation in the Scope and Limitation of the Study section.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 Steps in processing MRA
• In the SPSS environment click Analyze > Regression > Linear

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

• Enter Variables (Quality Education in the Dependent box, and the Qualified
Faculty, Better School Facilities, Campus Culture, and Classroom Climate in
the Independent box). On the Method button, you can select Enter
(default), Stepwise, Forward or Backward. In this case since the purpose is
to determine the significant independent variables, then choose Stepwise.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

• Then click the Statistics button. Then tick R squared change (Estimates and
Model fit are ticked by default), Descriptives, Part and partial correlations,
Collinearity diagnostics, Durbin-Watson (especially if it is time series), and
Case-wise diagnostics; Then click Continue button

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

• Click Plots button. Move Zresid to Y axis box, Zpred to X axis box. Tick
Histogram, Normal probability plot, and Produce all partial plots.
Then click Continue button.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 • Click Save button. Tick Unstandardized in the Predicted Values; tick
Unstandardized and Standardized in the Residuals. Then click
Continue.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

• Then click Ok. See the MRA output.
• After the MRA results are outputted, measure the normality of data using
Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests through the following steps:
• Analyze >Descriptive >Explore. Move the standardized Residual (found at the last part of the
variable window) to Dependent List
• At the Explore box, click Plots button. Then tick Normality plots with tests; Click Continue
button. Then click OK button

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 MRA Output

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8
WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8
WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8
 Interpretation of MRA
• Multiple regression analysis was applied to test the explanatory and
predictive power of the different independent variables (Qualified Faculty,
Better School Facilities, Campus Culture, and Classroom Climate) to the
dependent variable (Quality Education). Using stepwise method, the
following tests were performed first before the different models were
tested for its predictive and explanatory power: collinearity test, normality
test, homoscedasticity test, and sufficient number of observations. Then
the results of multiple regression analysis (model summary, ANOVA, and
coefficients) were analyzed.
• On collinearity test, the collinearity statistics (see Table 8.9) showed that
there are no VIF values greater than 5 for model 3 that indicate a strong
presence of collinearity. The highest VIF for model 3 is 3.392. Thus, that
there is no multicollinearity issue for model 3.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 • On Normality Test, the Kolmogrov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests on standardized
residuals were performed to determine the null hypothesis that is no normality among
the observed variables. The results showed that the p values of .000 (Kolmogorov-
Smirnov) and .000 (Shapiro-Wilk), respectively, are significant. Since these values are less
than .05, the null hypothesis which corresponds to a normal distribution of the variable is
rejected.
• Also, another observation was done through the normal p-p plot to confirm the
normality concern. The graph showed there is no close fit between the data (dotted
line) and the 45-degree curve, thus confirming the normality concern and the data is not
normally distributed.
• The effect of non- normality is of greater concern if the sample size is less than 200,
where it might be alarming, if not fatal. At 200 or more, it will have a light effect on the
result. According to Hair et al (2014), larger sample sizes reduce the detrimental effect of
non-normality.
• On Homoscedasticity Test, the ZPRED(X) and ZRESID(Y) were measured on the
scatterplot to test the presence of a pattern in a graph. The graph does not show the
presence of a pattern, thus all the relevant variables in model 3 are part of the model.
• On Sufficient Number of Observations, the number of parameters (6) times the number
of observations (10) or 60 is more than sufficient as there are 300 respondents.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 • For the main analysis, the coefficient of determination (R2 ) for the
model 3 is . 612 (see Table 8.6). Its ANOVA (see Table 8.7) has an F
value of 155.598 (p value =.000) for model 3 which means that all the
independent variables used together in this model as a set are
significantly related to the dependent variable.
• The variables account for 61.2% of the variances, which has a good
explanatory power, being close to .80 (where the predictive value is
relevant). Specifically, Qualified Faculty (beta coefficient of .616, t
value of 8.594, p value of .000), Classroom Climate (beta coefficient of
.158, t value of 2.377, p value of .018), and Better School Facilities
(beta coefficient of .132, t value of 2.111, p value of .036) explain the
variances of 61.2%. See Table 8.8 (coefficients).

