HIPDET UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION, USA

COURSE MANUAL

COURSE TITTLE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Lecture Notes
First Semester,
2020-2021 Academic Year

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 A. COURSE OVERVIEW AND OUTLINE

1. Course Description:
Research Methodology is a hands‐on course designed to impart education in the foundational methods and
techniques of academic research in social sciences and business management context. Intellectual and
methodological debates will be discussed in order to assist students to develop informed opinions and a
critical appreciation for other's research. The imperative for ethical research practice will be presented. The
course equips students with the skills to review and conduct methodologically sound research as a part of
their professional work. Students develop the skills to recognize and reflect on the strengths and limitations
of different research methodologies, understand the links between theory and practice, critically assess
research, and address ethical and practical issues. The course takes a step-by-step approach to the design
and implementation of quantitative and qualitative techniques including case study and precedent studies,
surveys, interviews, focus groups, participant observation, textual and media analysis. How to manage and
analyze data (including computer assisted), and how to write up and present findings are core components
of this course. Students will be equipped with the knowledge and ability to undertake original research
projects and develop a set of transferable workplace skills.

2. Course Objectives:

The primary objective of this course is to develop a research orientation among the scholars and to
acquaint them with fundamentals of research methods. Specifically, the course aims at introducing them
to the basic concepts used in research and to scientific social research methods and their approach. It
includes discussions on sampling techniques, research designs and techniques of analysis.

Some other objectives of the course are:

 To develop understanding of the basic framework of research process.

 To develop an understanding of various research designs and techniques.
 To identify various sources of information for literature review and data collection.
 To develop an understanding of the ethical dimensions of conducting applied research.
 Appreciate the components of scholarly writing and evaluate its quality.
 To identify the different types of research
 To develop teamwork, and interpersonal skills in negotiating research programs via use of
problem solving and critical thinking exercises in research case studies
Pedagogy: Teaching methods include readings, lectures, group discussions, exercises, and assignments.
Lectures are designed such that ensure greater scholar participation.

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 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION

What is Research?
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Research is a scientific inquiry aimed
at learning new facts, testing ideas, etc. It is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data
to generate new knowledge and answer a certain question or solve a problem.

Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is
actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown
confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding
of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs
for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.

OBJECTIVES (PURPOSE) OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH

What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The possible
motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.

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However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies. Many
more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things,
desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well
motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations

Characteristics of research

1. A systematic approach must be followed for accurate data. Rules and procedures are an integral
part of the process that set the objective. Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of
conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
2. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.
3. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time from actual observations in natural settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated with
it.
5. Research creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more
opportunities for research.
6. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so that there is no ambiguity
in inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most important aspects of research. The information that is obtained
should be accurate and true to its nature. For example, laboratories provide a controlled
environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of
instruments or tools, and the final result of the experiment.

What is Research Method?

Research method is defined as the tools or instruments used to accomplish the goals and attributes of a
study. Think of the methodology as a systematic process in which the tools or instruments will be
employed. There is no use of a tool if it is not being used efficiently.

Research begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to investigate the
problem. After collecting answers to your questions, you can analyze the findings or observations to
draw appropriate conclusions.

When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough your questions, the better. By
thoroughly collecting data from customers through surveys and questionnaires, you get important
insights into brand perception and product needs. You can use this data to make smart decisions about
your marketing strategies to position your business effectively.

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What are the types of research?

Following are the types of research methods:

1. Basic research:

A basic research definition is data collected to enhance knowledge. The main motivation is knowledge
expansion. It is a non-commercial research that doesn’t facilitate in creating or inventing anything.

For example: an experiment to determine a simple fact, such as:

 An investigation looking at whether stress levels influence how often students engage in
academic cheating.
 A study looking at how caffeine consumption impacts the brain.
 A study assessing whether men or women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression.
 A study looking at how attachment styles among children of divorced parents compare to those
raised by married parents

Notice in all of these examples, the goal of the research is merely to increase the amount of knowledge
on a topic, not to come up with a practical solution to a problem.

2. Applied research:

Applied research focuses on analyzing and solving real-life problems. This type refers to the study that
helps solve practical problems using scientific methods. Studies play an important role in solving issues
that impact the overall well-being of humans. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization.

For example: finding a specific cure for a disease, for instance:

 Investigating which treatment approach is the most effective for reducing anxiety
 Researching which strategies work best to motivate workers
 Studying different keyboard designs to determine which is the most efficient and ergonomic
 Analyzing what type of prompts will inspire people to volunteer their time to charities
 Investigating if background music in a work environment can contribute to greater productivity
 A study into the ways of improving the levels of customer retention for MTN Cameroon
 An investigation into the ways of improving employee motivation in Hilton Hotel Yaoundé.
 Development of strategies to introduce change in Dangote global supply-chain management with
the view on cost reduction
 A study into the ways of fostering creative deviance amongst employees without compromising
respect for authority.

As you may notice, all of these examples explore topics that will address real-world issues. This
immediate and practical application of the findings is what distinguished applied research from basic
research, which instead focuses on theoretical concerns.

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 3. Problem oriented research:

As the name suggests, problem-oriented research is conducted to understand the exact nature of a
problem to find out relevant solutions. The term “problem” refers to multiple choices or issues when
analyzing a situation.

For example, revenue of a car company has decreased by 12% in the last year. The following could be
the probable causes: there is no optimum production, poor quality of a product, no advertising, or
economic conditions.

4. Analytical Research

Analytical research is a specific type of research that involves critical thinking skills and the evaluation
of facts and information relative to the research being conducted. A variety of people including students,
doctors and psychologists use analytical research during studies to find the most relevant information.
From analytical research, a person finds out critical details to add new ideas to the material being
produced.

5. Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks in-depth understanding of social
phenomena within their natural setting.” Rather than statistical and numerical measurements that
describe the situation (more commonly known as the ‘what’), qualitative research focuses on the
reasoning behind the actions of individuals, societies, and cultures (known as the ‘why’) through open
ended, exploratory questions. Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational
methods. Participants are asked open-ended questions. The responses collected are essentially non-
numerical. This method not only helps a researcher understand what participants think but also why they
think in a particular way.

Types of qualitative methods include:

 One-to-one Interview:

This interview is conducted with one participant at a given point in time. One-to-one interviews need a
researcher to prepare questions in advance. The researcher asks only the most important questions to the
participant. This type of interview lasts anywhere between 20 minutes to half an hour. During this time
the researcher collects as many meaningful answers as possible from the participants to draw inferences.

 Focus Groups:

Focus groups are small groups comprising of around 6-10 participants who are usually experts in the
subject matter. A moderator is assigned to a focus group who facilitates the discussion amongst the
group members. A moderator’s experience in conducting the focus group plays an important role. An
experienced moderator can probe the participants by asking the correct questions that will help them
collect a sizable amount of information related to the research.

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  Ethnographic Research:

Ethnographic research is a qualitative method where researchers observe and/or interact with a study's
participants in their real-life environment. As the name suggests, ethnographic research has its roots in
ethnography which is the in-depth study of people, cultures, habits and mutual differences. This type of
systematic investigation interacts continuously with the variables and depends, almost entirely, on the
data gathered from the observation of the research variables. Ethnographic research is sometimes
referred to as a thick description because of its in-depth observation and description of the subjects.

In recent times, ethnography has been adopted to the internet in the form of netnography. This means
that researchers can now study how online communities interact in order to identify social
communication patterns.

 Text Analysis:

Text analysis is a little different from other qualitative methods as it is used to analyze social constructs
by decoding words through any available form of documentation. The researcher studies and
understands the context in which the documents are written and then tries to draw meaningful inferences
from it. Researchers today follow activities on a social media platform to try and understand patterns of
thoughts. For example, this can be analyzing text written in reviews by customers on a retailer’s website
or analyzing documentation to understand its purpose. The process aims to examine the texts and find
themes and trends that can enable the business to take strategic action.

There are a number of places both privately within the organization and publicly outside which will
generate text that can be organized. Internal sources include call logs to customer service, letters, emails,
and responses to structured feedback, like post-purchase email requests. It can even include legal data
such as compliance forms, customer contract agreements or even customer location data.

 Case Study:

Case study research is used to study an organization or an entity. This method is one of the most valuable
options for modern research. This type of research is used in fields like the education sector,
philosophical studies, and psychological studies. This method involves a deep dive into ongoing
research and collecting data. Case studies are a popular research method in business area. Case studies
aim to analyze specific issues within the boundaries of a specific environment, situation or organization.

According to its design, case studies in business research can be divided into three categories:
explanatory, descriptive and exploratory.

 Explanatory case studies aim to answer ‘how’ or ’why’ questions with little control on behalf
of researcher over occurrence of events. This type of case studies focus on phenomena within
the contexts of real-life situations. Example: “An investigation into the reasons of the global
financial and economic crisis of 2008 – 2010.”
 Descriptive case studies aim to analyze the sequence of interpersonal events after a certain
amount of time has passed. Studies in business research belonging to this category usually
describe culture or sub-culture, and they attempt to discover the key phenomena. Example:
“Impact of increasing levels of multiculturalism on marketing practices: A case study of MTN
Cameroon.”
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  Exploratory case studies aim to find answers to the questions of ‘what’ or ‘who’. Exploratory
case study data collection method is often accompanied by additional data collection method(s)
such as interviews, questionnaires, experiments etc. Example: “A study into differences of
leadership practices between private and public sector organizations in Douala, Cameroon.”

6. Quantitative Research

Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or

numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating
pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques. Quantitative research focuses on
gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a particular
phenomenon.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the relationship between one thing
[an independent variable] and another [a dependent or outcome variable] within a population.
Quantitative research designs are either descriptive [subjects usually measured once] or experimental
[subjects measured before and after a treatment]. A descriptive study establishes only associations
between variables; an experimental study establishes causality.

Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative research focuses on
numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent reasoning [i.e.,
the generation of a variety of ideas about a research problem in a spontaneous, free-flowing manner].

Its main characteristics are:

 The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.

 The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
 The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
 Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
 All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
 Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other
non-textual forms.
 Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate
causal relationships.
 Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data.

The overarching aim of a quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and construct
statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.

Things to keep in mind when reporting the results of a study using quantitative methods:

1. Explain the data collected and their statistical treatment as well as all relevant results in relation
to the research problem you are investigating. Interpretation of results is not appropriate in this
section.

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 2. Report unanticipated events that occurred during your data collection. Explain how the actual
analysis differs from the planned analysis. Explain your handling of missing data and why any
missing data does not undermine the validity of your analysis.
3. Explain the techniques you used to "clean" your data set.
4. Choose a minimally sufficient statistical procedure; provide a rationale for its use and a
reference for it. Specify any computer programs used.
5. Describe the assumptions for each procedure and the steps you took to ensure that they were
not violated.
6. When using inferential statistics, provide the descriptive statistics, confidence intervals, and
sample sizes for each variable as well as the value of the test statistic, its direction, the degrees
of freedom, and the significance level [report the actual p value].
7. Avoid inferring causality, particularly in nonrandomized designs or without further
experimentation.
8. Use tables to provide exact values; use figures to convey global effects. Keep figures small in
size; include graphic representations of confidence intervals whenever possible.
9. Always tell the reader what to look for in tables and figures.

NOTE: When using pre-existing statistical data gathered and made available by anyone other than
yourself [e.g., government agency], you still must report on the methods that were used to gather the
data and describe any missing data that exists and, if there is any, provide a clear explanation why the
missing data does not undermine the validity of your final analysis.

Types of Quantitative Research

The following precedes the different types of Quantitative research types with the description of each.

1. Survey Research

Survey Research is the most elementary tool for all sorts of quantitative research techniques. The very
most important purpose of the research is to widely explain the characteristics of a particular group or a
bunch of population. This analysis is most typically employed by both small and large organizations for
a proper understanding of their customers and to understand the merchandise and product views.

 Multiple queries can be raised by the customers and the analysis can be done for the same.
 Cross-sectional and longitudinal are two main kinds of surveys that can be used to conduct the
survey quantitative research analysis.

 A cross-sectional study involves looking at data from a population at one

specific point in time. Cross-sectional studies are observational in nature and
are known as descriptive research, not causal or relational, meaning that you
can't use them to determine the cause of something, such as a disease.
Researchers record the information that is present in a population, but they
do not manipulate variables.
 A longitudinal study (or longitudinal survey, or panel study) is a research
design that involves repeated observations of the same variables (e.g.,
people) over short or long periods of time (i.e., uses longitudinal data). It is
often a type of observational study, although they can also be structured as
longitudinal randomized experiments.
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  The cross-sectional survey is conducted specifically on a target population at a given purpose of
time. These type of surveys are used to conduct research mostly in retail stores, health care trade,
etc.
 In a longitudinal survey, research is conducted at various time durations. These are utilized in
medicine and applied sciences.

2. Descriptive Research

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose
of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and
business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies.
Ex post facto study or after-the-fact research is a category of research design in which the investigation
starts after the fact has occurred without interference from the researcher.

The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can
only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for
descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of
shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by
researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of research
utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational
methods.

Descriptive research seeks to explain the current status of an identified variable. The aim of descriptive
research is to explain and interpret, the current status of people, settings, conditions, or events.

 In descriptive research, the researcher does not usually begin with the hypothesis, however, it is
probably going to develop one after collecting the information.
 A systematic assortment of data needs careful selection of the units and measurement of every
variable.
 Description of the extent to which elementary teachers use math manipulatives, description of
global warming with respect to Scientists, description of different kinds of physical activities
that occur in schools, etc. are all examples of descriptive research.

3. Experimental Research

Experimental research, as the name suggests, is usually based on one or more theories. It is based on
one or more than one theory. It is called true experimentation, uses the scientific method to establish the
cause-effect relationship among a group of variables that make up a study. Multiple theories can be used
to conduct this research. The components of the experimental research design are prescribed below.

 A comparison group of participants who are randomly selected and assigned to experimental and
control groups.
 An independent variable, which can be referred to as the experimental variable that can be
applied to the experimental group.
 A dependent variable, which can be referred to as the effect or posttest variable that can be
measured in an identical manner for all groups.

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4. Correlational Research

Correlational research is used to establish a relationship between two close entities and to determine
how one impacts the other. For this, a researcher needs at least two separate groups. This type of research
will recognize trends and patterns in data, but it does not go so far in its analysis to observe the different
patterns.

