FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES

UNIT - I
Fluid statics: Dimensions and units: physical properties of fluids- specific gravity, viscosity, and
surface tension - vapour pressure and their influence on fluid motion- atmospheric, gauge and
vacuum pressures – measurement of pressure- Piezometer, U-tube and differential
manometers.
UNIT - II
Fluid kinematics: Stream line, path line and streak lines and stream tube, classification of
flows-steady & unsteady, uniform & non-uniform, laminar & turbulent, rotational & irrational
flows-equation of continuity for one dimensional flow and three-dimensional flows.

Fluid dynamics: Surface and body forces –Euler’s and Bernoulli’s equations for flow along a
stream line, momentum equation and its application on force on pipe bend.

UNIT - III
Boundary Layer Concepts: Definition, thicknesses, characteristics along thin plate, laminar
and turbulent boundary layers (No derivation) boundary layer in transition, separation of
boundary layer, submerged objects – drag and lift.
Closed conduit flow: Reynold’s experiment- Darcy Weisbach equation- Minor losses in pipes-
pipes in series and pipes in parallel- total energy line-hydraulic gradient line. Measurement of
flow: Pitot tube, venturi meter, and orifice meter, Flow nozzle .
UNIT - IV
Basics of turbo machinery: Hydrodynamic force of jets on stationary and moving flat,
inclined, and curved vanes, jet striking centrally and at tip, velocity diagrams, work
done and efficiency, flow over radial vanes.

Hydraulic Turbines: Classification of turbines, Heads and efficiencies, impulse and

reaction turbines, Pelton wheel, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine-working
proportions, work done, efficiencies, hydraulic design –draft tube theory- functions and
efficiency.
Performance of hydraulic turbines: Geometric similarity, Unit and specific quantities,
characteristic curves, governing of turbines, selection of type of turbine, cavitation,
surge tank, water hammer.

UNIT - V
Centrifugal pumps: Classification, working, work done – barometric head- losses and
efficiencies specific speed- performance characteristic curves, NPSH. Reciprocating
pumps: Working, Discharge, slip, indicator diagrams.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Hydraulics, Fluid mechanics and Hydraulic Machinery - MODI and SETH.

2. Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines by Rajput.

REFERENCES:

1. Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power Engineering by D.S. Kumar, Kotaria & Sons.

2. Fluid Mechanics and Machinery by D. Rama Durgaiah, New Age International.

3.Hydraulic Machines by Banga & Sharma, Khanna Publishers.

 MATTER
SOILD LIQUID GAS
 Force of attraction between  Force of attraction between the  Force of attraction between the
the molecules (cohesive molecules (cohesive forces) is small. molecules (cohesive forces) is
forces) is very large. very small.
 therefore in the liquid mass ,the
 It posses a rigid and molecules will be in the motion so  The gas molecules are in
compact shape. that they don’t have fixed shape but continuous random motion and
occupies the shape of the container it occupies the total volume of
 it has a definite volume. in which it is contained. the container in which it is filled.

 Difficult to compress.  it has free surface.  It is highly compressible.

 it has fixed volume.

 It is almost incompressible like solids.

Fluids:
Any substance in which molecules
are in relative motion and are in relative
flow known as Fluids.
(OR)
It is defined as a substance that
deforms continuously when acted upon by
shearing force, no matter how small it’s
magnitude.
NOTE:
NORMAL
STRESS

SHEAR STRESS
 A shearing stress is created whenever a tangential force acts on a surface as shown
by the figure.

 When common solids such as steel or other metals are acted on by a shearing stress,
they will initially deform (usually a very small deformation) but they will not
continuously deform (flow).

 But if we apply shear force of any magnitude to fluid(say water) containing in

container will flow continuously.

Deforms continuously due to

shear/ tangential force
Apply tangential
/shear force
on top surface
of water
 FLUID STATIC:
e.g. Water thrust force on the concrete wall of dam, pressure forces on the overhead tank and ship design
(buoyancy).

FLUID Kinematics:
e.g.
Estimation of dis[placement(x),
velocity(v),acceleration Fig : fluid flowing through pipe
(a),volumetric flow rate(v)
(Q),mass flow rate.

FLUID DYNAMIC:
e.g. Flow through a turbine, a pump, flow
measuring devices like venturimeter,orifice
meter, pitot tube, current meter, rotor meter.
Fig: fluid flowing through turbine
IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS:

 Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.