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 MRA Equation

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 How to apply the moderating variable (dummy
variable)
• Null-hypothesis: Does sex moderate the influence of the independent
variables (qualified faculty, better school facilities, campus culture,
and classroom climate) to the dependent variable (quality education).
• Based on the null-hypothesis, the categorical variable Sex is
transformed first as a dummy variable before it can be processed
using MRA Enter method.

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 Steps in transforming the categorical variable into
a dummy variable
• At the SPSS menu, enter Transform/Recode into different variables

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 • Enter “Sex” variable in Numeric variable>Output variable box
• Type “Female” in Name box
• Type “Is respondent a female?” in Label box
• Press Change button

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 • Press Old and New Values button.
• Type “2” in Old value box
• Type “1” in New value box
• Click Add button
• Type “1” in Old value box; type “0” in New value box; click Add button
• Click Ok button (after you click Continue button) on the new window box.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 • Then go the Variable view of SPSS
a. At the Label column of Female, change value labels: 1 = Yes; 0 = No.
b. Then click Ok.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

Processing Moderating Variable through SPSS
• Open Analyze/Regression/Linear
Regression
• Under hierarchical method (“Enter”
option)
• Enter the dependent variable (Quality
Education) in dependent variable box
• Enter the independent variable
(Qualified Faculty) that is significant and
you want to see the interaction effect of
it to the dependent variable (Quality
Education) when moderated by Sex to
block 1 of 1.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 • Then, click Next button.
• Enter “Is respondent a female?” in independent variable for block 2 of 2.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 • Then proceed with normal Regression operations: Analyze/Regression/Linear Regression.
• After the first significant independent variable (in this case, Qualified Faculty), do the
same with the other significant independent variables (in this case, Better School
Facilities, Campus Climate) to see their interaction effect to the dependent variable,
when moderated by Sex.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

• Based on the result, the moderating
(dummy) variable “Is respondent a
female” (p-value .421) does not have any
moderating effect. If it has a moderating
effect, the variable “Is respondent
female” should be significant (p value is
.05 or lesser).
• Thus, the null hypothesis [Sex
(moderating variable) does not moderate
the effect of the independent variables
(Qualified Faculty, Better School facilities,
and Classroom Climate) to the dependent
variable (Quality Education)] is accepted.

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 MRA Validation
• Based on Split-Samples (see Table 8.16 ), the data were validated for
generalization. The original data was split into 2 samples using SPSS.
• The data for Split Sample 1 and Split Sample 2 when compared with the
data on the Main Sample are not very different. Thus, the data can be
generalized across the population.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 Learning Activity 8.1
1. How do you test the normality of data?
2. How do you know based on the data pattern that there is
heteroscedasticity concern?
3. Based on the coefficient of determination, when can you say that
there is predictive or explanatory power in the MRA model?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 Case 8 – To reduce or not
Juan Gomez, the marketing manager of Mabuhay Corporation, was
reviewing the sales of one of its subsidiaries, Maangat Company, for
the past 20 quarters (5 years). Maangat Company started its
operations 7 years ago. Then, he asked the marketing researcher of the
company, Judith Yap, to do an analysis on the drivers on the company’s
sales which include public relations budget, personal selling budget,
advertising budget, and sales promotion budget. Mr. Gomes would like
to know which of these drivers contributed most to sales. He also
wanted to reduce the budget for public relations, personal selling, and
advertising as the product is already known to its target market and has
enough loyal customers.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 As the researcher of the company, Ms. Yap secured the 20-quarter
data as shown below: In (000)