 Correlational research sometimes considered a type of descriptive research as no variables are

manipulated in the study.
 Cause and effect are not the basis of this type of observational research.
 Examples of Correlational research include the relationships between the types of activities of
mathematics classrooms and the achievement of students, the relationship between diet and
anxiety.

5. Casual-Comparative Research

Casual-Comparative research is employed to conclude the cause-effect equation between two or more
variables, where one variable depends on the opposite experimental variable. An independent variable
is not manipulated by the experimenter, and the effects of the independent variable is on the dependent
variable are measured.

 This sort of analysis is not restricted to the applied mathematics of two variables but extends to
analyzing different variables and groups.
 Casual-Comparative research is a method that works on the process of comparison.
 Once analysis and conclusions are made, deciding about the causes should be done fastidiously,
as other different variables, each far-famed and unknown, might still have an effect on the result.
 Examples of this type of research include the effect of preschool attendance on social maturity
at the end of the first grade, the impact of drugs on a teenager.

Quantitative research analysis templates are objective, elaborate, and conjointly investigational. It is
easier to know the various types of quantitative research designs if you consider how the researcher
designs and styles for the management of the variables within the investigation process. The
fundamental procedure of a quantitative design is to hypothesize a proof for those observations.

Strengths of Using Quantitative Methods

Quantitative researchers try to recognize and isolate specific variables contained within the study
framework, seek correlation, relationships and causality, and attempt to control the environment in
which the data is collected to avoid the risk of variables, other than the one being studied, accounting
for the relationships identified.

Among the specific strengths of using quantitative methods to study social science research
problems:

 Allows for a broader study, involving a greater number of subjects, and enhancing the
generalization of the results;

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  Allows for greater objectivity and accuracy of results. Generally, quantitative methods are
designed to provide summaries of data that support generalizations about the phenomenon under
study. In order to accomplish this, quantitative research usually involves few variables and many
cases, and employs prescribed procedures to ensure validity and reliability;
 Applying well established standards means that the research can be replicated, and then analyzed
and compared with similar studies;
 You can summarize vast sources of information and make comparisons across categories and
over time; and,
 Personal bias can be avoided by keeping a 'distance' from participating subjects and using
accepted computational techniques.

Limitations of Using Quantitative Methods

Quantitative methods presume to have an objective approach to studying research problems, where data
is controlled and measured, to address the accumulation of facts, and to determine the causes of behavior.
As a consequence, the results of quantitative research may be statistically significant but are often
humanly insignificant.

Some specific limitations associated with using quantitative methods to study research problems
in the social sciences include:

 Quantitative data is more efficient and able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail;
 Uses a static and rigid approach and so employs an inflexible process of discovery;
 The development of standard questions by researchers can lead to "structural bias" and false
representation, where the data actually reflects the view of the researcher instead of the
participating subject;
 Results provide less detail on behavior, attitudes, and motivation;
 Researcher may collect a much narrower and sometimes superficial dataset;
 Results are limited as they provide numerical descriptions rather than detailed narrative and
generally provide less elaborate accounts of human perception;
 The research is often carried out in an unnatural, artificial environment so that a level of control
can be applied to the exercise. This level of control might not normally be in place in the real
world thus yielding "laboratory results" as opposed to "real world results"; and,
 Preset answers will not necessarily reflect how people really feel about a subject and, in some
cases, might just be the closest match to the preconceived hypothesis.

IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING HOW RESEARCH IS DONE

The study of research methodology gives the student the necessary training in gathering material and
arranging or card-indexing them, participation in the field work when required, and also training in
techniques for the collection of data appropriate to particular problems, in the use of statistics,
questionnaires and controlled experimentation and in recording evidence, sorting it out and interpreting
it.

In fact, importance of knowing the methodology of research or how research is done stems from the
following considerations:

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 (i) For one who is preparing himself for a career of carrying out research, the importance of
knowing research methodology and research techniques is obvious since the same
constitute the tools of his trade. The knowledge of methodology provides good training
especially to the new research worker and enables him to do better research. It helps him
to develop disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of mind’ to observe the field objectively. Hence,
those aspiring for careerism in research must develop the skill of using research techniques
and must thoroughly understand the logic behind them.

(ii) Knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use research
results with reasonable confidence. In other words, we can state that the knowledge of
research methodology is helpful in various fields such as government or business
administration, community development and social work where persons are increasingly
called upon to evaluate and use research results for action.

(iii) When one knows how research is done, then one may have the satisfaction of acquiring
anew intellectual tool which can become a way of looking at the world and of judging
everyday experience. Accordingly, it enables us to make intelligent decisions concerning
problems facing us in practical life at different points of time. Thus, the knowledge of
research methodology provides tools to look at things in life objectively.

(iv) In this scientific age, all of us are in many ways consumers of research results and we can
use them intelligently provided we are able to judge the adequacy of the methods by which
they have been obtained. The knowledge of methodology helps the consumer of research
results to evaluate them and enables him to take rational decisions

CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all
meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to
satisfy the following criteria:

 The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
 The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher
to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been
attained.
 The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that areas
objective as possible.
 The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate
their effects upon the findings.
 The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of
analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked
carefully.
 Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those
for which the data provide an adequate basis.
 Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

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 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

There are a variety of approaches to research in any field of investigation, irrespective of whether it is
applied research or basic research. Each particular research study will be unique in some ways because
of the particular time, setting, environment, and place in which it is being undertaken. Nevertheless, all
research endeavors share a common goal of furthering our understanding of the problem and thus all
traverse through certain basic stages, forming a process called the research process.

An understanding of the research process is necessary to effectively carry out research and sequencing
of the stages inherent in the process.

These 8 stages in the research process are;

1. Identifying the problem.

2. Reviewing literature.
3. Setting research questions,
objectives, and hypotheses.
4. Choosing the study design.
5. Deciding on the sample design.
6. Collecting data.
7. Processing and analyzing data.
8. Writing the report.

The research process outlined above is, in essence, part and parcel of a research proposal. It is an outline
of your commitment that you intend to follow in executing a research study. A close examination of the
above stages reveals that each of these stages, by and large, is dependent upon the others.

One cannot analyze data (step 7) unless he has collected data (step 6). It is also true that one cannot write
a report (step 8) unless he has collected and analyzed data (step 7). Research then is a system of
interdependent related stages. Violation of this sequence can cause irreparable harm to the study.

It is also true that several alternatives are available to the researcher during each of the stages stated
above. A research process can be compared with a route map.
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The map analogy is useful for the researcher because at each stage of the research process, and there are
several alternatives to follow. Choosing the best alternative in terms of time constraints, money, and
human resources in our research decision is our primary goal.

Before explaining the stages of the research process, we explain the term ‘iterative’ appearing within
the oval-shaped diagram at the center of the schematic diagram. The key to a successful research project
ultimately lies in iteration: the process of returning again and again to the identification of the research
problems, methodology, data collection, etc. which lead to new ideas, revisions and improvements.

Often, by discussing the research project with advisers and peers, one will find that new research
questions need to be added, variables to be omitted, added or redefined, and other changes to be made.
As a proposed study is examined and reexamined from different perspectives, it may begin to transform
and take a different shape. This is to be expected and is an essential component of a good research study.

Besides, it is important to examine study methods and data to be collected from different viewpoints to
ensure a comprehensive approach to the research question. There is seldom any single strategy or
formula for developing a successful research study, but it is important to realize that the research process
is cyclical and iterative.

STEP – 1: IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM

The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to identify a research problem.
There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which
relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out the problem
he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he
would like to inquire into. A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-important
phases of the research process, starting from setting objectives to the selection of the research
methodology.

But the core question is: whether all problems require research. We have countless problems around us,
but all that we encounter do not qualify as research problems, and thus, these do not need to be
researched.

Keeping this point in view, we must draw a line between a research problem and a non-research problem.

Intuitively, researchable problems are those who have a possibility of thorough verification
investigation, which can be effected through the analysis and collection of data, while the non-research
problems do not need to go through these processes.

Researcher need to identify both;

1. Non-research Problem, and

2. Research Problem.

Non-Research Problem

A non-research problem is one that does not require any research to arrive at a solution. Intuitively, a
non-researchable problem consists of vague details and cannot be resolved through research.
15
It is a managerial or built-in problem that may be solved at the administrative or management level. The
answer to any question raised in a non- research setting is almost always obvious.

The outbreak of cholera, for example, following a severe flood, is a common phenomenon in many
communities. The reason for this is known. It is thus not a research problem.

Similarly, reasons for the sudden rise in prices of many essential commodities following the
announcement of the budget by the Finance Minister need no investigation. Hence it is not a problem
that needs research.

Example #1

A recent survey in Douala found that 1000 women were continuous users of contraceptive pills. But last
month’s service statistics indicate that none of these women were using contraceptive pills.

The discrepancy is that ‘all 1000 women should have been using a pill, but in fact, none is doing so.
The question is: why the discrepancy exists?

Well, the fact is, a monsoon flood has prevented all new supplies of pills reaching District A, and all old
supplies have been exhausted. Thus, although the problem situation exists, the reason for the problem is
already known.

Therefore, assuming that all the facts are correct, there is no reason to research the factors associated
with pill discontinuation among women. This is thus a non-research problem.

Example #2

A hospital treated a large number of cholera cases with penicillin, but the treatment with penicillin was
not found to be effective. Do we need research to know the reason?

Here again, there is one single reason that Vibrio cholera is not sensitive to penicillin, and therefore, this
is not the drug of choice for this disease.

In this case, too, as the reasons are known, it is unwise to undertake any study to find out why penicillin
does not improve the condition of cholera patients. This is also a non-research problem.

Here are some of the problems we frequently encounter, which may well be considered as non-research
problems:

 Rises in the price of warm clothes during winter;

 Preferring admission in public universities over private universities;
 Crisis of accommodations in sea resorts during summer
 Traffic jam in the city street after office hours;
 High sales in department stores after an offer of a discount.

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Research Problem

In contrast to a non-research problem, a research problem is of primary concern to a researcher.

A research problem is a perceived difficulty, a feeling of discomfort, or a discrepancy between the

common belief and reality.

As noted by Fisher et al. (1993), a problem will qualify as a potential research problem when the
following three conditions exist:

1. There should be a perceived discrepancy between “what it is” and “what it should have been.”
This implies that there should be a difference between “what exists” and the “ideal or planned
situation”;
2. A question about “why” the discrepancy exists. This implies that the reason(s) for this
discrepancy is unclear to the researcher (so that it makes sense to develop a research question);
and
3. There should be at least two possible answers or solutions to the questions or problems.

The third point is important. If there is only one possible and plausible answer to the question about the
discrepancy, then a research situation does not exist.

It is a non-research problem that can be tackled at the managerial or administrative level.

Example #1

While visiting a rural area, the UNICEF team observed that some villages have female school attendance
rates as high as 75%, while some have as low as 10%, although all villages should have a nearly equal
rate of attendance. What factors are associated with this discrepancy?

We may enumerate several reasons for this:

1. Villages differ in their socio-economic background.

2. In some villages, the Muslim population constitutes a large proportion of the total population.
Religion might play a vital role.
3. Schools are far away from some villages. The distance thus may make this difference.

Because there is more than one answer to the problem, it is considered a research problem, and a study
can be undertaken to find a solution.

Example#2

The Government of Cameroon has been making all-out efforts to ensure regular flow of credit in rural
areas at a concession rate through liberal lending policy and establishing a large number of bank
branches in rural areas.

Knowledgeable sources indicate that expected development in rural areas has not yet been achieved
mainly because of improper utilization of the credit.

17
More than one reason is suspected of such misuse or misdirection.

These include, among others:

 Diversion of credit money to some unproductive sectors

 Transfer of credit money to other people like money lenders, who exploit the rural people with
this money
 Lack of knowledge of proper utilization of the credit.

Here too, reasons for misuse of loans are more than one. We thus consider this problem as a researchable
problem.

The choice of a research problem is not as easy as it appears. It is generally guided by the researchers;

a. own intellectual orientation,

b. level of training,
c. experience,
d. knowledge on the subject matter, and
e. intellectual curiosity.

Theoretical and practical considerations also play a vital role in choosing a research problem. Societal
needs also guide to choose a research problem.

Once we have chosen a research problem, a few more related steps are required to be followed before a
decision is taken to undertake a research study.

These include, among others, the following:

 Statement of the problem.

 Justifying the problem.
 Analyzing the problem.

A detailed exposition of these issues is undertaken in chapter ten while discussing the proposal
development.

Statement of the Problem

A clear and well-defined statement of the problem is considered as the foundation for the development
of the research proposal.

It enables the researcher to systematically point out why the proposed research on the problem should
be undertaken and what he hopes to achieve with the findings of the study.

A well-defined statement of the problem will lead the researcher to formulate the research objectives, to
understand the background of the study, and to choose a proper research methodology.

18
Justifying the Problem

Once the problem situation has been identified and clearly stated, it is important to justify the importance
of the problem.

In justifying the problems, we ask such questions as to why the problem of the study is important, how
large and widespread the problem is, can others be convinced about the importance of the problem and
the like.

Answers to the above questions should be reviewed and presented in one or two paragraphs that justify
the importance of the problem.

Analyzing the Problem

As a first step of analyzing the problem, critical attention should be given to accommodate the
viewpoints of the managers, users, and the researchers to the problem through threadbare discussions.

The next step is to identify the factors that may have contributed to the perceived problems.

Other Issues of Problem Identification

To identifying, defining, and analyzing a problem, there are several ways of obtaining insights and
getting a clearer idea about these issues. Exploratory research is one of the ways of accomplishing this.
The purpose of the exploratory research process is to progressively narrow the scope of the topic and to
transform the undefined problems into defined ones, incorporating specific research objectives.

The exploratory study entails a few basic strategies in gaining insights into the problem. It is
accomplished through such efforts as:

 Pilot survey
 Case studies
 Focus group interview and
 Experience survey

STEP – 2: REVIEWING OF LITERATURE

A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. Literature review is usually the
longest stage in the research process. Actually, the literature review starts even before the formulation
of research aims and objective; because you have to check if exactly the same research problem has
been addressed before. Nevertheless, the main part of the literature review is conducted after the
formulation of research aim and objectives. You have to use a wide range of secondary data sources
such as books, newspapers, magazines, journals, online articles etc.

19
 It enables the researcher to formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of
his interest that has not been so far researched. The review of literature also educates the researcher
about what studies have been conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and the
conclusions in the problem area.

Such a review, not only provides him exposure to a larger body of knowledge but also equips him with
enhanced knowledge to efficiently follow the research process. Through a proper review of the literature,
the researcher may develop the coherence between the results of his study and those of the others.

A review of previous documents to similar or related phenomena is essential even for the beginning
researchers. To ignore the existing literature may lead to wasted effort on the part of the researchers.
Why spend time merely repeating what other investigators have already done?

If the researcher is aware of earlier studies of his topic, or related topics, he will be in a much better
position to assess the significance of his work and to convince others that it is important.

A confident and expert researcher is more crucial in his questioning of the others’ methodology, the
choice of the data, and the quality of the inferences drawn from the study results.

In sum, we enumerate the following arguments in favor of reviewing the literature:

 It avoids duplication of the work that has been done in the recent past.
 It helps the researcher to find out what others have learned and reported on the problem.
 It helps the researcher to become familiar with the types of methodology followed by others.
 It helps the researcher to understand what concepts and theories are relevant to his area of
investigation.
 It helps the researcher to understand if there are any significant controversies, contradictions,
and inconsistencies in findings.
 It allows the researcher to understand if there are any unanswered research questions.
 It might help the researcher to develop an analytical framework.
 It will help the researcher to consider the inclusion of variables in his research that he might not
otherwise have thought about.

STEP – 3: SETTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS, OBJECTIVES, AND

HYPOTHESES
After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a formal statement of the
problem leading to research objectives.

An objective will precisely say what should be researched, to delineate the type of information that
should be collected, and provide a framework for the scope of the study. The best expression of a
research objective is a well-formulated, testable research hypothesis.

A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted or supported by empirical data.
Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a research question.

The choice between the formulation of research questions and the development of hypotheses depends
on your research approach as it is discussed further below in more details. Appropriate research aims
20
and objectives or hypotheses usually result from several attempts and revisions and these need to be
mentioned in Methodology chapter. It is critically important to get your research questions or hypotheses
confirmed by your supervisor before moving forward with the work.

STEP -4: CHOOSING / PREPARING THE STUDY (RESEARCH) DESIGN

The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering research
questions. The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be
required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which
research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as
possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for
the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all
these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose.

Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,

(i) Exploration,
(ii) Description,
(iii) Diagnosis, and
(iv) Experimentation.

A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of a
problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration. But when
the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association between variables,
the suitable design will be one that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected
and analyzed.

There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing.
Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after without control, after-
only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized
design, randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of
which the researcher must select one for his own project. The preparation of the research design,
appropriate for a particular research problem, involves usually the consideration of the following:

(i) the means of obtaining the information;

(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized
and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose

STEP – 5: DECIDING ON THE SAMPLE DESIGN

Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of sampling is that it
involves any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items or portions (called a sample) of a
universe (called population) to conclude the whole population.

21
It contrasts with the process of complete enumeration, in which every member of the population is
included. Such a complete enumeration is referred to as census.

A population is the total collection of elements about which we wish to make some inference or
generalization.

A sample is a part of the population, carefully selected to represent that population. If certain statistical
procedures are followed in selecting the sample, it should have the same characteristics as the population
as a whole. These procedures are embedded in the sample design.

Sample design refers to the methods to be followed in selecting a sample from the population and the
estimating technique, vis-a-vis formula for computing the sample statistics.

The basic question is, then, how to select a sample? To answer this question, we must have acquaintance
with the sampling methods.

These methods are basically of two types: probability sampling and non-probability sampling.
Probability sampling ensures every unit a known nonzero probability of selection within the target
population.

If there is no feasible alternative, a non-probability sampling method may be employed. The basis of
such selection is entirely dependent on the researcher’s discretion. This approach is variously called
judgment sampling, convenience sampling, accidental sampling, and purposive sampling.

The most widely used probability sampling methods are simple random sampling, stratified random
sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling.

i. Simple random sampling

This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling where each and every
item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible
samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being selected. For example, if we have
to select a sample of 300items from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers
of all the15, 000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the random number tables is another
method of random sampling. To select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1 to 15,000.
Then, 300 five digit random numbers are selected from the table. To do this we select some random
starting point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding through the table. We might start in
the 4th row, second column and proceed down the column to the bottom of the table and then move to
the top of the next column to the right. When a number exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame,
in our case over 15,000, it is simply passed over and the next number selected that does fall within the
relevant range. Since the numbers were placed in the table in a completely random fashion, the resulting
sample is random. This procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In case of
infinite population, the selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by the same probability
and that successive selections are independent of one another.

ii. Systematic sampling:

In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every 15th name on a list, every 10th
house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling. An
22
element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to
pick up the unit with which to start. This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the
form of a list. In such a design the selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and
then every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.

iii. Stratified sampling:

If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group, then
stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample. In this technique, the
population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are
selected from each stratum. If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling
the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random
sampling.

iv. Quota sampling:

In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual strata is often so expensive that
interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for
sample being left to the interviewer’s judgment. This is called quota sampling. The size of the quota for
each stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling is
thus an important form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be judgment
samples rather than random samples.

v. Cluster sampling and area sampling:

Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather
than individual elements for inclusion in the sample. Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample
its credit card holders. It has issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450.
For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 cardholders
each. Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly. The sample size must often be
larger than the simple random sample to ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster sampling
procedural potential for order bias and other sources of error is usually accentuated. The clustering
approach can, however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of
field work, especially in the case of personal interviews.

vi. Multi-stage sampling:

This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This technique is meant for big inquiries
extending to a considerably large geographical area like an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling
the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and
finally certain families with in towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the
sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.

vii. Sequential sampling:

This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance
but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey
progresses. This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical
quality control.
23
Two other variations of the sampling methods that are in great use are multistage sampling and
probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling. Multistage sampling is most commonly used in
drawing samples from very large and diverse populations. The PPS sampling is a variation on multistage
sampling in which the probability of selecting a cluster is proportional to its size, and an equal number
of elements are sampled within each cluster.

In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used in the same study in
which case it can be called mixed sampling. It may be pointed out here that normally one should resort
to random sampling so that bias can be eliminated and sampling error can be estimated. But purposive
sampling is considered desirable when the universe happens to be small and a known characteristic of
it is to be studied intensively. Also, there are conditions under which sample designs other than random
sampling may be considered better for reasons like convenience and low costs. The sample design to be
used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the nature of the inquiry and other
related factors.

24
STEP – 6: COLLECTING DATA
In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it
becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the
appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the
disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey.
If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with
the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data
can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:

i. By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s own
observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what is
currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or
attitudes of respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method and the information
provided by this method is also very limited. As such this method is not suitable in inquiries
where large samples are concerned.
ii. Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to
a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting data is
usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer
to a large extent.
iii. Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting the
respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an important
role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to be
accomplished in a very limited time.
iv. By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact with each
other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a
request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in various
economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing
the questionnaire is conduced which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire.
Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective in
collecting the relevant information.
v. Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training. They
are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to respondents
with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis
of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this
method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure
sincere work.

The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into consideration the
nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time and the
desired degree of accuracy. Though he should pay attention to all these factors but much depends upon
the ability and experience of the researcher.

25
STEP-7: PROCESSING AND ANALYZING DATA

Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data. Data are edited to ensure
consistency across respondents and to locate omissions, if any.

In survey data, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies unclear and
inappropriate responses. In addition to editing, the data also need coding. Because it is impractical to
place raw data into a report, alphanumeric codes are used to reduce the responses to a more manageable
form for storage and future processing.

This coding process facilitates processing the data. The personal computer offers an excellent
opportunity in data editing and coding processes.

Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable size, developing summaries,
searching for patterns, and applying statistical techniques for understanding and interpreting the findings
in the light of the research questions. Further, the researcher, based on his analysis, determines if his
findings are consistent with the formulated hypotheses and theories.

The techniques to be used in analyzing data may range from simple graphical technique to very complex
multivariate analysis depending on the objectives of the study, research design employed, and the nature
of data collected. As in the case of methods of data collection, an analytical technique appropriate in
one situation may not be appropriate for another.

After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he
had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the
usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square
test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested
through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry.
Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had
no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses
to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.

STEP-8: WRITING THE REPORT – DEVELOPING RESEARCH PROPOSAL,

WRITING REPORT, DISSEMINATING AND UTILIZING RESULTS
The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document called a proposal.

A research proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, and an offer, a statement of intent or commitment
from an individual researcher or an organization to produce a product or render a service to a potential
client or sponsor.

The proposal will be prepared to keep in view the sequence presented in the research process. The
proposal tells us what, how, where, and to whom it will be done.

It must also show the benefit of doing it. It always includes an explanation of the purpose of the study
(the research objectives) or a definition of the problem.
26
It systematically outlines the particular research methodology and details the procedures that will be
utilized at each stage of the research process.

The end goal of a scientific study is to interpret the results and draw conclusions.

To this end, it is necessary to prepare a report and transmit the findings and recommendations to
administrators, policymakers, and program managers for the intended purpose of making a decision.

There are various forms of research reports: term papers, dissertations, journal articles, papers for
presentation at professional conferences and seminars, books, and so on. The results of a research
investigation prepared in any form are of little utility if they are not communicated to others.

The primary purpose of a dissemination strategy is to identify the most effective media channels to reach
different audience groups with study findings most relevant to their needs.

The dissemination may be made through a conference, a seminar, a report, or an oral or poster
presentation.

The style and organization of the report will differ according to the target audience, the occasion, and
the purpose of the research. Reports should be developed from the client’s perspectives.

A report is an excellent means that helps to establish the researcher’s credibility. At a bare minimum, a
research report should contain sections on:

 An executive summary;
 Background of the problem;
 Literature review;
 Methodology;
 Findings;
 Discussion;
 Conclusions and
 Recommendations.

The results of the study can also be disseminated through peer-reviewed journals published by academic
institutions and reputed publishers both at home and abroad.

These journals have their format and editorial policies. The contributors can submit their manuscripts
adhering to the policies and format for possible publications of their papers.

There are now ample opportunities for the researchers to publish one’s work online as well.

Many interesting studies have been conducted by the researchers without having any effect in actual
settings. Ideally, the concluding step of a scientific study is to plan for its utilization in the real world.

Although researchers are often not themselves in a position to implement a plan for utilizing research
findings, they can contribute to the process by including in their research reports a few recommendations
regarding how the results of the study could be utilized for policy formulation and program intervention.
27
 THE RESEARCH DESIGN (APPROACH)

INTRODUCTION
The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the preparation of the
design of the research project, popularly known as the “research design”. Decisions regarding what,
where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research
design. “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”

In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes
the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such the design includes an outline
of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final
analysis of data. More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:

i. What is the study about?

ii. Why is the study being made?
iii. Where will the study be carried out?
iv. What type of data is required?
v. Where can the required data be found?
vi. What periods of time will the study include?
vii. What will be the sample design?
viii. What techniques of data collection will be used?
ix. How will the data be analyzed?
x. In what style will the report be prepared?

Let’s say we want to investigate the relationship between daily walking and cholesterol levels in the
body. One of the first things we’d have to determine is the type of study that will tell us the most about
that relationship. Do we want to compare cholesterol levels among different populations of walkers and
non-walkers at the same point in time? Or, do we want to measure cholesterol levels in a single
population of daily walkers over an extended period of time?

Keeping in view the above stated design decisions, one may split the overall research design into the
following parts:

a) the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the given
study;
b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be
made;
c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed
and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed; and
d) the operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in
the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
28
From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of a research design as under:

i. It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem.
ii. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing the data.
iii. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two
constraints.

In brief, research design must, at least, contain:

a) a clear statement of the research problem;

b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;
c) the population to be studied; and
d) methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.

RESEARCH DESIGN DEFINITION

A Research Design is a methodical, well-organized procedure utilized by a researcher, or a scientist to

carry out a scientific study. It is a comprehensive co-existence of already identified elements and any
other information or data leading to a reasonable end result.

The research design is required to follow a pre-planned, well-thought-out methodology, in agreement

with the pre-selected research type, in order to come up with an error-free, authentic conclusion.
Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher. The
design allows researchers to hone in on research methods that are suitable for the subject matter and set
up their studies up for success.

The design of a research topic explains the type of research (experimental, survey, correlational, semi-
experimental, review) and also its sub-type (experimental design, research problem, and descriptive
case-study).

There are three main types of research design: Data collection, measurement, and analysis.

The type of research problem an organization is facing will determine the research design and not vice-
versa. The design phase of a study determines which tools to use and how they are used.

An impactful research design usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust in the accuracy
of collected data. A design that produces the least margin of error in experimental research is generally
considered the desired outcome. The essential elements of the research design are:

1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis

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NEED OF RESEARCH DESIGN

According to P.V. Young, a research design should be able to provide answer to the following
queries (questions):

(i) What is the study about and what type of data are required?
(ii) What is the purpose of the study? What is its scope?
(iii) What are the sources of the needed data?
(iv) What should be the place or area of study?
(v) What time, approximately, is required for the study?
(vi) What should be the amount of material or number of cases for the study?
(vii) What type of sampling should be used?
(viii) What method of data collection would be appropriate?
(ix) How will the data be analyzed?
(x) What should be the approximate expenditure?
(xi) What would be the methodology of study?
(xii) What should be the specific nature of study?

Basic Purposes of Research Design

From what has been stated above, we can derive two basic purposes:

1. To provide answers to the research questions:

As regards the first purpose, a research is designed to enable the researcher to arrive at an objective,
accurate, valid and economic solution of the given problem to the maximum possible extent. Since
scientific research begins with a provisional supposition in the form of a hypothesis, the major purpose
of the design is to provide the research with a valid test of the hypothesis on the basis of empirical
evidence obtained by the researcher by utilizing the least amount of money, manpower and time and
maximum possibility of its being approved by other investigators engaged in the given area of
investigation.

By providing a sort of blue print for the variation of hypothesis, presuming the relation between two or
more variables on the basis of empirical facts and by directing the process of observation in terms of
determining the facts relevant to the research problem, how and where to look for them and how many
observations to make, the research design becomes indispensable on the part of any researcher in
scientific investigation.

Furthermore, it also indicates whether or not the variables of the research are to be manipulated or
selected, what specific values of the manipulated or selected variables are to be utilized in the scientific
investigation, how a conceptual variable can be converted into observable facts.

Research design also makes specification of the method to be adopted for manipulation of the
independent variable and for measurement of the dependent variable along with suggesting the ways by
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which the collected data for research are to be analyzed and determining the level of statistical analysis
appropriate to the research situation.

2. To control variance. Indeed, these research purposes are achieved by the researcher
himself, not by the research design:

The second purpose of research is to control the effects of the potentially relevant independent variables
on the behavior of the research subjects. It merely facilitates the process of obtaining answer to relevant
questions in the research study and enables the investigator to exercise control over experimental,
extraneous and error variances pertaining to the particular research problem being studied.

The validity of the research findings would be affected if these variables are not controlled. In a real
world, any observed event of behavior is influenced by a multiplicity of facts and events. The behavior,
being “a real world event involving overt or covert responses by one or more actors to a task or
situation” and task being “any impending sequence of acts guided by a goal” both behavior and task
involve a complexity of events. Each of these may be used as an independent variable.

Of course, consideration of a variable as an independent one depends upon the researcher’s interest or
the nature of the research problem. For example, job satisfaction, educational achievement, individual
production, restriction of birth rate and similar other effects are explainable on the basis of the influence
of a number of related or unrelated facts and events.

But it is not possible to incorporate each one of these variables within the same research undertaking.
On the contrary, a researcher must keep himself restricted only to a limited number which are used as
the more explicitly relevant variables in a given research. If they happen to be active variables, their
values are deliberately changed and thereby they are manipulated in order to be controlled.

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN

Designing a research, particularly in the field of social sciences is very complex as the selection of a
method or methods of logic and planning of the design will not always guarantee sound results. As a
blue print, the research design may at best be only tentative and useful to the extent of providing the
researcher with a series of guide posts to keep him headed in the right direction.

Although every design has its own strengths and weaknesses and simultaneously the possibility of a
single perfect research design is difficult, a good research design is often believed to possess
characteristic features.

Proper research design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies provide insights that
are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create a survey that meets all of the main characteristics of a
design. There are four key characteristics of research design:

a. Neutrality

When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the data you expect to collect.
The results projected in the research design should be free from bias and neutral. Understand opinions

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about the final evaluated scores and conclusion from multiple individuals and consider those who agree
with the derived results.

b. Reliability:

With regularly conducted research, the researcher involved expects similar results every time. Your
design should indicate how to form research questions to ensure the standard of results. You’ll only be
able to reach the expected results if your design is reliable.

c. Validity:

Validity implies self-consistency or absence of self-contradiction. It is identified with formal truth or

self-consistency. A valid reasoning conforms to the rules of correct reasoning. There are multiple
measuring tools available. However, the only correct measuring tools are those which help a researcher
in gauging results according to the objective of the research. The questionnaire developed from this
design will then be valid.

d. Generalizability:

The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a restricted sample. A generalized
design implies that your survey can be conducted on any part of a population with similar accuracy.

The above factors affect the way respondents answer the research questions and so all the above
characteristics should be balanced in a good design. A researcher must have a clear understanding of the
various types of research design to select which model to implement for a study. Like research itself,
the design of your study can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative.

ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

(a) Selection of Research Problem:

As regards the selection of topic for research, anything that is social and empirical is a relevant
problem for social research.

The factors which affect the decisions on selection of topic in social sciences are:

(i) The structure and state of a discipline

(ii) Social problems

(iii) Other determinants like the availability of grants for particular themes, the popularity and prestige
of the particular area ‘of research, public interest and motivation of the researcher etc., and

(iv) Practical considerations.

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(b) Selection of Units of Analysis:

Determination of the units of analysis is a key factor in social research. In general, the purpose of the
study dictates the selection of the appropriate unit of analysis. The objects or events or entities under
investigation are referred to as units of analysis in social sciences.

(c) Choice of Variable:

Since a social scientist is primarily interested in studying the relationship among some characteristics or
properties of the observed units which are subject to variation over cases, over time or over both cases
and time, it is necessary for a researcher to decide which variables should be the focus of research.
Explanatory variables are known as the variables under focus. They are of two types dependent and
independent. The former one is the variable the researcher is interested in explaining and predicting.
Dependent variable is the presumed effect. The independent variable is the presumed cause.

The extraneous variables are those which are not the direct focus of research. Those are of two types:
controlled and uncontrolled. The controlled variables are held constant or prevented from varying during
the course of observation. Apart from the above classification of the variables, a typology of quantitative
and qualitative variables is also made. Whereas a quantitative variable implies values or categories
consisting of numbers, qualitative variables represent certain qualities, attributes or discrete categories.

(d) Identification of Relationship:

In real terms, very many social researchers directly aim at developing and testing relationships, apart
from gaining familiarity of a phenomenon or description of communities or groups or exploration of a
situation or event. However, on the whole, research findings largely depend on particular anticipated
relationships. Therefore, identification of the anticipated relationship and the guiding theoretical
premises assume greater importance.

(e) The Nature of Causal Relationship:

Causal relationships constitute the heart of scientific understanding. These are very much required for
purposes of explanation and prediction. In order to establish causality, the social scientists take help of
three types of evidence: association, direction and non-spuriousness.

Statistical association, such as a pattern of change in one variable is related to the other variable,
indicates that former is the cause. Causal relationships are determined in terms of strong and weak
associations. Another criterion required for establishing a causal connection between events is that the
direction of influence should be from cause to effect. In other words, cause must precede its effect.

The third criterion needed to establish a causal relationship between events is non-spuriousness which
implies that in order to inter a causal relationship from an observed correlation there should be sufficient
reason to believe that no hidden factors have contributed to a spurious relationship. Ideally, the
researcher must show that the connection between the variables is held constant.

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(f) Operationalization of Concepts:

Since concepts serve a number of important functions, clarity and precision in the usage of concepts
are to be achieved by definitions which must contain the distinctive characteristics or qualities of the
phenomenon under investigation.

Concepts, in order to be operationally existent, should be established through operational definitions

which are instrumental in specifying the contextual meaning of concepts and providing the framework
of their application. Briefly stated, the operational definitions serve as a link between the conceptual
theoretical level and the observational empirical level.

(g) Formulation of Hypothesis:

In order to state the research questions in a precise manner so as to give clear indication of what is to
be observed and what kind of information will be gathered, the research questions must be stated in
the form of hypotheses. Hypotheses are tentative generalizations which are expected but based on
unconfirmed relationship between two or more variables.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

Before describing the different research designs, it will be appropriate to explain the various concepts
relating to designs so that these may be better and easily understood.

1. Dependent and independent variables:

A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. As such the concepts like
weight, height, income are all examples of variables. Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also
quantified on the basis of the presence or absence of the concerning attribute(s). Phenomena which can
take on quantitatively different values even in decimal points are called ‘continuous variables’. But all
variables are not continuous. If they can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous
variables or in statistical language ‘discrete variables’. Age is an example of continuous variable, but
the number of children is an example of non-continuous variable. If one variable depends upon or
is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a dependent variable, and the variable that is
antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an independent variable. For instance, if we say that
height depends upon age, then height is a dependent variable and age is an independent variable. Further,
if in addition to being dependent upon age, height also depends upon the individual’s sex, then height is
a dependent variable and age and sex are independent variables. Similarly, readymade films and lectures
are examples of independent variables, whereas behavioral changes, occurring as a result of the
environmental manipulations, are examples of dependent variables.

2. Extraneous variable:

Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent
variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that
there is a relationship between children’s gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts. In
this case self-concept is an independent variable and social studies achievement is a dependent variable.
Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose
of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable. Whatever effect
is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an
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‘experimental error’. A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is
attributed entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or variables.

3. Control:

One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence or effect of
extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study minimizing the
effects of extraneous independent variables. In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to
refer to restrain experimental conditions.

4. Confounded relationship:

When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship
between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).

5. Research hypothesis:

When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed as

research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent
variable to a dependent variable. Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent
and one dependent variable. Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the
relationships that are assumed but not to be tested, are not termed research hypotheses.

6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research:

When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing research.
It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design. Research in which the
independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’ and a research
in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing
research’.

For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading ability for a group
of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their intelligence and reading
ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two sets of scores. This is an example of
non-experimental hypothesis-testing research because herein the independent variable, intelligence, is
not manipulated.

But now suppose that our researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group of students who are to
take a course in statistics and then divides them into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A,
the usual studies programme, and 25 to Group B, the special studies programme. At the end of the
course, he administers a test to each group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training programme
on the student’s performance-level. This is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research
because in this case the independent variable, viz., the type of training programme, is manipulated.

7. Experimental and control groups:

In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed
a ‘control group’, but when the group is exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an
‘experimental group’. In the above illustration, the Group A can be called a control group and the Group

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B an experimental group. If both groups A and B are exposed to special studies programmes, then both
groups would be termed ‘experimental groups.’ It is possible to design studies which include only
experimental groups or studies which include both experimental and control groups.

8. Treatments:
The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are usually referred to as
‘treatments’. In the illustration taken above, the two treatments are the usual studies programme and the
special studies programme. Similarly, if we want to determine through an experiment the comparative
impact of three varieties of fertilizers on the yield of wheat, in that case the three varieties of fertilizers
will be treated as three treatments.

9. Experiment:
The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is
known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment to examine the usefulness of a
certain newly developed drug. Experiments can be of two types’ viz., absolute experiment and
comparative experiment. If we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a
case of absolute experiment; but if we want to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the
impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment then will be termed as a comparative experiment. Often,
we undertake comparative experiments when we talk of designs of experiments.

10. Experimental unit(s):

The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are used, are known as experimental
units. Such experimental units must be selected (defined) very carefully.

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

11. EXPLORATORY OR FORMULATIVE DESIGN:

Exploratory research is defined as a research used to investigate a problem which is not clearly defined.
It is conducted to have a better understanding of the existing problem, but will not provide conclusive
results. For such a research, a researcher starts with a general idea and uses this research as a medium
to identify issues that can be the focus for future research. An important aspect here is that the researcher
should be willing to change his/her direction subject to the revelation of new data or insight. Such a
research is usually carried out when the problem is at a preliminary stage. It is often referred to as
grounded theory approach or interpretive research as it used to answer questions like what, why and
how.

For example: Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner feels that increasing the variety of juices will
enable increase in customers, however he is not sure and needs more information. The owner intends to
carry out an exploratory research to find out and hence decides to do an exploratory research to find out
if expanding their juices selection will enable him to get more customers of if there is a better idea.

Another example of exploratory research is a podcast survey template that can be used to collect
feedback about the podcast consumption metrics both from existing listeners as well as other podcast
listeners that are currently not subscribed to this channel. This helps the author of the podcast create
curated content that will gain a larger audience.

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Types and methodologies of exploratory research

While it may sound a little difficult to research something that has very little information about it, there
are several methods which can help a researcher figure out the best research design, data collection
methods and choice of subjects. There are two ways in which research can be conducted namely primary
and secondary.. Under these two types, there are multiple methods which can used by a researcher. The
data gathered from these research can be qualitative or quantitative. Some of the most widely used
research designs include the following:

Primary research methods

Primary research is information gathered directly from the subject. It can be through a group of people
or even an individual. Such a research can be carried out directly by the researcher himself or can employ
a third party to conduct it on their behalf. Primary research is specifically carried out to explore a certain
problem which requires an in-depth study.

 Surveys/polls:

Surveys/polls are used to gather information from a predefined group of respondents. It is one of the
most important quantitative method. Various types of surveys or polls can be used to explore opinions,
trends, etc. With the advancement in technology, surveys can now be sent online and can be very easy
to access. For instance, use of a survey app through tablets, laptops or even mobile phones. This
information is also available to the researcher in real time as well. Nowadays, most organizations offer
short length surveys and rewards to respondents, in order to achieve higher response rates.

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For example: A survey is sent to a given set of audience to understand their opinions about the size of
mobile phones when they purchase one. Based on such information organization can dig deeper into the
topic and make business related decision.

 Interviews:

While you may get a lot of information from public sources, but sometimes an in person interview can
give in-depth information on the subject being studied. Such a research is a qualitative research method.
An interview with a subject matter expert can give you meaningful insights that a generalized public
source won’t be able to provide. Interviews are carried out in person or on telephone which have open-
ended questions to get meaningful information about the topic.

For example: An interview with an employee can give you more insights to find out the degree of job
satisfaction, or an interview with a subject matter expert of quantum theory can give you in-depth
information on that topic.

 Focus groups:

Focus group is yet another widely used method in exploratory research. In such a method a group of
people is chosen and are allowed to express their insights on the topic that is being studied. Although, it
is important to make sure that while choosing the individuals in a focus group they should have a
common background and have comparable experiences.

For example: A focus group helps a research identify the opinions of consumers if they were to buy a
phone. Such a research can help the researcher understand what the consumer value while buying a
phone. It may be screen size, brand value or even the dimensions. Based on which the organization can
understand what are consumer buying attitudes, consumer opinions, etc.

 Observations:

Observation research can be qualitative observation or quantitative observation. Such a research is done
to observe a person and draw the finding from their reaction to certain parameters. In such a research,
there is no direct interaction with the subject.

For example: TAGETTY company wants to know how its consumer react to the new shape of their
product. The researcher observes the customers first reaction and collects the data, which is then used
to draw inferences from the collective information.

Secondary research methods

Secondary research is gathering information from previously published primary research. In such a
research you gather information from sources likes case studies, magazines, newspapers, books, etc.

 Online research:

In today’s world, this is one of the fastest way to gather information on any topic. A lot of data is readily
available on the internet and the researcher can download it whenever he needs it. An important aspect
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to be noted for such a research is the genuineness and authenticity of the source websites that the
researcher is gathering the information from.

For example: A researcher needs to find out what is the percentage of people that prefer a specific brand
phone. The researcher just enters the information he needs in a search engine and gets multiple links
with related information and statistics.

 Literature research:

Literature research is one of the most inexpensive method used for discovering a hypothesis. There is
tremendous amount of information available in libraries, online sources, or even commercial databases.
Sources can include newspapers, magazines, books from library, documents from government agencies,
specific topic related articles, literature, Annual reports, published statistics from research organizations
and so on.