 The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units.

 In the English system ,units for mass, length

and time are the pound-mass (lbm), foot (ft), Variants of the metric system
and second (s) respectively .
Quantity SI/MKS CGS
 The pound symbol lb is actually the Length(l) metre (m) centimetre (cm)
abbreviation of libra,
mass (m) kilogram (kg) gram (g)
 1 lbm = 0.45359kg and 1 ft = 0.3048 m time (t) second (s) second
Procedure for unit conversion:
UNDERSTANDING MASS,WEIGHT and FORCE:
MASS (m): WEIGHT (w):
 The measure of the quantity of matter that a
body or an object contains.  Unlike mass, weight W is a force. It is the gravitational force
applied to a body, and its magnitude is determined from an
 The mass of the body is not dependent on equation based on Newton’s second law,
gravity. Hence it remains the same regardless
of its location in the universe.  weight changes with a change in gravitational acceleration.

 A body weighs less on top of a mountain since “g’

Units: Kg(kilogram) decreases (by a small amount) with altitude.

 On the surface of the moon, an astronaut weighs about

one-sixth of what she or he normally weighs on earth i.e.
FORCE (F): g(Earth)= 9.8 m/s2 and g(Moon)= 9.8 m/s
 In SI, the force unit is the newton (N), and it 6
is defined as the force required to accelerate
a mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2 . W =mg (N)

 Force = (Mass) (Acceleration) Or  where m is the mass of the body, and g is the local
F = ma gravitational acceleration (g is 9.807 m/s2.
Units: N(Newtons)
 Units :N (Newtons)
Another force unit in common use in many European
countries is the kilogram-force (kgf), which is the weight of
1 kg mass at sea level (1 kgf = 9.807 N).

1 N = 1kg·m/s2 1 kgf = 9.807 N

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
1.Density (or) Mass Density:
It is the certain quantity of matter occupied
in unit volume.

= mass of the fluid

Volume of the fluid

 It is Denoted by a symbol ‘ρ ‘ (‘rho’ Greek letter).

Units: kg/m3
NOTE:
2. Specific Volume(v) :
The reciprocal of density is the specific volume v, which is defined as volume per unit mass.
That is,
v =V/m =1/ ρ
Units: m3 /kg

3.Specific Weight (or) Weight Density (or) unit weight :

 The weight per unit volume of a substance is called the specific weight.
 It is Denoted by a symbol ‘W ‘ (or) γ (‘Gamma’ Greek letter).

Units: N/m3
4. Specific Gravity (or) Relative Density { S (or) S.G } :
The ratio of the weight density (or) density of a fluid to the weight density (or) density
of standard a fluid .For liquid , the standard fluid is taken water and for gases, the
standard fluid is taken air.

Units: No units
PROBLEMS:
5.VISCOSITY (μ):
In simple words, it is
Resistance to flow
(or)
Internal friction acting between layers of
fluids.

(or)
 It is the property of fluid which offers resistance to the
movement of one layer of fluid over another layer of the
fluid .
(OR)
 It is the property of the fluid by virtue of (due to) which it
opposes fluid particles.
 Understanding Viscosity

Solid body i.e. steel

Fig: 1

Fig: 2
 Rate of shear strain (or) Rate of angular deformation.

(or)

Velocity gradient
(or)
Rate of change of velocity w.r.t fluid film thickness.

Therefore,

Where,
μ = constant of proportionality and is known as
co-efficient of dynamic viscosity
(or )
viscosity
(or)
dynamic viscosity
(or)
absolute viscosity.
Water between two plates
 To obtain a relation for viscosity,

 consider a fluid layer between two very large parallel

plates separated by a distance in water as shown in Figure.

 Now a constant parallel force F is applied to the upper plate

while the lower plate is held fixed.

 After the initial transients, it is observed that the upper plate

moves continuously under the influence of this force at a constant speed ; ‘V’.

 The fluid in contact with the upper plate sticks to the plate surface and moves with it at the same speed, and the shear stress
acting on this fluid layer is 𝜏 = F /A.

 where A is the contact area between the plate and the fluid. Note that the fluid layer deforms continuously under the
influence of shear stress.