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 Then she conducted an MRA analysis on the factors she considers as
drivers. Using MRA enter method, she ran the 20 year-data using SPSS
with Sales (Revenues generated) as dependent variable and Public
Relations budget, Personal Selling budget, Advertising budget, and
Sales Promotion budget as independent variables. She will prepare the
report to Mr. Gomes in a week’s time
Guide Questions:
1. If you were Judith Yap, how would analyze the request of Mr. Gomez using
MRA stepwise method?
2. Would you recommend reducing the following budgets: public relations,
personal selling, and advertising?
3. What else would you recommend to Mr. Gomez?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 Questions for Critical Thinking
1. If the normality tests show normality concern, would you as
researcher abandon your study?
2. How would you divulge it to the readers in the manuscript that there
is normality concern in your data?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 Research Activities
1. Check in your school library and list the thesis that applies multiple
regression analysis as the main multivariate tool for research.
2. Check for 1 journal article found on the internet that uses multiple
regression analysis and discuss briefly the findings of MRA.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 Key Terms
• ANOVA • Mesokurtic
• Coefficient of determination • Moderating variable
• Collineaity • Normality
• Dependent variable • Platikurtic
• Dummy variable • R square
• Heterocedasticity • Shapiro-Wilk test
• Homoscedasticity • Simple regression
• Independent variable • Skewness
• Kolmogorov-Smirnov test • Variance inflation factor (VIF)
• Kurtosis
• Leptokurtic

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 End of Chapter 8

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 8

 Business Research with Statistical Applications:
Textbook and Guidebook for Doing and Writing Research
Danilo M. Te, DBA . Divina V. Sabanal, DBM
Jovelyn A. Castro, LPT, DM . Christhoffer P. Lelis, LPT, PhD
Authors
 COPYRIGHT

This is an exclusive and copyrighted property of REX Book Store Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this material shall be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods,
without the prior written consent of REX Book Store Inc.

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Chapter 9: Conclusions and Recommendations
Formulation
Lesson Contents

• How to formulate conclusions.

• Sample conclusions.
• How to formulate recommendations.
• Sample recommendations

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:

1. formulate conclusions; and
2. formulate recommendations.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9

 Conclusions and Recommendations
• Depending on the institutional format, the final chapter of the research
output may start with the summary of findings. This will guide the panel
and readers on the consistency of findings and conclusions.
• The summary of findings should be presented according to the sequence of
the research problems. The findings should include all numerical figures,
statistical explanations, but the conclusion should be expressed in
descriptive terms.
• The findings must be anchored on the results of the survey/interview.
Never make any conclusion based on your own feelings, interpretations or
assumptions.
• All the problems presented in Chapter 1 must all be answered in this
chapter. Just take note of the sequence of the problems, the same will be
presented/answered accordingly.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9

 Formulating Conclusions
• The study must come to a conclusion. The conclusion of the study is
based on the generalization of the findings for each problem. It does
not have to include anymore the specific statistical finding as it is
covered extensively by the finding itself. For example:
• Sub-problems:
• Do the students value the following variables/factors: quality
education, qualified faculty. Better school facilities, campus culture,
and classroom climate?
• How do the students view the tuition and miscellaneous fees relative
to the school factors/attributes?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9

 Sample Conclusions
• Based on the findings of the study, the researcher concludes the following:
1. The students value what are comfortable, reliable, and sociable for them.
As manifested in the factors valued, the HEIs should note that students
consider campus and classroom comfort, reliable technology, and campus
social and cultural interaction as a come on for them to value the other
school variables like quality education, faculty involvement, big campus
buildings, and faculty qualification. Thus, before the other factors are
appreciated, the HEIs must be perceived to be a comfortable, reliable,
sociable place to study and stay.
2. The tuition and miscellaneous fees are perceived to be reasonable relative
to the school attributes that the majority of students in 10 HEIs experienced
and enjoyed.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9

 Formulating Recommendations
• Regardless of the nature of academic or applied business research, it ends
with recommendation. Recommendation will cover gaps that may be
explored in future researches, or action-oriented recommendations based
on the findings that can be used by those institutions and individuals stated
in the significance of the study.
• Never recommend a certain theory or concept, instead recommend an
idea, strategy, or program that is action-oriented and can easily be
understood by readers.
• The researcher may include discussion of new articles or RRL that are
related to his/her recommendation. It will be a reference that readers and
decision-makers can refer to in case they would like to develop the strategy
or program.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9

 Formulating Recommendations
• Any gap found in the findings must be addressed through the
recommendation section.
• Any other study that has not been done but related to the present
study can be recommended for further study in the recommendation
section.
• Any other research method related to the study can be
recommended for further study (e.g from qualitative method to
quantitative method or other statistical method).

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9

 Sample Recommendations
• Based on the findings and conclusions, the researcher recommends
the following:
1. The HEis should continue to improve on their educational strategies
in order to be favorably perceived by the stakeholders (students,
parents, alumni, and general public).
2. The HEIs must communicate any improvement/s through their active
advertisement and regular recruitment activities. The communication
strategy must avail of several media (social media, TV, print, and
website) and personal selling (feeder school recruitment) to sustain a
positive image. However, the HEIs must strive to develop its unique
offering and make it the basis for differentiation.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9

 Sample Recommendations
3. The HEIs should have a marketing services department that will be
responsible for promotions, feeder school relations, and public
relations using the concept of integrated marketing communications.
4. Any tuition and miscellaneous fees increase should be justified with
improvements in education, teacher qualification, and better school
facilities.
• For further study:
5. There should be another positioning study for basic education
institutions (BEIs), that is for grade schools and junior high schools in
Davao City.
WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9
 Learning Activity 9.1
• What can you conclude from the demographic data presented as
follows: Frequency Percent
Gender
Male 119 42.5
Female 158 56.4
Missing 3 1.1
Total 277 100.0
Age range
18–21 years old 163 58.2
22–25 years old 71 25.4
26–30 years old 34 12.1
31–34 years old 12 4.3
Total 100.0
Marital status
Single 266 95.0
Married 13 4.6
Widow/widower 1 .4
Total 280 100.0

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9

 Case 9 – Time to conclude and recommend
• Marie and her group came up with following problem statements:
1. What is the demographic profile of the clients in terms of age, sex,
type of membership, civil status, and employment status?
2. What is the respondent’s level of client satisfaction to Company ABC

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9

 Case 9 – Time to conclude and recommend
• As to the presentation, interpretation, and analysis of data, the following
results were obtained:
1. Sex: male: 70; female 30
2. Civil status: single: 60; married: 40
3. Age: 18–21 years old: 23; 22–59 years old: 71; 69 years old and above: 6
4. Employment status: employed : 78; unemployed: 22
5. Membership: 0–2 months: 26; 3–11 months: 39; 1 year and above: 35
6. Level of client satisfaction to Company ABC (see next slide)

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9

 Case 9 – Time to conclude and recommend
Statement Mean Description Interpretation
1. The company provides 4.50 Strongly Agree The respondents manifested that
excellent customer services. Company ABC’s quality of service is
very high as they strongly agreed to
the statements provided.
2. The company provides 4.42 Strongly Agree The respondents manifested that
special offers to its clients Company ABC’s quality of service is
such as promotions and very high as they strongly agreed to
discounts. the statements provided.
3. The fitness center’s hours 4.52 Strongly Agree The respondents manifested that
of operations are convenient Company ABC’s quality of service is
for the clients. very high as they strongly agreed to
the statements provided.
4. The company provides a 4.55 Strongly Agree The respondents manifested that
lot of amenities and Company ABC’s quality of service is
equipment for a price that is very high as they strongly agreed to
affordable and truly satisfies the statements provided.
customers’ need.
OVERALL MEAN 4.50 Strongly Agree The respondents manifested that
Company ABC’s quality of service is
very high as they strongly agreed to
the statements provided.