However, a few things have to be kept in mind while researching from these sources. Government
agencies have authentic information but sometimes may come with a nominal cost. Also, research from
educational institutions is generally overlooked, but in fact educational institutions carry out more
number of research than any other entities.

Furthermore, commercial sources provide information on major topics like political agendas,
demographics, financial information, market trends and information, etc.

For example: A company has low sales. It can be easily explored from available statistics and market
literature if the problem is market related or organization related or if the topic being studied is regarding
financial situation of the country, then research data can be accessed through government documents or
commercial sources.

 Case study research:

Case study research can help a researcher with finding more information through carefully analyzing
existing cases which have gone through a similar problem. Such analysis are very important and critical
especially in today’s business world. The researcher just needs to make sure he analyses the case
carefully in regards to all the variables present in the previous case against his own case. It is very
commonly used by business organizations or social sciences sector or even in the health sector.

For example: A particular orthopedic surgeon has the highest success rate for performing knee
surgeries. A lot of other hospitals or doctors have taken up this case to understand and benchmark the
method in which this surgeon does the procedure to increase their success rate.

Exploratory research: Steps to conduct a research

 Identify the problem: A researcher identifies the subject of research and the problem is
addressed by carrying out multiple methods to answer the questions.

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  Create the hypothesis: When the researcher has found out that there are no prior studies and
the problem is not precisely resolved, the researcher will create a hypothesis based on the
questions obtained while identifying the problem.

 Further research: Once the data has been obtained, the researcher will continue his study
through descriptive investigation. Qualitative methods are used to further study the subject in
detail and find out if the information is true or not.

Characteristics of Exploratory research

 They are not structured studies

 It is usually low cost, interactive and open ended.
 It will enable a researcher answer questions like what is the problem? What is the purpose of the
study? And what topics could be studied?
 To carry out exploratory research, generally there is no prior research done or the existing ones
do not answer the problem precisely enough.
 It is a time consuming research and it needs patience and has risks associated with it.
 The researcher will have to go through all the information available for the particular study he is
doing.
 There are no set of rules to carry out the research per se, as they are flexible, broad and scattered.
 The research needs to have importance or value. If the problem is not important in the industry
the research carried out is ineffective.
 The research should also have a few theories which can support its findings as that will make it
easier for the researcher to assess it and move ahead in his study
 Such a research usually produces qualitative data, however in certain cases quantitative data can
be generalized for a larger sample through use of surveys and experiments.

Advantages of Exploratory research

 The researcher has a lot of flexibility and can adapt to changes as the research progresses.
 It is usually low cost.
 It helps lay the foundation of a research, which can lead to further research.
 It enables the researcher understand at an early stage, if the topic is worth investing the time and
resources and if it is worth pursuing.
 It can assist other researchers to find out possible causes for the problem, which can be further
studied in detail to find out, which of them is the most likely cause for the problem.

Disadvantages of Exploratory research

 Even though it can point you in the right direction towards what is the answer, it is usually
inconclusive.
 The main disadvantage of exploratory research is that they provide qualitative data.
Interpretation of such information can be judgmental and biased.
 Most of the times, exploratory research involves a smaller sample, hence the results cannot be
accurately interpreted for a generalized population.
 Many a times, if the data is being collected through secondary research, then there is a chance of
that data being old and is not updated.

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Importance of Exploratory research

Exploratory research is carried out when a topic needs to be understood in depth, especially if it hasn’t
been done before. The goal of such a research is to explore the problem and around it and not actually
derive a conclusion from it. Such kind of research will enable a researcher to set a strong foundation for
exploring his ideas, choosing the right research design and finding variables that actually are important
for the analysis. Most importantly, such a research can help organizations or researchers save up a lot of
time and resources, as it will enable the researcher to know if it worth pursuing.

2. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN:

Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics of the population
or phenomenon studied. This methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject than the
“why” of the research subject.

The descriptive research method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic segment,
without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the subject
of the research, without covering “why” it happens.

For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among New York
buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this region, gather population data and then conduct
descriptive research on this demographic segment. The study will then uncover details on “what is the
purchasing pattern of New York buyers,” but not cover any investigative information about “why” the
patterns exits. Because for the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature
of their market is the study’s objective.

Characteristics of descriptive research

The term descriptive research then refers to research questions, design of the study, and data analysis
conducted on that topic. We call it an observational research method because none of the research study
variables are influenced in any capacity.

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

a) Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to

collect quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular
market research tool that allows us to collect and describe the demographic segment’s nature.
b) Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any
way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables
or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
c) Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where
different sections belonging to the same group are studied.
d) The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data collected and analyzed
from descriptive research using different research techniques. The data can also help point
towards the types of research methods used for the subsequent research.

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Applications of descriptive research with examples

A descriptive research method can be used in multiple ways and for various reasons. Before getting into
any survey, though, the survey goals and survey design are crucial. Despite following these steps, there
is no way to know if one will meet the research outcome. How to use descriptive research? To understand
the end objective of research goals, below are some ways organizations currently use descriptive
research today:

 Define respondent characteristics:

The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw concrete conclusions about the respondents. This
could be the need to derive patterns, traits, and behaviors of the respondents. It could also be to
understand from a respondent, their attitude, or opinion about the phenomenon.

For example, understanding from millenials the hours per week they spend on browsing the internet.
All this information helps the organization researching to make informed business decisions.

 Measure data trends:

Researchers measure data trends over time with a descriptive research design’s statistical capabilities.
Consider if an apparel company researches different demographics like age groups from 24-35 and 36-
45 on a new range launch of rainy season wear. If one of those groups doesn’t take too well to the new
launch, it provides insight into what clothes are like and what is not. The brand drops the clothes and
apparel that customers don’t like.

 Conduct comparisons:

Organizations also use a descriptive research design to understand how different groups respond to a
specific product or service.

For example, an apparel brand creates a survey asking general questions that measure the brand’s
image. The same study also asks demographic questions like age, income, gender, geographical
location, etc. This consumer research helps the organization understand what aspects of the brand
appeal to the population and what aspects do not. It also helps make product or marketing fixes or
even create a new product line to cater to high growth potential groups.

 Validate existing conditions:

Researchers widely use descriptive research to help ascertain the research object’s prevailing conditions
and underlying patterns. Due to the non-invasive research method and the use of quantitative observation
and some aspects of qualitative observation, researchers observe each variable and conduct an in-depth
analysis. Researchers also use it to validate any existing conditions that may be prevalent in a population.

 Conduct research at different times:

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The analysis can be conducted at different periods to ascertain any similarities or differences. This also
allows any number of variables to be evaluated. For verification, studies on prevailing conditions can
also be repeated to draw trends.

Descriptive research methods

There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:

 Observational method

The observational method is the most effective method to conduct this research, and researchers make
use of both quantitative and qualitative observations.

A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data, which is primarily focused on numbers
and values. It suggests “associated with, of or depicted in terms of a quantity.” Results of quantitative
observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies observation of any
entity associated with a numeric value such as age, shape, weight, volume, scale, etc. For example, the
researcher can track if current customers will refer the brand using a simple Net Promoter Score
question.

Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring
characteristics. In this case, the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since the
respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and effective. In
a descriptive research design, the researcher can choose to be either a complete observer, an observer as
a participant, a participant as an observer, or a full participant. For example, in a supermarket, a
researcher can from afar monitor and track the customers’ selection and purchasing trends. This offers
a more in-depth insight into the purchasing experience of the customer.

 Case study method

Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead to a
hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies should not be
used to determine cause and effect as they can’t make accurate predictions because there could be a bias
on the researcher’s part. The other reason why case studies are not a reliable way of conducting
descriptive research is that there could be an atypical respondent in the survey. Describing them leads
to weak generalizations and moving away from external validity.

 Survey research

In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires or polls. They are a popular
market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. A study to gather useful data should have the
right survey questions. It should be a balanced mix of open-ended questions and close ended-questions.
The survey method can be conducted online or offline, making it the go-to option for descriptive research
where the sample size is enormous (large).

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Examples of descriptive research

Some examples of descriptive research are:

1. A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would like to understand what
flavors of rubs are favored by different people. To understand the preferred flavor palette, they
conduct this type of research study using various methods like observational methods in
supermarkets. By also surveying while collecting in-depth demographic information, offers
insights about the preference of different markets. This can also help tailor make the rubs and
spreads to various preferred meats in that demographic. Conducting this type of research helps
the organization tweak their business model and amplify marketing in core markets.

2. Another example of where this research can be used is if a school district wishes to evaluate
teachers’ attitudes about using technology in the classroom. By conducting surveys and
observing their comfortableness using technology through observational methods, the researcher
can gauge what they can help understand if a full-fledged implementation can face an issue. This
also helps in understanding if the students are impacted in any way with this change.

Some other problems and research questions that can lead to descriptive research are:

 Market researchers want to observe the habits of consumers.

 A company wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.
 A school district wants to understand if students will access online lessons rather than textbooks.
 To understand if its wellness programs enhance the overall health of the employees.

Advantages of descriptive research

Some of the significant advantages of descriptive research are:

 Data collection: A researcher can conduct descriptive research using specific methods like
observational method, case study method, and survey method. Between these three, all primary
data collection methods are covered, which provides a lot of information. This can be used for
future research or even developing a hypothesis of your research object.
 Varied: Since the data collected is qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic understanding
of a research topic. The information is varied, diverse, and thorough.
 Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted in the
respondent’s natural environment, which ensures that high-quality and honest data is collected.
 Quick to perform and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive research, the
data collection is quick to conduct and is inexpensive.

3. DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH DESIGN:

Being concerned with the express characteristics and existing social problems, the diagnostic research
design endeavors to find out relationship between express causes and also suggests ways and means for
the solution. Thus, the diagnostic studies are concerned with discovering and testing whether certain

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variables are associated. Such studies may also aim at determining the frequency with which something
occurs or the ways in which a phenomenon is associated with some other factors.

Diagnostic studies are mostly motivated by hypotheses. A primary description of a problem serves the
basis so as to relate the hypotheses with the source of the problem and only those data which form and
corroborate the hypotheses are collected. As regards the objectives of diagnostic research design, it is
based on such knowledge which can also be motivated or put into practice in the solution of the problem.
Therefore, it is obvious that the diagnostic design is concerned with both the case as well as the
treatment.

Diagnostic studies seek immediate to timely solution of the causal elements. The researcher, before
going through other references, endeavors to remove and solve the factors and the causes responsible
for giving rise to the problem.

The research design of diagnostic studies demands strict adherence to objectivity for elimination of any
chances of personal bias or prejudice. Utmost care is taken while taking decisions regarding the
variables, nature of observation to be made in the field, the type of evidence to be collected and tools of
data collection. Simultaneously the research economy should not be lost sight of. Any faulty decision in
these regard will result in wastage of time, energy and money.

Usually the first step in such designing is accurate formulation of research problem wherein research
objectives are precisely stated and principal areas of investigation are properly linked. Otherwise the
investigator will find it difficult to ensure the collection of required data in a systematic manner.
Simultaneously, the clarification of concepts and the operational definition of the terms should also be
ensured so as to make them emendable to measurement.

At the next stage certain decisions regarding collection of data are taken. In this regard, the researcher
should always bear in mind the advantages and disadvantages of the method to be employed and at the
same time the nature of research problem, type of data needed, degree of desired accuracy etc. should
be considered. That apart, while collecting data, effort must be made to maintain objectivity to the
maximum possible extent.

In order to surmount the financial constraints, paucity of time, a representative sample of the research
universe should be drawn so as to gather relevant information. A wide range of sampling techniques is
prevalent which must be made use of, appropriately by the researchers.

At the stage of analysis of data, the researcher must take proper care in placing each item in the
appropriate category, tabulating of data, applying statistical computations and so on.

Sufficient care must be taken to avoid potential errors due to faculty procedures of analysis of data.
Advance decisions regarding the mode of tabulation, whether manual or by machine, accuracy of
tabulating procedures, statistical application etc. will be of immense help in this regard.

4. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN:

Experimental research is research conducted with a scientific approach using two sets of variables. The
first set acts as a constant, which you use to measure the differences of the second set. Quantitative
research methods, for example, are experimental.

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If you don’t have enough data to support your decisions, you must first determine the facts. Experimental
research gathers the data necessary to help you make better decisions.

Any research conducted under scientifically acceptable conditions uses experimental methods. The
success of experimental studies hinges on researchers confirming the change of a variable is based solely
on the manipulation of the constant variable. The research should establish a notable cause and effect.

You can conduct experimental research in the following situations:

 Time is a vital factor in establishing a relationship between cause and effect.

 Invariable behavior between cause and effect.
 You wish to understand the importance of the cause and effect.

Types of experimental research design

The classic experimental design definition is, “The methods used to collect data in experimental
studies.”

There are three primary types of experimental design:

 Pre-experimental research design

 True experimental research design
 Quasi-experimental research design

The way you classify research subjects, based on conditions or groups, determines the type of design.

1. Pre-experimental research design: A group, or various groups, are kept under observation after
implementing factors of cause and effect. You’ll conduct this research to understand whether further
investigation is necessary for these particular groups.

You can break down pre-experimental research further in three types:

 One-shot Case Study Research Design

 One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design
 Static-group Comparison

2. True experimental research design: True experimental research relies on statistical analysis to
prove or disprove a hypothesis, making it the most accurate form of research. Of the types of
experimental design, only true design can establish a cause-effect relationship within a group. In a true
experiment, three factors need to be satisfied:

 There is a Control Group, which won’t be subject to changes, and an Experimental Group, which
will experience the changed variables.
 A variable which can be manipulated by the researcher
 Random distribution

This experimental research method commonly occurs in the physical sciences.

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3. Quasi-experimental research design: The word “Quasi” indicates similarity. A quasi-experimental
design is similar to experimental, but it is not the same. The difference between the two is the assignment
of a control group. In this research, an independent variable is manipulated, but the participants of a
group are not randomly assigned. Quasi-research is used in field settings where random assignment is
either irrelevant or not required.

Advantages of experimental research

It’s vital to test new ideas or theories. Why put time, effort, and funding into something that may not
work?

Experimental research allows you to test your idea in a controlled environment before taking it to market.
It also provides the best method to test your theory, thanks to the following advantages:

 Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired results.

 The subject or industry does not impact the effectiveness of experimental research. Any industry
can implement it for research purposes.
 The results are specific.
 After analyzing the results, you can apply your findings to similar ideas or situations.
 You can identify the cause and effect of a hypothesis. Researchers can further analyze this
relationship to determine more in-depth ideas.
 Experimental research makes an ideal starting point. The data you collect is a foundation on
which to build more ideas and conduct more research.

Whether you want to know how the public will react to a new product or if a certain food increases the
chance of disease, experimental research is the best place to start.

Basic Research Design for Quantitative Studies

Before designing a quantitative research study, you must decide whether it will be descriptive or
experimental because this will dictate how you gather, analyze, and interpret the results. A descriptive
study is governed by the following rules: subjects are generally measured once; the intention is to only
establish associations between variables; and, the study may include a sample population of hundreds
or thousands of subjects to ensure that a valid estimate of a generalized relationship between variables
has been obtained. An experimental design includes subjects measured before and after a particular
treatment, the sample population may be very small and purposefully chosen, and it is intended to
establish causality between variables.

Introduction

The introduction to a quantitative study is usually written in the present tense and from the third person
point of view. It covers the following information:

 Identifies the research problem -- as with any academic study, you must state clearly and
concisely the research problem being investigated.
 Reviews the literature -- review scholarship on the topic, synthesizing key themes and, if
necessary, noting studies that have used similar methods of inquiry and analysis. Note where key
gaps exist and how your study helps to fill these gaps or clarifies existing knowledge.
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  Describes the theoretical framework -- provide an outline of the theory or hypothesis
underpinning your study. If necessary, define unfamiliar or complex terms, concepts, or ideas
and provide the appropriate background information to place the research problem in proper
context [e.g., historical, cultural, economic, etc.].

Methodology

The methods section of a quantitative study should describe how each objective of your study will be
achieved. Be sure to provide enough detail to enable the reader can make an informed assessment of the
methods being used to obtain results associated with the research problem. The methods section should
be presented in the past tense.

 Study population and sampling -- where did the data come from; how robust is it; note where
gaps exist or what was excluded. Note the procedures used for their selection;
 Data collection – describe the tools and methods used to collect information and identify the
variables being measured; describe the methods used to obtain the data; and, note if the data was
pre-existing [i.e., government data] or you gathered it yourself. If you gathered it yourself,
describe what type of instrument you used and why. Note that no data set is perfect--describe
any limitations in methods of gathering data.
 Data analysis -- describe the procedures for processing and analyzing the data. If appropriate,
describe the specific instruments of analysis used to study each research objective, including
mathematical techniques and the type of computer software used to manipulate the data.

Results

The finding of your study should be written objectively and in a succinct and precise format. In
quantitative studies, it is common to use graphs, tables, charts, and other non-textual elements to help
the reader understand the data. Make sure that non-textual elements do not stand in isolation from the
text but are being used to supplement the overall description of the results and to help clarify key points
being made.

Statistical analysis -- how did you analyze the data? What were the key findings from the data? The
findings should be present in a logical, sequential order. Describe but do not interpret these trends or
negative results; save that for the discussion section. The results should be presented in the past tense.

Discussion

Discussions should be analytic, logical, and comprehensive. The discussion should meld together your
findings in relation to those identified in the literature review, and placed within the context of the
theoretical framework underpinning the study. The discussion should be presented in the present tense.

 Interpretation of results -- reiterate the research problem being investigated and compare and
contrast the findings with the research questions underlying the study. Did they affirm predicted
outcomes or did the data refute it?
 Description of trends, comparison of groups, or relationships among variables -- describe
any trends that emerged from your analysis and explain all unanticipated and statistical
insignificant findings.

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  Discussion of implications – what is the meaning of your results? Highlight key findings based
on the overall results and note findings that you believe are important. How have the results
helped fill gaps in understanding the research problem?
 Limitations -- describe any limitations or unavoidable bias in your study and, if necessary, note
why these limitations did not inhibit effective interpretation of the results.

Conclusion

End your study by to summarizing the topic and provide a final comment and assessment of the study.

 Summary of findings – synthesize the answers to your research questions. Do not report any
statistical data here; just provide a narrative summary of the key findings and describe what was
learned that you did not know before conducting the study.
 Recommendations – if appropriate to the aim of the assignment, tie key findings with policy
recommendations or actions to be taken in practice.
 Future research – note the need for future research linked to your study’s limitations or to any
remaining gaps in the literature that were not addressed in your study.

There are several research designs and the researcher must decide in advance of collection and analysis
of data as to which design would prove to be more appropriate for his research project. He must give
due weight to various points such as the type of universe and its nature, the objective of his study, the
resource list or the sampling frame, desired standard of accuracy and the like when taking a decision in
respect of the design for his research project.

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 MEASUREMENT AND SCALING TECHNIQUES

MEASUREMENT IN RESEARCH

In our daily life we are said to measure when we use some yardstick to determine weight, height, or
some other feature of a physical object. We also measure when we judge how well we like a song, a
painting or the personalities of our friends. We, thus, measure physical objects as well as abstract
concepts. Measurement is a relatively complex and demanding task, especially so when it concerns
qualitative or abstract phenomena. By measurement we mean the process of assigning numbers to
objects or observations, the level of measurement being a function of the rules under which the
numbers are assigned.

It is easy to assign numbers in respect of properties of some objects, but it is relatively difficult in respect
of others. For instance, measuring such things as social conformity, intelligence, or marital adjustment
is much less obvious and requires much closer attention than measuring physical weight, biological age
or a person’s financial assets. In other words, properties like weight, height, etc., can be measured
directly with some standard unit of measurement, but it is not that easy to measure properties like
motivation to succeed, ability to stand stress and the like. We can expect high accuracy in measuring the
length of pipe with a yard stick, but if the concept is abstract and the measurement tools are not
standardized, we are less confident about the accuracy of the results of measurement.

MEASUREMENT SCALES

From what has been stated above, we can write that scales of measurement can be considered in terms
of their mathematical properties. The most widely used classification of measurement scales are: (a)
nominal scale; (b) ordinal scale; (c) interval scale; and (d) ratio scale.

a) NOMINAL SCALE:

A Nominal Scale is a measurement scale, in which numbers serve as “tags” or “labels” only, to identify
or classify an object. A nominal scale measurement normally deals only with non-numeric
(quantitative) variables or where numbers have no value.

Below is an example of Nominal level of measurement.

Please select the degree of discomfort of the disease:

 1-Mild
 2-Moderate
 3-Severe

In this particular example, 1=Mild, 2=Moderate, and 3=Severe. Here numbers are simply used as tags
and have no value.

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Nominal scale possesses only the description characteristic which means it possesses unique labels to
identify or delegate values to the items. When nominal scale is used for the purpose of identification,
there is a strict one-to-one correlation between an object and the numeric value assigned to it. For
example, numbers are written on cars in a racing track. The numbers are there merely to identify the
driver associated with the car, it has nothing to do with characteristics of the car.

But when nominal scale is used for the purpose of classification, then the numbers assigned to the object
serve as tags to categorize or arrange objects in class. For example, in the case of a gender scale, an
individual can be categorized either as male or female. In this case, all objects in the category will have
the same number, for example, all males can be no. 1 and all females can be no. 2. Please note, that
nominal is purely used for counting purposes.

From a statistics point of view nominal scale is one of the easiest to understand measurement scale. As
mentioned earlier, nominal scale is assigned to items that are not quantitative or number oriented.

For example, let’s assume we have 5 colors, orange, blue, red, black and yellow. We could number them
in any order we like either 1 to 5 or 5 to 1 in ascending or descending order. Here numbers are assigned
to colors only to identify them. Another example of nominal scale from a research activity point to view
is YES/NO scale. It essentially has no order.

Characteristics of Nominal Scale

1. In nominal scale a variable is divided into two or more categories, for example, agree/disagree,
yes or no etc. It’s is a measurement mechanism in which answer to a particular question can fall
into either category.

2. Nominal scale is qualitative in nature, which means numbers are used here only to categorize or
identify objects. For example, football fans will be really excited, as the football world cup is
around the corner! Have you noticed numbers on a jersey of a football player? These numbers
have nothing to do with the ability of players, however, they can help identify the player.

3. In nominal scale, numbers don’t define the characteristics related to the object, which means
each number is assigned to one object. The only permissible aspect related to numbers in a
nominal scale is “counting.”

Nominal Scale Examples

Here are some of the examples of nominal measurement that will help in understand this measurement
scale better.

1. How would you describe your behavioral pattern?

 E-Extroverted
 I-Introverted
 A-Ambivert

2. What is your gender?

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  M-Male
 F-Female

3. Could you please select an option from below to describe your hair color?

 1-Black
 2-Brown
 3-Burgundy
 4-Auburn
 5-Other

There is a subtype in nominal scale with only two categories like one of the nominal scale examples
mentioned above: Gender- Male/Female. Or, do you own an iPhone? The answer could be Yes/No. This
subtype is known as dichotomous nominal scale.

b) ORDINAL SCALE

Ordinal scale is the 2nd level of measurement that reports the ranking and ordering of the data without
actually establishing the degree of variation between them. Ordinal level of measurement is the second
of the four measurement scales.

“Ordinal” indicates “order”. Ordinal data is quantitative data which have naturally occurring orders
and the difference between is unknown. It can be named, grouped and also ranked.

For example:

“How satisfied are you with our products?” “How happy are you with the customer service?”

 1- Totally Satisfied  1- Very Unhappy

 2- Satisfied  2- Unhappy
 3- Neutral  3- Neutral
 4- Dissatisfied  4- Unhappy
 5- Totally Dissatisfied  5- Very Unhappy

Survey respondents will choose between these options of satisfaction but the answer to “how much?”
will remain unanswered. The understanding of various scales helps statisticians and researchers so that
the use of data analysis techniques can be applied accordingly.

Thus, an ordinal scale is used as a comparison parameter to understand whether the variables are greater
or lesser than one another using sorting. The central tendency of the ordinal scale is Median.

Likert Scale is an example of why the interval difference between ordinal variables cannot be concluded.
In this scale the answer options usually polar such as, “Totally satisfied” to “Totally dissatisfied”.

The intensity of difference between these options can’t be related to specific values as the difference
value between totally satisfied and totally dissatisfied will be much larger than the difference between
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satisfied and neutral. If someone loves Mercedes Benz cars and is asked “How likely are you to
recommend Mercedes Benz to your friends and family?” will be troubled to choose between Extremely
likely and Likely. Thus, an ordinal scale is used when the order of options is to be deduced and not
when the interval difference is also to be established.

Ordinal Scale Characteristics

 Along with identifying and describing the magnitude, the ordinal scale shows the relative rank
of variables.
 The properties of the interval are not known.
 Measurement of non-numeric attributes such as frequency, satisfaction, happiness etc.
 In addition to the information provided by nominal scale, ordinal scale identifies the rank of
variables.
 Using this scale, survey makers can analyze the degree of agreement among respondents with
respect to the identified order of the variables.

Ordinal Scale Examples

 Ranking of high school students – 1st, 3rd, 4th, 10th… Nth. A student scoring 99/100 would be
the 1st rank, another student scoring 92/100 would be 3rd and so on and so forth.
 Rating surveys in restaurants – When a waiter gets a paper or online survey with a question:
“How satisfied are you with the dining experience?” having 0-10 option, 0 being extremely
dissatisfied and 10 being extremely satisfied.
 Likert Scale – The Likert scale is a variant of the ordinal scale that is used to calculate customer
or employee satisfaction.

Understanding the socio-economic background of the target audience– Rich, middle class, poor etc. fall
under the ordinal data category.

The frequency of occurrence – Questions such as “How frequently do you have to get the phone
repaired?”

 Very often
 Often
 Not Often
 Not at all
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Evaluating the degree of agreement – State your level of agreement with the company policies:

 Totally agree
 Agree
 Neutral
 Disagree
 Totally disagree

Understanding preferences: If a marketer conducts surveys to understand which laptop brand do their
respondents do not prefer, they can use the ordinal scale. Out of the five mentioned laptop brand, rate
the order of preference –

o HP
o Apple
o Lenovo
o Dell
o Acer

Advantages of Ordinal Scale

 The primary advantage of using ordinal scale is the ease of comparison between variables.
 Extremely convenient to group the variables after ordering them.
 Effectively used in surveys, polls, and questionnaires due to the simplicity of analysis and
categorization. Collected responses are easily compared to draw impactful conclusions about the
target audience.
 As the values are indicated in a relative manner using a linear rating scale, the results are more
informative than the nominal scale.

3. RATIO SCALE

Ratio scale is a type of variable measurement scale which is quantitative in nature. Ratio scale allows
any researcher to compare the intervals or differences. Ratio scale is the 4th level of measurement and
possesses a zero point or character of origin. This is a unique feature of ratio scale. For example, the
temperature outside is 0-degree Celsius. 0 degree doesn’t mean it’s not hot or cold, it is a value.

Following example of ratio level of measurement to help understand the scale better.

Please select which age bracket do you fall in?

 Below 20 years
 21-30 years
 31-40 years
 41-50 years
 50 years and above

Ratio scale has most of the characteristics of the other three variable measurement scale i.e nominal,
ordinal and interval. Nominal variables are used to “name,” or label a series of values. Ordinal scales
provide a sufficiently good amount of information about the order of choices, such as one would be able
to understand from using a customer satisfaction survey. Interval scales give us the order of values and
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also about the ability to quantify the difference between each one. Ratio scale helps to understand the
ultimate-order, interval, values, and the true zero characteristic is an essential factor in calculating
ratios.

A ratio scale is the most informative scale as it tends to tell about the order and number of the object
between the values of the scale. The most common examples of ratio scale are height, money, age,
weight etc. With respect to market research, the common examples that are observed are sales, price,
number of customers, market share etc.

Characteristics of Ratio Scale

1. Ratio scale, as mentioned earlier has an absolute zero characteristic. It has orders and equally
distanced value between units. The zero point characteristic makes it relevant or meaningful to
say, “One object has twice the length of the other” or “is twice as long.”

2. Ratio scale doesn’t have a negative number, unlike interval scale because of the absolute zero or
zero point characteristic. To measure any object on a ratio scale, researchers must first see if the
object meets all the criteria for interval scale plus has an absolute zero characteristic.

3. Ratio scale provides unique possibilities for statistical analysis. In ratio scale, variables can be
systematically added, subtracted, multiplied and divided (ratio). All statistical analysis including
mean, mode, and the median can be calculated using ratio scale. Also, chi-square can be
calculated on ratio scale variable.

4. Ratio scale has ratio scale units which have several unique and useful properties. One of them is
they allow unit conversion. Take an example of calculation of energy flow. Several units of
energy occur like Joules, gram-calories, kilogram-calories, British thermal units. Still more units
of energy per unit time (power) exist kilocalories per day, liters of oxygen per hour, ergs, and
Watts.

Ratio Scale Examples

The following are the most commonly used examples for ratio scale:

1. What is your height in feet and inches?

 Less than 5 feet.

 5 feet 1 inch – 5 feet 5 inches
 5 feet 6 inches- 6 feet
 More than 6 feet

2. What is your weight in kgs?

 Less than 50 kgs

 51- 70 kgs
 71- 90 kgs
 91-110 kgs
 More than 110 kgs

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3. How much time do you spend daily watching television?

 Less than 2 hours

 3-4 hours
 4-5 hours
 5-6 hours
 More than 6 hours

Let us take the example of speed to understand this scale better.

Physics defines speed as speed is the distance traveled per unit time. Here the unit for time can be kept
constant and a unit for distance traveled can vary, for example, can be in kilometers or miles which
means 20 km/hour is equivalent to 12.43 mph.

Advantages of Ratio Scale

 A ratio scale has a point zero characteristic, where the value of the variable has no value at all.
Weight, height etc can be calculated on ratio scale because they have a real zero value. However,
the temperature cannot be measured on this scale because zero degree celsius doesn’t mean there
is no cold or heat for that matter. But most of the scientific variables can be measured on a ratio
scale.
 Point zero is an essential characteristic to measure a ratio between any two variables because in
the absence of zero there is no ratio. So without a zero would it make any sense to say, “Tom is
driving at a speed of 100 km/hour, which is double the speed at which Thelma is driving, which
is 50 Km/hr?”
 This scale is used to calculate all the scientific variables. In fact, in the absence of a ratio scale,
scientific variables cannot be measured.

4. INTERVAL SCALE

The interval scale is a quantitative measurement scale where there is order, the difference between the
two variables is meaningful and equal, and the presence of zero is arbitrary. It measures variables that
exist along a common scale at equal intervals. The measures used to calculate the distance between the
variables are highly reliable.

The interval scale is the third level of measurement after the nominal scale and the ordinal scale.
Understanding the first two levels will help you differentiate interval measurements. A nominal scale is
used when variables do not have a natural order or ranking. You can include numbered or unnumbered
variables, but common survey examples include gender, location, political party, pets, and so on.

In contrast, on an ordinal scale, the rank of variables matters, but the difference or distance between the
variables doesn’t. Think about price range filters for online shopping. You can select “less than $25,”
“$26 up to $50,” and so forth, but the difference between them is not relevant. Likewise, the ranking of
variables such as “Would not recommend” and “Would highly recommend” matters, but the difference
between them does not unless that difference is represented by another variable.

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Characteristics of interval scale

 Now that you’re familiar with the first two scales of measurement, it’s much easier to understand
the interval scale. In a sense, it’s the combination of the other scales. The trickiest part about the
interval scale is probably the fact that there is no true zero. But when you think about it, some
variables do not have a universally constant zero. Consider this interval scale example:
temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.
 If you’re analyzing temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit, say 20-40 degrees and 40-60 degrees,
there is order and difference between variables is meaningful, but the presence of zero is
arbitrary. How is zero arbitrary? Zero degrees on the Fahrenheit (and Celsius) scale is not a
universal constant but instead assigned to represent the temperature at which brine made from
equal parts of ice, water, and salt freezes.
 Let’s not get too wrapped up in the particulars of temperature, though. Your surveys will likely
focus on other variables. It is easy to remember the objective of this scale because “interval”
refers to the interval (or distance) between two variables. Another way to remember the interval
scale is that the data between two variables can be added or subtracted, but not multiplied or
divided. This is unlike the ratio scale, where division is defined between two variables.

Interval scale examples

Questions that can be measured on the interval scale are the most commonly used question types in
research studies. To receive answers in the form of interval data, you need to limit feedback options to
variables that can be assigned a numerical value where the difference between the two variables is equal.

You have probably seen the following scales used in a research study: agreement, satisfaction levels, or
likelihood. The survey needs to be scaled so variables can meet the criteria of interval measurement.
Otherwise, the data you receive in feedback will be difficult to quantify.

Consider these questions as you write your next survey. They are all compatible with the interval scale
and offer actionable data:

Consider these questions as you write your next survey. They are all compatible with the interval scale
and offer actionable data:

Likert Scale

One of the most commonly used interval scale questions is arranged on a five-point Likert
Scale question, where each emotion is denoted with a number, and the variables range from extremely
dissatisfied to extremely satisfied.

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The interval scale gives survey strategists the ability to quantify and differentiate between options so
your feedback can contribute to meaningful goals and results. It’s often more effective for most
businesses and scientific studies than the nominal scale or ordinal scale, as it can account for quantitative
outcomes.

TESTS OF SOUND MEASUREMENT

Test of Sound measurement must meet the tests of validity, reliability and practicality. In fact, these are
the three major considerations one should use in evaluating a measurement tool. “Validity refers to the
extent to which a test measures what we actually wish to measure. Reliability has to do with the accuracy
and precision of a measurement procedure ... Practicality is concerned with a wide range of factors of
economy, convenience, and interpretability ...” We briefly take up the relevant details concerning these
tests of sound measurement.

1. TEST OF VALIDITY

Validity is the most critical criterion and indicates the degree to which an instrument measures what it
is supposed to measure. Validity can also be thought of as utility. In other words, validity is the extent
to which differences found with a measuring instrument reflect true differences among those being
tested. But the question arises: how can one determine validity without direct confirming knowledge?
The answer may be that we seek other relevant evidence that confirms the answers we have found with
our measuring tool.

What is relevant, evidence often depends upon the nature of the research problem and the judgment of
the researcher. But one can certainly consider four types of validity in this connection: (i) Content
validity; (ii) Criterion-related validity, (iii) Construct validity and (iv) Face validity.

i. Content validity:

Content validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate coverage of the topic
under study. If the instrument contains a representative sample of the universe, the content validity is
good. Its determination is primarily judgmental and intuitive. It can also be determined by using a panel
of persons who shall judge how well the measuring instrument meets the standards, but there is no
numerical way to express it.

Example

A mathematics teacher develops an end-of-semester algebra test for her class. The test should cover
every form of algebra that was taught in the class. If some types of algebra are left out, then the results
may not be an accurate indication of students’ understanding of the subject. Similarly, if she includes
questions that are not related to algebra, the results are no longer a valid measure of algebra knowledge.

ii. Construct validity:

Construct validity is about ensuring that the method of measurement matches the construct you want
to measure. If you develop a questionnaire to diagnose depression, you need to know: does the
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questionnaire really measure the construct of depression? Or is it actually measuring the respondent’s
mood, self-esteem, or some other construct?

To achieve construct validity, you have to ensure that your indicators and measurements are carefully
developed based on relevant existing knowledge. The questionnaire must include only relevant
questions that measure known indicators of depression.

For example

An example could be a doctor testing the effectiveness of painkillers on chronic back sufferers. Every
day, he asks the test subjects to rate their pain level on a scale of one to ten - pain exists, we all know
that, but it has to be measured subjectively. In this case, construct validity would test whether the doctor
actually was measuring pain and not numbness, discomfort, anxiety or any other factor.

iii. Criterion-related validity

Criterion validity (or criterion-related validity) measures how well one measure predicts an outcome for
another measure. A test has this type of validity if it is useful for predicting performance or behavior in
another situation (past, present, or future).

For example:

 A job applicant takes a performance test during the interview process. If this test accurately
predicts how well the employee will perform on the job, the test is said to have criterion validity.
 A graduate student takes the GRE. The GRE has been shown as an effective tool (i.e. it has
criterion validity) for predicting how well a student will perform in graduate studies.

iv. Face validity

Face validity considers how suitable the content of a test seems to be on the surface. It’s similar to
content validity, but face validity is a more informal and subjective assessment.

Example

You create a survey to measure the regularity of people’s dietary habits. You review the survey items,
which ask questions about every meal of the day and snacks eaten in between for every day of the week.
On its surface, the survey seems like a good representation of what you want to test, so you consider it
to have high face validity.

As face validity is a subjective measure, it’s often considered the weakest form of validity. However, it
can be useful in the initial stages of developing a method.

2. TEST OF RELIABILITY

The test of reliability is another important test of sound measurement. A measuring instrument is reliable
if it provides consistent results. Reliable measuring instrument does contribute to validity, but a reliable
instrument need not be a valid instrument. For instance, a scale that consistently overweighs objects by

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five kgs., is a reliable scale, but it does not give a valid measure of weight. But the other way is not true
i.e., a valid instrument is always reliable. Accordingly reliability is not as valuable as validity, but it is
easier to assess reliability in comparison to validity. If the quality of reliability is satisfied by an
instrument, then while using it we can be confident that the transient and situational factors are not
interfering.

Two aspects of reliability viz., stability and equivalence deserve special mention.

The stability aspect is concerned with securing consistent results with repeated measurements of the
same person and with the same instrument. We usually determine the degree of stability by comparing
the results of repeated measurements.

The equivalence aspect considers how much error may get introduced by different investigators or
different samples of the items being studied. A good way to test for the equivalence of measurements
by two investigators is to compare their observations of the same events. Reliability can be improved in
the following two ways:

 By standardizing the conditions under which the measurement takes place i.e., we must
ensure that external sources of variation such as boredom, fatigue, etc., are minimized to
the extent possible. That will improve stability aspect.
 By carefully designed directions for measurement with no variation from group to group,
by using trained and motivated persons to conduct the research and also by broadening
the sample of items used. This will improve equivalence aspect.

3. TEST OF PRACTICALITY

The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in terms of economy,

convenience and interpretability. From the operational point of view, the measuring instrument ought to
be practical i.e., it should be economical, convenient and interpretable. Economy consideration suggests
that some trade-off is needed between the ideal research project and that which the budget can afford.
The length of measuring instrument is an important area where economic pressures are quickly felt.
Although more items give greater reliability as stated earlier, but in the interest of limiting the interview
or observation time, we have to take only few items for our study purpose.

Similarly, data-collection methods to be used are also dependent at times upon economic factors.
Convenience test suggests that the measuring instrument should be easy to administer. For this purpose
one should give due attention to the proper layout of the measuring instrument. For instance, a
questionnaire, with clear instructions (illustrated by examples), is certainly more effective and easier to
complete than one which lacks these features. Interpretability consideration is specially important when
persons other than the designers of the test are to interpret the results.

The measuring instrument, in order to be interpretable, must be supplemented by (a) detailed

instructions for administering the test; (b) scoring keys; (c) evidence about the reliability and (d)
guides for using the test and for interpreting results.

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 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design/plan
chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the researcher
should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary. The primary data are those which
are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character. The secondary
data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have
already been passed through the statistical process. The researcher would have to decide which sort of
data he would be using (thus collecting) for his study and accordingly he will have to select one or the
other method of data collection. The methods of collecting primary and secondary data differ since
primary data are to be originally collected, while in case of secondary data the nature of data collection
work is merely that of compilation. We describe the different methods of data collection, with the pros
and cons of each method.

Here are the top six data collection methods:

1. Interviews
2. Questionnaires and surveys
3. Observations
4. Documents and records
5. Focus groups
6. Oral histories

We’ll go into more detail about each later.

QUALITATIVE VS QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Some of the methods covered here are quantitative, dealing with something that can be counted. Others
are qualitative, meaning that they consider factors other than numerical values. In general,
questionnaires, surveys, and documents and records are quantitative, while interviews, focus
groups, observations, and oral histories are qualitative. There can also be crossover between the two
methods.

1. QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Data analysis can take various formats. The method you choose depends on the subject matter of your
research.

Quantitative methods, such as surveys, large-scale benchmarks, and prioritization, answer the question
“How much?” But these methods can leave the question “Why?” unanswered. This is where qualitative
data collection methods come into play.

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Understanding qualitative data collection

Qualitative data collection looks at several factors to provide a depth of understanding to raw data. While
qualitative methods involve the collection, analysis, and management of data, instead of counting
responses or recording numeric data, this method aims to assess factors like the thoughts and feelings
of research participants. Qualitative data collection methods go beyond recording events to create
context.

With this enhanced view, researchers can

 Describe the environment. Understanding where observations take place can add meaning to
recorded numbers.
 Identify the people involved in the study. If research is limited to a particular group of people,
whether intentionally or as a function of demographics or other factors, this information can
inform the results.
 Describe the content of the study. Sometimes, the specific activities involved in research and
how messages about the study were delivered and received may illuminate facts about the study.
 Interact with study participants. Interactions between respondents and research staff can provide
valuable information about the results.
 Be aware of external factors. Unanticipated events can affect research outcomes. Qualitative data
collection methods allow researchers to identify these events and weave them into their results
narrative, which is nearly impossible to do with just a quantitative approach.

Qualitative research methods

There are three commonly used qualitative data collection methods: ethnographic, theory grounded, and
phenomenological.

Ethnography comes from anthropology, the study of human societies and cultures. Ethnography seeks
to understand how people live their lives. Through this method, researchers veer away from the specific
and practical questions that traditional market researchers use and instead observe the participants in a
no directed way. This approach is intended to reveal behaviors from a subject’s perspective rather than
from the view of the researchers.

Ethnography helps fill in the blanks when a participant may not be able to articulate their desires or the
reasons for their decisions or behaviors. Instead of, or in addition to, asking why a participant acts a
certain way, researchers use observation to understand the why behind these desires, decisions, or
behaviors.

Grounded theory arose when sociological researchers sought to provide a level of legitimacy to
qualitative research — to ground it in reality rather than assumptions. Before this method, qualitative
data analysis was actually done before any quantitative data was collected, so it was disconnected from
the collection and analysis process.

Grounded theory uses the following methods:

 Participant observation. Researchers immerse themselves in the daily lives of subjects.

Another term for this is “fieldwork.”
 Interviews. These can vary in formality from informal chats to structured interviews.
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  Document and artifact collection. Grounded theory often is about more than observation and
interviews. Researchers can learn about a group of people from looking at materials the group
used. For example, a local community’s laws may shed light on opinions and provide a clearer
picture of residents’ sentiments.

Sometimes, a person’s true colors emerge only when they are genuinely put to the test. As such,
phenomenology describes how people experience certain events or unique encounters. This method
measures reactions to occurrences that are outside of the norm, so it’s essential to understand the whole
picture, not just facts and figures.

An example of phenomenology is studying the experiences of individuals involved in a natural disaster.

To analyze data from such an event, the researcher must become familiar with the data; focus the
analysis on the subject matter, time period, or other factors; and categorize the data.

Completing these tasks gives the researcher a framework for understanding how the natural disaster
impacts people. Together, the understanding, focus, and organization help researchers identify patterns,
make connections, interpret data, and explain findings.

Each of these qualitative data collection methods sheds light on factors that can be hidden in simple data
analysis. Qualitative data is one way to add context and reality to raw numbers. Often, researchers find
value in a hybrid approach, where qualitative data collection methods are used alongside quantitative
ones.

2. Quantitative data collection methods

Marketers, scientists, academics, and others may start a study with a predetermined hypothesis, but
their research often begins with the collection of data.

Initially, the collected data is unstructured. Various facts and figures may or may not have context. A
researcher’s job is to make sense of this data, and the choice of data collection method often helps.

Using data to determine values

One of the most widely used methods of collecting information for research purposes is quantitative
data collection. Quantitative analysis relates to evaluating a numerical result. A classic example is a
survey, which asks questions to collect responses that shed light on trends, preferences, actions,
opinions, and any other element that can be counted.

Quantitative data collection methods are popular because they are relatively straightforward. Using these
methods, researchers ask questions to collect sets of facts and figures. Quantitative data is measurable
and expressed in numerical form.

While this seems like a fairly simple concept, like many aspects of research, there are various approaches
to quantitative data collection that depend on the particular research being conducted.

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 Different quantitative research approaches

Researchers use four different primary quantitative research designs: descriptive, correlational,
experimental, and quasi-experimental.

i. Descriptive research

Descriptive research explains the current status of a variable using observational data collection. Often,
the researcher begins without a hypothesis and lets the data steer the direction of the study.

A simple example of quantitative descriptive research is a study that collects and tabulates test scores.
Descriptive research frequently uses charts and tables to illustrate results.

While a descriptive approach is often quantitative, it can be qualitative. Descriptive data collection asks
questions such as “What is X?”

ii. Correlational research

Correlational research seeks to collect data that shows relationships between different occurrences. A
positive correlation is one in which two variables either increase or decrease at the same time. A negative
correlation is when an increase in one variable means a decrease in another.

There is also a zero correlation result, in which the relationship between two variables is insignificant.
Correlation helps make predictions based on historical relationships and in determining the validity and
reliability of a study.

An example of correlational data would be how a person’s height often correlates to their weight — the
taller one gets, usually the heavier they are. This is a positive correlation.

iii. Experimental research

Experimental research, also known as “true experimentation,” uses the scientific method to determine
the cause-and-effect relationship between variables. This method uses controls for all of the crucial
factors that could potentially affect the phenomena of interest. Using the experimental method,
researchers randomly assign participants in an experiment to either the control or treatment groups.

iv. Quasi-experimental research

Quasi-experimental research, also known as “causal-comparative,” is similar to experimental

research. Since it’s often impossible or impractical to control for all factors involved, quasi-experimental
methods don’t control for some factors but otherwise follow the scientific method to establish a cause-
and-effect relationship.

In both of these types of studies, independent variables are manipulated. But experimental data
collection methods use random assignment and sampling, whereas quasi-experimental methods don’t
randomize assignment or sampling or both.

Experimental methods are known for producing results that are both internally and externally valid,
meaning that the study is conducted, or structured, well (internal validity) and the findings are applicable
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to the real world (external validity). Quasi-experimental methods, on the other hand, produce results of
questionable internal validity.

Application of quantitative methods in practice

There are a number of ways researchers can put different types of quantitative data collection into action
without using experiments.

Quantitative surveys enable researchers to ask closed-ended questions with a provided list of possible
answers. This method is easier for respondents, as they just pick from a list of responses. It’s an ideal
solution for larger-scale studies that could become unwieldy with the type of open-ended questions often
associated with qualitative surveys.

Because the questions and answers are standardized, researchers can use the results to make
generalizations. Closed-ended questions, however, can be limiting. A respondent may not see their
answer in the given choices.

Quantitative interviews are typically conducted face to face, over the phone, or via the internet. They
enable researchers to not only collect information but also tailor the questions to the audience on the
spot. This can help add some “why” to the “how much” collected through quantifiable means.

WHAT ARE SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION METHODS?

Since most research involves the collection of data, there are several methods for direct, or primary,
data collection, including surveys, questionnaires, direct observations, and focus groups.

While primary data collection is considered the most authoritative and authentic data collection
method, there are several instances where secondary data collection methods can provide value.

Understanding secondary data collection

What is secondary data collection, and why would a researcher employ it in addition to primary data?
Think of secondary data as second-hand data. It’s someone else’s research, another person’s original
bank of knowledge.

Second-hand data can add insight to a research project, and using secondary data is more efficient and
less expensive than collecting primary data. So how can someone else’s research be valuable to your
independent study? Answering this question involves understanding how a lot of research is initiated
today.

The role of the government in statistical research

For a variety of reasons, lots of governmental entities and agencies collect demographic and other
information on people. Governments collect data through various means, sometimes as part of other
activities. The census is a primary example of valuable governmental primary data collection that can
be used as a secondary data collection method in other research studies.

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Several nonprofit and governmental entities specialize in collecting data to feed the efforts of other
researchers.

Other sources of secondary data

While governments are sources of useful information, they aren’t the only suppliers of secondary data.
Commercial sources include research and trade associations, such as banks, publicly traded
corporations, and others.

Educational institutions are also reliable sources of secondary data. Many colleges and universities have
dedicated research arms that leverage data for educational purposes. This data can often assist others in
unrelated studies.

The value of secondary data

There is more to secondary data than the fact that it is cheaper than primary data; however, cost is a
major reason why this data is used. If the information you need is already available, it simply makes
sense to use it rather than to replicate it.

Sometimes primary data is unnecessary for a particular research goal. You should first determine
whether or not your research questions have already been asked and answered. If so, you can devote
your data collection budget to expand on what has already been determined through other unrelated
projects.

The cost of collecting primary data can be considerable. While using secondary data is cheaper, it also
saves time. Time has a value of its own in research, allowing for greater emphasis on studying results.

Ultimately, using secondary data saves time and money, which facilitates a more in-depth study of the
subject. Combined with primary research, secondary data can help researchers better understand their
subjects and more efficiently prepare and organize results.

Top 6 data collection tools

1. Interviews

If you asked someone completely unaware of data analysis how to best collect information from people,
the most common answer would likely be interviews.

Almost anyone can come up with a list of questions, but the key to efficient interviews is knowing what
to ask. Efficiency in interviewing is crucial because, of all the primary data collection methods, in-
person interviewing can be the most expensive.

There are ways to limit the cost of interviews, such as conducting them over the phone or through a web
chat interface. But sometimes an in-person interview can be worth the cost, as the interviewer can tailor
follow-up questions based on responses in a real-time exchange.

Interviews also allow for open-ended questions. Compared to other primary data collection methods,
such as surveys, interviews are more customizable and responsive.
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 2. Observation

Observation involves collecting information without asking questions. This method is more subjective,
as it requires the researcher, or observer, to add their judgment to the data. But in some circumstances,
the risk of bias is minimal.

For example, if a study involves the number of people in a restaurant at a given time, unless the observer
counts incorrectly, the data should be reasonably reliable. Variables that require the observer to make
distinctions, such as how many millennials visit a restaurant in a given period, can introduce potential
problems.

In general, observation can determine the dynamics of a situation, which generally cannot be measured
through other data collection techniques. Observation also can be combined with additional information,
such as video.

3. Documents and records

Sometimes you can collect a considerable amount of data without asking anyone anything. Document-
and records-based research uses existing data for a study. Attendance records, meeting minutes, and
financial records are just a few examples of this type of research.

Using documents and records can be efficient and inexpensive because you’re predominantly using
research that has already been completed. However, since the researcher has less control over the results,
documents and records can be an incomplete data source.

4. Focus groups

A combination of interviewing, surveying, and observing, a focus group is a data collection method that
involves several individuals who have something in common. The purpose of a focus group is to add
a collective element to individual data collection.

A focus group study can ask participants to watch a presentation, for example, then discuss the content
before answering survey or interview-style questions.

Focus groups often use open-ended questions such as, “How did you feel about the presentation?” or
“What did you like best about the product?” The focus group moderator can ask the group to think back
to the shared experience, rather than forward to the future.

Open-ended questions ground the research in a particular state of mind, eliminating external
interference.

5. Oral histories

At first glance, an oral history might sound like an interview. Both data collection methods involve
asking questions. But an oral history is more precisely defined as the recording, preservation, and
interpretation of historical information based on the opinions and personal experiences of people who
were involved in the events.

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Unlike interviews and surveys, oral histories are linked to a single phenomenon. For example, a
researcher may be interested in studying the effect of a flood on a community. An oral history can shed
light on exactly what transpired. It’s a holistic approach to evaluation that uses a variety of techniques.

As in interviewing, the researcher can become a confounding variable. A confounding variable is an

extra, unintended variable that can skew your results by introducing bias and suggesting a correlation
where there isn’t one.

The classic example is the correlation between murder rates and ice cream sales. Both figures have, at
one time or another, risen together. An unscientific conclusion may be that the more people buy ice
cream, the higher the occurrence of murder.

However, there is a third possibility that an additional variable affects both of these occurrences. In the
case of ice cream and murder, the other variable is the weather. Warmer weather is a confounding
variable to both murder rates and ice cream sales.

6. Questionnaires and surveys

Questionnaires and surveys can be used to ask questions that have closed-ended answers.

Data gathered from questionnaires and surveys can be analyzed in many different ways. You can assign
numerical values to the data to speed up the analysis. This can be useful if you’re collecting a large
amount of data from a large population.

To be meaningful, surveys and questionnaires need to be carefully planned. Unlike an interview, where
a researcher can react to the direction of a respondent’s answers, a poorly designed questionnaire will
lead the study nowhere quickly. While surveys are often less expensive than interviews, they won’t be
valuable if they aren’t handled correctly.

Surveys can be conducted as interviews, but in most cases, it makes sense to conduct surveys using
forms.

Online forms are a modern and effective way to conduct surveys. Unlike written surveys, which are
static, the questions presented in online forms can change according to how someone responds. For
instance, if you use JotForm to create your forms, when someone answers no to a question about
allergies, they won’t have to scroll past all of the related follow-up questions about specific allergies.
Instead, they’ll go immediately to a question on a different topic.

SAMPLING METHODS IN DATA COLLECTION

Imagine that your business serves a substantial population. Maybe you have a massive customer list
(which most businesses would love), or you’re trying to gain some insights on a large group, such as
the residents of a large city. In most cases, it’s impractical to try to reach each member of this
population.

Sampling is the process of identifying a subset of a population that provides an accurate reflection on
the whole. It can be a tricky process, as populations are often diverse. However, there are some
statistical methods that can make sure a small subset of the community accurately represents the whole
group.
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There are five generally accepted sampling methods. Below is an overview of these methods, the pros
and cons of each, and how they can be put to work in your research.

1. Random sampling

Just as its name indicates, random sampling involves picking respondents with no design or order, like
picking names out of a hat. While randomness may seem unscientific, this method can be valuable in
research, and in fact, is the preferred way of sampling, as a truly random sample eliminates elements
that can affect the validity of a study.

Randomness requires some planning. For example, randomly picking pedestrians in Manhattan’s Times
Square on a Saturday afternoon will give the researcher a reasonably diverse cross-section of tourists.
This would not, however, be an excellent way to test native New Yorkers who often shun the area,
especially on weekends.

Computer-generated lists can aid in achieving randomness.

2. Systematic sampling

Easier than random sampling, systematic sampling follows a set of rules to create regularity in sampling.
An example is interviewing every tenth customer. As long as you follow the counting system, you’ll
know that there’s some order to the process.

Systematic sampling retains some of the benefits of randomness, but it can be too rigid in cases where,
for example, the researcher knows that the counting system is going to result in data that skews one way
or another — for instance, if someone is interviewing every tenth customer and every tenth person winds
up being a female in the same age range.

3. Convenience sampling

This is the easiest sampling method but also the least reliable. Convenience sampling involves gathering
information from whoever is closest and easiest to reach. An example would be asking coworkers in the
same office a question, rather than questioning every employee at the company, since going to other
offices might take more time and effort. Convenience sampling can also involve using whatever data is
readily available.

Sometimes, convenience sampling can be effective, such as to gain initial primary data on brand
impressions or product redesigns, where participant diversity or inclusion criteria may be less important.

4. Clustered sampling

With clustered sampling, a researcher uses the subgroups of a population instead of individuals. Clusters
are often predefined, such as municipalities in a study about the effect of a particular phenomenon across
the country.

Clustered sampling is further broken down into different types — single-stage cluster sampling, where
all individuals in a cluster are included in the sample, or two-stage cluster sampling, where only random
individuals within the cluster are chosen.

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The main benefit of clustered sampling is that some of the work is already done: A group is already
clearly defined. Therefore, it can be more efficient than other methods. However, there can be bias in
the study if the clusters do not accurately represent the population as a whole.

5. Stratified sampling

Another method that uses subgroups is stratified sampling. This data collection method involves
dividing a population into subgroups that share similar characteristics.

For example, a study can break respondents down by gender or age. When the components are easy to
determine, like gender or age, the risk of bias is low, especially if the data comes from the respondents.
Stratified sampling reduces bias, but sometimes characteristics are difficult to ascertain, which can either
frustrate the sampling process or invite bias.

Stratified and cluster sampling may sound similar. Here’s the critical difference: In stratified sampling,
individuals are randomly selected from each group (or strata). In cluster sampling, only certain clusters
are used.

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