 The fluid in contact with the lower plate assumes the velocity of that plate, which is zero. In steady laminar flow, the fluid
velocity between the plates varies linearly between 0 and V, and thus the velocity profile and the velocity gradient are u(y) =y
/l V and du /dy = V /l, where y is the vertical distance from the lower plate.

 During a differential time interval dt, the sides of fluid particles along a vertical line MN rotate through a differential angle dβ
while the upper plate moves a differential distance da = V dt.

 The angular displacement or deformation (or shear strain) can be expressed as dβ = tan dβ = da/l = V dt = (du/ dy) dt

 Rearranging, the rate of deformation under the influence of shear stress becomes (dβ /dt ) = (du/dy ).

 Thus we conclude that the rate of deformation of a fluid element is equivalent to the velocity gradient du/dy. Further, it can
be verified experimentally that for most fluids the rate of deformation (and thus the velocity gradient) is directly proportional
to the shear stress
Thus viscosity may also be defined as the shear stress
required to produce unit rate of shear strain.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON VISCOSITY:
 In liquids viscosity decreases with increase of temperature and it is
due to inter-molecular cohesion.

 In gases viscosity increases with increase of temperature .In gases the

inter-molecular cohesion is negligible and the shear stress is due to
exchange of momentum(mass*velocity) of the molecules normal to
the direction of motion.
 Types of Fluid

1. Ideal Fluid 2.Real Fluid

(or) . Posses viscosity
Theoretical Fluid
(or)
Super Fluid

 Zero viscosity
 No shear stress required to move
 Velocity gradient not exist
 Incompressibility

Newtonian fluid Non- Newtonian fluid Ideal Plastic fluid

Bingham plastic
Dilatents Pseudo-plastics Thixotropic fluid
Types of Fluids:

Fig: Variation of shear stress with velocity gradient

 The general relation between shear stress and velocity gradient of a fluid can be written as.

 where A, B and n are constants that depend upon the type of fluid and conditions imposed on the flow.

 (i) an ideal fluid, (ii) a Newtonian fluid and (iii) A non-Newtonian fluid.

1.For ideal fluid ,A=0 and B=0 Therefore , =0

2. For Newtonian fluid, n=1 , A=μ and B=0 Therefore , Air, water, kerosene etc.

3. If n > 1 and B = 0 ....... Dilatant fluids. Examples: Sugar solution, aqueous suspension and printing ink.

4. If n < 1 and B = 0 ……… Pseudo plastic fluids. Examples : Blood, milk, liquid cement and clay.

5. If n = 1 ,A=μ and B = yield ….... Bingham fluid. Examples: Sewage sludge, water
suspension of clay and fly-ash, etc.

6. If n < 1 ,A=μ and B = yield……….. Thixotropic fluid. Example: Nail polish

 7.SURFACE TENSION (σ or σs ):

a drop of blood forms a hump(a large, a drop of mercury forms a near-

round raised area or part) on a horizontal perfect sphere water dripping from a leaky
glass. faucet falls as nearly spherical
droplets.

a soap bubble released into the air forms a

nearly spherical shape
water droplets from rain or dew hang from branches or leaves of
trees and a liquid fuel injected into an engine forms a mist (a
cloud of tiny water droplets) of spherical droplets.
From above figures and other observances, liquid
droplets behave like small balloons filled with the
liquid, and the surface of the liquid acts like a
stretched elastic membrane (a layer of cells acting as
a boundary) under tension.
Understanding phenomenon of surface tension:
 Consider, Molecule A & B is attracted to all the
neighboring molecules of the liquid. Thus, the net force
on molecule A & B is zero.

 Now the molecules present at the free surface of the

liquid like molecule ‘c’, experience a net downward force
due to which they exhibit strong force with the
neighboring molecules on the surface.

 Due to the unbalanced force, the free surface behaves

like a thin film under tension.

 The pulling force that causes this tension acts parallel to

the surface and is due to the attractive forces between
the molecules of the liquid.

 The magnitude of this force per unit length is called

surface tension (or) coefficient of surface tension, ‘σs ‘
(sigma, Greek letter).

 This effect is also called surface energy (per unit area)

and is expressed in the equivalent :

Units: N/m (or) (lbf/ft in English

units) or N.m /m2 or J/m2.
Po

Pi
surface tension on liquid droplet or air bubble:
surface tension on soap or hallow bubble:
surface tension on liquid jet:
CAPILARITY:
 It is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid surface in a small-diameter tube(i.e. capillary) relative to the
adjacent general level of liquid when it inserted vertically into the liquid.

 Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels are called capillaries.

 The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while

the fall of the liquid surface is known as capillary depression.

 It is expressed in terms of cm (or) mm of liquid .

 It is depends on the specific weight of liquid ,diameter of the

tube and surface tension of the liquid.

 The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary tube is

called the meniscus.

EXAMPLE:
 The rise of kerosene through a cotton
wick inserted into the reservoir of a
kerosene lamp is due to this effect.

 The capillary effect is also partially

responsible for the rise of
water to the top of tall trees.
The magnitude of the capillary rise in a circular tube :
The magnitude of the capillary fall in a circular tube :
NOTE:
CAVITATION:
PRESSURE OF A LIQUID :
 Like solids, fluids also have weight and therefore exert pressure.

 When filled in a container, the pressure of the fluid is exerted in all directions and at all points of the fluid.

 Since the molecules of a fluid are in constant, rapid motion, particles are likely to move equally in any
direction.

 Therefore the pressure exerted by the fluid acts on an object from all directions.

 Therefore , intensity of pressure, P =F/A

If , F = The total force or pressure force exerted by fluid , and A = Area over which
the force is exerted ;

 The pressure of a fluid on a surface will always act normal to the surface.

Units : N/m2 and 1 pascal ( Pa )= 1 N/m2.

Fig: Pressure exerted by liquid Fig: Pressure exerted by gas

on wall of the container on wall of the container
PRESSURE HEAD OF A LIQUID:
 Consider a vessel containing liquid, as shown in figure.

 The liquid will exert pressure on all sides and bottom of the vessel.

 Now cylinder be made to stand in the liquid,

as shown in figure.

 Let, h = Height of the liquid in the cylinder,

A = Area of the cylinder base,
γ = Specific weight of the liquid, and
p = Intensity of pressure.

Now ,
Thrust force on the base of the cylinder = Weight of the liquid in the cylinder

i.e. P*A = m * g
P*A = ρ *V *g (Mass, m = ρ V)
P*A = ρ *A*h*g (Specific weight = γ = ρ*g)

Therefore ,P= γ h
where, w= Specific weight of the liquid and h is known as pressure head or static head

NOTE: The intensity of pressure in a liquid due to its depth will vary directly with depth and
does not depends on shape of the container.
Problem :
Find the pressure at a depth of 15 m below the free surface of water in a reservoir.

Solution. Given data

Depth of water, h = 15 m Specific weight of water, w = 9.81 kN/m3 Pressure p:

We know that,
p = γ h = 9.81 × 15 = 147.15 kN/m2 i.e., p = 147.15 kN/m2 = 147.15 kPa .

Problem:
Find the height of water column corresponding to a pressure of 54 kN/m2 .

Solution. Given data

Intensity of pressure, p = 54 kN/m2
Specific weight of water, w = 9.81 kN/m3
Height of water column, h

Using the relation: p = γ h;

Therefore,h = p γ = 54 9.81 = 5.5 m

 PASCAL’s LAW: The intensity of pressure at any point in a liquid at rest, is
the same in all directions.
 Consider small wedge shaped element LMN of liquid has thickness 1 unit as shown in figure.

 θ = Angle of the element of the liquid.

 As the element of the liquid is at rest, therefore the sum of horizontal and vertical components of the liquid
pressures must be equal to zero.

Resolving the forces horizontally:

Px (AB*AC) – Pz cos θ (AE*AC) =0
Px (AB*1) – Pz cos θ (AE*1) =0 ----------1

From triangle ,BAE cos θ=AB/AE AB= cos θ*AE

Substitute in equation 1
Px (AB*1) – Pz cos θ (AE*1)=0
Px (AB*1) – Pz * AB=0
Px =Pz

Resolving the forces vertically:

Py (BE*EF) - Pz sin θ(AE*EF)=0
Py (BE*1) - Pz sin θ(AE*1)=0 ---------2

From triangle ,BAE sin θ=BE/AE BE= sin θ*AE

Substitute in equation 2
Py (BE*1) - Pz sin θ(AE*1)=0
Py (BE) – Pz(BE)=0
Py = Pz
Therefore , Px = Py =Pz
ABSOLUTE AND GAUGE PRESSURES :

 Atmospheric pressure: The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all surfaces with which it is in contact, and it is
known as atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure is also known as ‘Barometric pressure’. The atmospheric
pressure at sea level (above absolute zero) is called ‘Standard atmospheric pressure’.