Guide questions:
1. Based on the results obtained, how will Marie formulate their paper’s Conclusion?
2. What are the things that she and her group could possibly recommend?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9

 Questions for critical thinking
1. Why should the research study be concluded?
2. How do you detect the gaps in the findings?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9

 Research Activity
1. Find a journal article that does not have recommendations. Why do
you think was it omitted?

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9

 Key Terms
• Conclusions
• For further study
• Gap
• Summary of findings
• Recommendations

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9

 End of Chapter 9

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 9

 Business Research with Statistical Applications:
Textbook and Guidebook for Doing and Writing Research
Danilo M. Te, DBA . Divina V. Sabanal, DBM
Jovelyn A. Castro, LPT, DM . Christhoffer P. Lelis, LPT, PhD
Authors
 COPYRIGHT

This is an exclusive and copyrighted property of REX Book Store Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this material shall be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods,
without the prior written consent of REX Book Store Inc.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH
Chapter 10: Manuscript Fine-Tuning and Formatting;
Other Research Forms
 Lesson Contents
• How to design an Encoding Template using Excel.
• Steps in designing an encoding template using Excel.
• How to fine tune your manuscript.
• Steps in page break formatting (numerals).
• Formatting the page orientation.
• Masking the page number. Steps in masking the page number.
• Splitting the manuscript for editing.
• Steps in splitting the manuscript.
• Replacing or changing the term and have a global effect.
• Counting on the total number of words.
• PowerPoint presentation during proposal or final defense.
• Sample abstract.
• Sample syllabus.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:

design an encoding template using Excel;
1. fine-tune the manuscript – through page break, split, and masking;
2. create a PowerPoint for proposal or final presentation;
3. produce the forms – validation from, defense evaluation form, and
matrix of compliance form; and
4. develop the abstract of the study.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

 How to design an encoding template using
Excel

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

 Steps in Designing an Encoding Template
using Excel
• Open a new Excel file.
• Adjust the height (by
dragging the intersection line
downward) and the column
(by reducing the cell size by
dragging it inward through
the intersection line) to
accommodate the
descriptors and to maximize
the space to accommodate
more data.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

 • After dragging
several columns into
the desired column
size, click the icon
with a triangle shape
(green color), and
the rest of the
columns will resize
based on the size
you intend.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

 • Enter the label in
column 1 (e.g.
Respondent ID). Then
go to orientation icon
(ab with arrow
pointed upward
diagonally). The icon
is found in the
alignment cluster

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

 • Click the Angle counterclockwise (it rotates the text diagonally)

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

• Click the Border (in the font cluster), then select All Borders. Your text
is now diagonally framed. Do the same with the next cells.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

 • You will notice that as you create more diagonally framed cells with
label, it will automatically create the shape you want when you add
more cells with label.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

• Once the data are gathered and the researcher or encoder is ready to
encode, set the mode to Freeze Panes.
• Click the cell intersecting Respondent ID no. 1 and Gender (in this case)
• Go to Excel Menu – View > Freeze Panes > Freeze Panes
• When you scroll vertically and horizontally, the label and the respondent number
stay as guide during encoding. After fully encoding the data, click Unfreeze Panes
(same process in going for it)

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

 How to Fine-Tune Your Manuscript
• Combining Roman and Arabic Numerals in one file
• The research manuscript has two numerals: Roman and Arabic. The
two numerals cannot be combined in one file if the manuscript is not
formatted using Page Break.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

 Steps in Page Break Formatting (numerals)
• Open the manuscript (Word file). On the first page (title page), go
down to the lower part (before the next page) and on the Word menu
click Page Layout > Breaks > Next Page
• Before the start of chapter 1 page (last part of the page before it), do
the same Page Break.
• To enter the Roman numeral at the Title page, go to Word menu –
Insert > Page Number (under Header & Footer cluster) > Number
format (choose Roman numerals sample). Decide where the number
is placed – top or bottom, then click Top page or Bottom Page.
Decide also how the number is positioned (left, middle, right). Check
what is the school or teacher preference for pagination.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

 • To enter Arabic numeral at the start of chapter 1, go to Word menu – –
Insert > Page Number (under Header & Footer cluster) > Number format
(choose Arabic numerals sample). Decide where the number is placed – top
or bottom, then click Top page or Bottom Page. Decide also how the
number is positioned (left, middle, right). Check what is the school or
teacher preference for pagination.
• If you also include Page Orientation formatting (from portrait to landscape
and back to portrait), the serial number may be affected at the page where
for apply page orientation. The page number must be adjusted to reflect
the actual page number after page orientation formatting: Page Number >
Format Page Number, then change the number at ‘Start at’. Continue this
at the end of the formatted page to reflect the right serial number.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

 Formatting the Page Orientation
• Steps in Page Break formatting (page orientation):
• Open the manuscript (Word file). At the lower part of the page where you
want to effect the change on the next page: click Page Layout > Breaks > Next
Page. Click Orientation > Landscape.
• Then to go back to the portrait page orientation, click at the lower part of the
page where to want the effect to the change on the next page: click Page
Layout > Breaks > Next Page. Click Orientation > Portrait.
• Note: page orientation change is important especially if the table you want to
be inserted is big enough for the vertical page (portrait); it has to be
converted to horizontal page (landscape).

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

 Masking the Page Number
• Basic business research is a bit peculiar. It wants the title page number
and the beginning of each chapter’s number to be hidden (not seen).
Technically, the serial number is still there. It is just hidden by masking or
covering the number with a white color and removing any line
superimposing it.
• Steps in Masking the Page Number of selected pages:
• On the page where you want to mask, go to Word menu: click Insert > Shapes.
Pick any shape (round, oval, or square).
• Place or cover the number with the shape.
• Click the shape and then right click it; at the Fill, choose white color; at the
Outline, choose no outline.
• The number afterwards is masked.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

 Splitting the Manuscript for Editing
• When one is doing the editing and
some formatting, it is good to split
the manuscript into 2 parts. For
example, one part is used as
reference, the other part (the
lower part) is used to scroll on the
pages. This is important if one is
doing a manual table of contents.
Through this you can easily place
the number. Sample of split
manuscript:
• Steps in Splitting the Manuscript
• Open the manuscript (Word file). On
the Word menu: go to View > Split.
• Once done editing or formatting, go
to View > Remove Split

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

Replacing or Changing the term and have a global effect
(change the term used throughout the manuscript)
• Sometimes, a term has to be replaced or changed. So, instead of going
throughout the manuscript for the term and replace them all, just do this:
• In the Home menu, go to Replace. In “Find what”, type the word or term; in “Replace
with”, type the word or term you want to replace.
• See the global effect of it throughout the manuscript

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

Counting on the total number of words (applicable if you want
to estimate the total number of words in your abstract)

• Highlight the texts (words) you want to count.

• Go to Word menu: click Review > Word Count

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

 PowerPoint Presentation during Proposal or Final
Defense
• As much as possible limit the number of slides of your PowerPoint
presentation as the time allocated for it is around 30-45 minutes. Do
not go for more than 40 slides.
• For easy viewing, do not compress the topics into just one slide.;
spread the topics to other slides.
• The font size should not be less than 24.
• Do not include animation (text or slide) or video in your presentation
as it would consume more time and reduce the time you are allowed
to present your paper.

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

Some Business Research Forms
• Defense Evaluation Sheet

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

• Validation Sheet

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

• Matrix of Compliance Form
(to be filled up by the
student after the defense
as a guide in complying
with the revision based on
the minutes of the
defense; the panel
members use this as a
guide in checking whether
the revision is complied
with; if it is complied, the
panel member affixes his
or her signature as proof of
approval)

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10
WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10
WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10
WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10
 Key Terms
• Encoding template
• Defense evaluation sheet
• Matrix of compliance sheet
• Validation sheet

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10

 End of Chapter 10

WWW.REXBOOKSTORE.PH LESSON / CHAPTER 10