 Gauge pressure: It is the pressure, measured with the help of pressure measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric
pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.

 Gauges record pressure above or below the local atmospheric pressure, since they measure the difference in pressure of
the liquid to which they are connected and that of surrounding air.

 If the pressure of the liquid is below the local atmospheric pressure, then the gauge is designated as ‘vacuum gauge’ and
the recorded value indicates the amount by which the pressure of the liquid is below local atmospheric pressure, i.e.
negative pressure.

 Vacuum pressure is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.

 Absolute pressure: It is necessary to establish an absolute

pressure scale which is independent of the changes in
atmospheric pressure. A pressure of absolute zero can
exist only in complete vacuum. Any pressure measured
above the absolute zero of pressure is termed as an ‘absolute
pressure’.

 A schematic diagram showing the gauge pressure,

vacuum pressure and the absolute pressure is given in Figure.
Mathematically:
1. Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
i.e., pabs = patm + pgauge
2. Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure – absolute pressure

Units for pressure:

 The fundamental S.I. unit of pressure is newton per square metre (N/m2 ).

 This is also known as Pascal i.e. 1N/m2 = 1Pascal

 Low pressures are often expressed in terms of mm of water or mm of mercury.

 This is an abbreviated way of saying that the pressure is such that will support a liquid column of
stated height.

NOTE:
 When the local atmospheric pressure is not given in a problem, it is taken as 100 kN/m2
or 10 m of water for simplicity of calculations.
 Standard atmospheric pressure has the following equivalent values:
101.3 kN/m2 or 101.3 kPa; 10.3 m of water; 760 mm of mercury; 1013 mb (millibar) = 1 bar =100kPa
= 105 N/m2
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES:

1.Barometer (Used for measuring Atmospheric pressure or barometric

pressure) ----------Not in syllabus

2.Manometer (Used for measuring small and moderate pressure

differences)
a)Simple Manometer and b) Differential Manometer

3.Mechanical gauges---------- Not in syllabus

1. The Barometer (used for measuring atmospheric pressure):

 Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the atmospheric

pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
 the atmospheric pressure can be measured by inverting a mercury-filled tube into a mercury
container that is open to the atmosphere, as shown in Figure.

 The pressure at point B is equal to the atmospheric pressure, and the pressure at point C can be
taken to be zero since there is only mercury vapor above point C and the pressure is very low
relative to Patm and can be neglected to an excellent approximation.

 Writing a force balance in the vertical direction gives ,P*A = ρghA

Patm =ρgh
 A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere,
which is defined as the pressure produced by a column of
mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C (ρHg =13,595 kg/m3)
under standard gravitational acceleration (g =9.807 m/s2).

 If water instead of mercury were used to measure the

standard atmospheric pressure, a water column of about
10.3 m would be needed.
2.Manometer (Used for measuring small and moderate pressure differences)

These are used to measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing

the column of the fluid by the same or another column of the fluid .They
are classified as

a) Simple Manometer b) Differential Manometer

i. Piezometer i.U-Tube differential manometer

i. i. U-tube Manometer ii. Inverted .U-Tube differential

manometer

iii. Single column manometer

a) Vertical single column manometer
b) Inclined single column manometer
Simple Manometer:
It consists of a glass or plastic tube having one of its ends
connected to a point where pressure is to be measured and other
end remains open to atmosphere.

i.Piezometer Used for measuring gauge pressures i.e. Positive and negative):
 One end of the thus manometer is connected to the
point where pressure is to be measured and other end
is open to the atmosphere as shown in figure.

 The rise of liquid gives the pressure head at that point.

 If at a point ‘A’, the height of the liquid say water is ‘h’

in piezometer tube ,Then pressure at ‘A’

PA = ρgh (N/m2)
U-tube manometer:
 it consist of glass/plastic tube bent in U-shape ,one end of the which is connected to a point at which pressure is be
measured and other end remains open to the atmosphere as shown in figure.

 The tube contains generally one or more mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.

 To keep the size of the manometer to a manageable level, heavy fluids such as mercury are used if large pressure
differences are anticipated.
U-tube differential manometer:
Inverted U-tube differential manometer: