TRIBHUWAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING

PASCHIMANCHAL CAMPUS
LAMACHAUR, POKHARA-16

SURVEY CAMP REPORT-2078

SUBMITTED TO:

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PASCHIMANCHAL CAMPUS
SUBMITTED BY;

GROUP -A

 AABHISKAR PAUDEL (PAS075BCE001)

 AADARSHA TIMILSINA (PAS075BCE002)
 GOMA BHUJEL (PAS075BCE049)
 NIKHIL GUPTA (PAS075BCE070)
 SAURAV KARN (PAS075BCE118)
 SUMAN DAHAL (PAS075BCE139)
 SUJAN ARYAL (PAS075BCE133)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report is the outcome result of survey camp of Paschimanchal Campus,
IOE (lamachaur, Pokhara) carried by Group A, which is held from the date of 2021-
08-10 to 2021-08-19.

The purpose of this fieldwork was to make each student independent to carry
out the work in real problems in the field. We think the purpose is suitable for
further work and which make us produce the report of the fieldwork in time. We are
sincerely indebted to IOE WRC for providing the opportunity to consolidate our
theoretical and practical knowledge in engineering surveying.

I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to Er. Shailendra Adhikari (HOD),

Er. Hareram Timalsina(Coordinator) , Er. Kishor Kumar Bhandari, Er. Subash Chandra
Lal Karna, Er. Brijendra K.C, and Er. Kiran Neupane for their vital encouragement and
support in the completion of the project report. I would like to thank Mr. Dil Bahadur
Thapa who cooperated with us in the matter of guidance to provide instruments.,
our friends who managed us food, transportation to carry instruments and everyone
who came across and were friendly during our project. Without their support and
guidance this project wouldn’t be possible to carry out successfully.

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ABSTRACT
This report is prepared for the fulfillment of the Survey Camp 2078. included in IOE
syllabus conducted by the Department of Civil Engineering, Paschimanchal Campus,
Pokhara. The survey camp was held from the date 10 th mangsir 2078 to 19th Mangsir 2078.
In this report our team has prepared topographical map of the given area of campus, plan,
cross-section, longitudinal section (L-Section) of road near Kali khola, cross- longitudinal
section (L-Section) of Kali khola river (bridge site), cross-section of Kali khola river, counter
plan of river fulfilling all technical requirements. In this regard we have carried out
necessary field work in our group from where we got opportunity to the decision on
planning and execution of field works for the preparation of topographic map, detail road
and bridge site survey Every effort has been taken to ensure the accuracy in the report. We
would be grateful for bringing out errors if any and we are open to any sorts of feedback
and suggestions.

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WORKING SCHEDULE
Location : Paschimanchal Campus Premises and Kalikhola

Duration : From 10th Mangsir to 19th Mangsir 2078

Working Time : 6:00 AM to 6:00 PM

Class : 6 PM to 6:45 AM

S.N. Date Survey Field Work

1 10th Mangsir Reconnaissance, Station fixing, Distance measurement for
major traverse and minor traverse by of it tape

2 11th Mangsir Distance and angular measurement and bearing

observation for major and minor traverse using total
station

3 12th Mangsir Two peg tests, fly leveling and RL transfer to the stations
4 13th Mangsir Traverse calculation, making grid and computation
5 14th Mangsir Selection of an alignment for the road
6 15th Mangsir Level transfer on IP, BC, EC of the road and detail survey

7 16th Mangsir Completion of minor traverse and Detailing by total

station

8 17th Mangsir Detailing by total station

9 18th Mangsir Detail survey of selected alignment and Bridge site survey
and reciprocal leveling

10 19th Mangsir Bridge site survey and closing of Camp 2078

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FIGURE INDEX

S.N. FIGURE NAME OF FIGURE

1. Fig-1: Major & Minor Traverse

2. Fig-2: Topographic Map of WRC Compound
3. Fig-3: Top View of Kalikhola Site Road
4. Fig-4: L-Section of Road Alignment
5. Fig-5: X-Section of Road
6. Fig-6: L-Section of Kalikhola River
7. Fig-7: Contour Map of Bridge Site
8. Fig-8: X-Section of Kalikhola River

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LIST OF TABLES
S.N Table no. Name of Table Page no.
1. 1 Linear Measurement sheet (Major Traverse)
2. 2 Linear and Angular Measurement sheet (Minor Traverse)
3. 3 Major Traverse computation sheet
4. 4 Minor Traverse computation sheet
5. 5 Two peg Test
6. 6 Ordinary leveling sheet
7. 7 Fly leveling
8. 8 Total station Detailing Sheet
9. 9 Triangulation for Span of Bridge
10. 10 Reciprocal Leveling
11. 11 Tachometric Detailing Sheet
12. 12 Road Alignment Sheet
13. 13 Cross Sectioning of Road
14. 14 Fly Leveling of Road Alignment
15. 15 Earthwork Calculation

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Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT................................................................................................................i
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................ii
WORKING SCHEDULE...............................................................................................................iii
FIGURE INDEX..........................................................................................................................iv
LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................................v
Contents..................................................................................................................................vii
1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................1
1.1. Background...............................................................................................................1
1.2 Objective.........................................................................................................................1
1.3 Project Area....................................................................................................................2
1.4 Location and Accessibility...............................................................................................3
1.5 Topography and Geology................................................................................................4
1.6 Rainfall, Climate and Vegetation.....................................................................................4
2.TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY......................................................................................................5
2.1 Objectives.......................................................................................................................5
2.2 Brief Description of the Area..........................................................................................5
2.3 Norms (Technical Specifications)....................................................................................6
2.4 Equipment and Accessories............................................................................................6
2.5 Methodology..................................................................................................................7
2.5.1Reconnaissance:.....................................................................................................16
2.5.2 Traversing..............................................................................................................17
2.5.3 Detailing.................................................................................................................17
2.5.4 Total Station...........................................................................................................18
2.6 Resection:.....................................................................................................................20
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSION..........................................................................................20
3.ROAD ALIGNMENT SURVEY.................................................................................................21
3.1 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF AREA........................................................................................21
3.2 HYDROLOGY AND GEOLOGY.........................................................................................21
3.3 SOIL...............................................................................................................................21
3.4 NORMS (TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS)..........................................................................22
3.5 EQUIPMENTS AND ACCESSORIES..................................................................................22
3.6 METHODOLOGY............................................................................................................22

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3.6.1 Horizontal alignment.............................................................................................22

3.6.2 Vertical alignment..................................................................................................23
3.6.3 Leveling..................................................................................................................23
3.6.4 Longitudinal section...............................................................................................23
3.6.5 Cross section..........................................................................................................24
3.6.6 Calculation and Plotting.........................................................................................24
3.6.7 Structures...............................................................................................................25
3.7 COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS..................................................................................26
4.BRIDGE SITE SURVEY............................................................................................................27
3.1 Objectives.....................................................................................................................27
3.2 Brief description of the site...........................................................................................28
3.3 Hydrology, Geology and Soil.........................................................................................28
3.4 Norms (Technical Specifications)..................................................................................28
The following norms were followed while performing the bridge site survey:...................28
3.5 Equipment and Accessories..........................................................................................28
3.6 Methodology................................................................................................................29
3.6.1 Site Selection.........................................................................................................29
3.6.2 Triangulation..........................................................................................................30
3.6.3 Topographic Survey...............................................................................................30
3.6.4 Longitudinal Section...............................................................................................30
3.6.5 Cross Section..........................................................................................................31
3.6.6 Leveling..................................................................................................................31
3.6.8 Computation..........................................................................................................32
3.6.9 Plotting...................................................................................................................32
3.7 Conclusion and Recommendation................................................................................32
REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................34

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background

Surveying is the art of determination of relative position of points on above or

below the surface of earth by means of linear and angular measurement. The results of
surveys are used to map the earth and is the most important branch of civil engineering.

The process of surveying consists of fieldwork of taking measurements and

office work of continuing and drawing necessary to the purpose of the survey. The
fieldwork is the vital part for any kind of survey. Field works are performed on the
basis of various aspects of surveying and are essential for a surveyor. As a surveyor,
he/she must have sound knowledge, instrument handling skills, personal traits of
friendship, sociability by rational and logical, be able to lead and command etc. All
these factors are required for undertaking a fieldwork successfully.

This is a detail report of the works, which was performed by group no.
A,having seven members, during the camp period. It briefly explains the working
procedures and techniques used by this group during that camp period. In addition,
it also contains observations, calculations, methods of adjustment of error, main
problem faced during work and their solution, results of all calculations and their
assessments with some comments is presented in a concise form. Each member has
had equal contribution in performing the given tasks and preparing this detailed
report.

1.2 Objective

The main objective of the survey camp is to provide a basic knowledge of

practical implementation of different surveying works. It helps to build up the self-
confidence level by implementing different surveying works.

Other objectives of survey camp can be further listed as follows:

● To conduct the topographic survey, road alignment survey and bridge site
survey.
● To familiarize in handling different survey instruments.

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● To develop self-discipline, leadership, interpersonal skills, and team works

among the students as surveying is not a single person work which indirectly
can enhance their academic development.
● To become familiar with the surveying problems that may arise during the
field works.
● To became familiar with the parts of the instruments, their functions and
handling the surveying instruments for its use in surveying.
● To become familiar with the spirit and importance of teamwork, as surveying
is not a single person work.
● To complete the given project in scheduled time and thus to realize the value
of time.
● To collect required data in the field in systematic ways.
● To compute the observed data in the required accuracy and present it in
diagrammatic and tabular form in order to understand by other engineers
and related personnel easily.
● To be acquainted with the complete method of report preparation.

1.3 Project Area

Our project was completed in Kali Khola,Pokhara and Paschimanchal
Campus,Pokhara. Our Project was conducted and completed in Kali Khola, Pokhara
and Paschimanchal Campus, Pokhara.

Figure 1: Kalikhola Area

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Figure 2: Paschimanchal Campus Area

1.4 Location and Accessibility

Pokhara is a metropolitan city in Nepal, which serves as the capital of Gandaki
province. It is the country's largest metropolitan city in terms of area and second-largest in terms
of population. The city also serves as the headquarters of Kaski district. Pokhara is located 200
kilometers (120 miles) west of the capital,Kathmandu. The city is on the shore of Phewa lake, and
sits at an elevation of approximately 848m.

Country: Nepal

Province: Province No. 4

Zone: Gandaki

District: Kaski

Municipality: Pokhara

Ward No. : 16

Location: Pashchimanchal Campus

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Kali Khola lies in the north-eastern part of Pokhara. It is a tributary of the Seti
Gandaki River in Nepal. It runs through Armala Vdc, Valam Vdc and Batulechaur. The
shortest route to Kali Khola from WRC takes about 30 minutes by foot.

1.5 Topography and Geology

Before starting our project, we should study about the existing position of the
project area related to the grid system.

The coordinates of Pokhara are as follows: (source: thegpscoordinates.net)

Latitude: 28° 12’ N
Longitude: 83° 59’ E

Knowledge about the geology of area is also very important before

conducting
survey task. Construction, maintenance and rehabilitation of any type of structure
depend on the geotechnical aspects of that area. Geologically, Nepal is divided into
five zones from south to north, which extend to east west direction and are
separated by geological structures called thrusts. Our project area falls in Lesser
Himalaya Zone.The porous underground of the Pokhara valley favors the formation
of caves and several caves can be found within city limits.

1.6 Rainfall, Climate and Vegetation

The climate of Pokhara is warm and temperate. The average temperature of
Pokhara is 20.6° C. The summer here have a good deal of rainfall whereas the winter
has a little. The average annual rainfall of Pokhara is 3901 mm. Since, the climate is
subtropical, various species of flora and fauna is found in Pokhara. There is
coniferous forest, monsoon forest, grasslands. including plants like spruce, silver
oak,uttis, chilaune, katus, sal, simal, pipal, bar, rhododendron etc. The soil of the
region is favorable for growing crops like :paddy, millet, maize, wheat etc.

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2.TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY
Topographical surveying is the process of determining the positions of
existing features of the locality by means of conventional signs on a topographical
map. They are carried out to depict the topography of the mountainous terrain,
rivers, water bodies, wooded areas and other cultural details as roads, railways,
townships, etc. Topographic surveys are three-dimensional. They provide the
techniques of plane surveying and other special techniques to establish both
horizontal and vertical control

2.1 Objectives
1. To build up a framework of traverse legs and traverse stations with the
visibility of all the features on the ground at least from each station so that it
can be located from the instrument.
2. To provide control points for chain surveying, plane tabling in flat grounds.
3. To fix the alignment of roads, canals, rivers, boundaries etc. when better
accuracy is required.
4. To ascertain the co-ordinates of boundary pillars in numerical terms that can
be preserved for future reference such as forest boundary pillars,
international boundary pillars etc.
5. To prepare a topographic map of the surveyed area for future use during
different engineering project.
6. To make contours of a ground taking suitable intervals to provide an exact
approximation of the nature of terrain and feasibility of a project in that area.
7. To mark the positions of various important details that can induce effects on
the forthcoming project.

2.2 Brief Description of the Area

Our team has performed the topographical survey of IOE Paschimanchal
campus The major traverse runs through the whole Campus area. The minor
traverse was run within the major traverse through the plot of the given map, which
covers water fountain, Administration, Parking,abhinas park,tcc park, Water Tanks,
geology block and wood workshop

Detailing was done from nine stations out of which four were major traverse
stations.

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2.3 Norms (Technical Specifications)

● Reconnaissance survey of the given area is to be conducted. A closed
traverse (major and minor) was formed around the perimeter of the area
by making traverse stations. In the selection of the traverse station, the
stations are intervisible and the ratio of maximum traverse leg to
minimum traverse leg 1:3 for minor traverse and 1:2 in the case of major
traverse is to be selected.
● Traverse legs are to be measured in the forward and reverse directions by
means of a tape calibrated against the standard length provided in the
field, by maintaining discrepancy between forward and backward
measurements better than 1:2000.
● In case of distance measurement by total station in both forward and
backward direction the precision of 1:5000 in case of major traverse and
1:3000 in case of minor traverse should be maintained.
● Traverse angle were measured on two sets of reading by total station.
The difference between the mean angles of two sets reading should be
within 20 seconds.
● R.L. of traverse stations was determined by fly leveling from the given
arbitrary T.B.M. 4 (near library building) to a minor station. Two-peg test
was performed before the start of fly leveling. Precision should be more
than 1:10000. Maintaining of equal fore sight and back sight distances to
eliminate collimation error. Permissible error for fly leveling is ±24√k mm,
where k is the distance in kilometer.

● Balance the traverse. The permissible angular error for the sum of interior
angles of the traverse should be less than ±30√n seconds and ±1√n
minutes for major and minor traverse respectively. The sum of
interior/exterior angles in a closed traverse should be equal to
(2N±4)*90o where, N is the total number of stations. For major and
minor traverse, the relative closing error should be less than 1:5000 and
1:3000 respectively.
● Plotting of the major and minor traverse stations is to be done by
coordinate method in appropriate scale (1:1000 and 1:500 respectively).
● Detail survey of the given sub area is to be carried out by total station and
tachometric surveying with reference to the major and minor traverse,
which have been already plotted.

2.4 Equipment and Accessories

o Total Station
o Levelling Staffs
o Ranging Rods

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o Measuring Tapes
o Leveling Instrument
o Hammer
o Nails and Pegs
o Compass
o Prism
o Prism Pole

2.5 Methodology
Methodology of surveying is carried out based on its own principles, they are:

● Working from whole to part

● Redundancy in measurement
● Consistency of work
● Independent check
● Accuracy required

Traversing

Traversing is a type of surveying connecting number of survey lines forming

the framework. It is also a method of control surveying. The survey consists of the
measurement of

● Angles between successive lines or bearings of each line

● The length of each line

The directions and the lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help
of an angle-measuring instrument such as theodolite and a tape. If the co-ordinates
of the first station and the bearing of the first line are known, the co-ordinates of all
successive points can be computed as follows:
XB=XA+L CosӨ
YB = YA + L SinӨ

where,

L=Length of traverse leg

Ө=Bearing of line AB in WCB
XA=Easting of A.
XB=Easting of B
YA=Northing of A
YB = Northing of B

There are two types of traverses. They are as follows:

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I. Closed traverse:
If the figure formed by the lines closes at a station i.e. if they form a
polygon or it starts and finishes at the points of known co-ordinates then
the traverse is called closed traverse.
II. Open traverse

If a traverse starts and finishes at points other than the starting point or
point of known co-ordinates, then the traverse is called open traverse.

Link Traverse:

A link traverse is the type of traverse where an open traverse is linked at its
ends to an existing traverse to form a closed traverse.

The closing line may be defined by coordinates at the end points which have
been determined by previous survey. The difficulty is, where there is linear
misclosure, it is not known whether the error is in the new survey or the Departure:
Departure of a survey traverse may be defined as its coordinate length measured
perpendicular to magnetic meridian.

If ‘l’ is the length of traverse, Ө be the bearing then

Latitude (L) = lcos Ө, Departure (D) = lsin Ө

Independent coordinates:

The coordinates of traverse station calculated with respect to the common

origin or the total latitude and departure of any point with respect to a common
origin are called the independent coordinates.

Closing Error

If a closed traverse is plotted accordingly to the field measurements the end

points of the traverse will not coincide with the starting point due to error in field
measurement, such error occurring while plotting the traverse is considered as the
closing error.

For a closed traverse,

ΣL=0
ΣD=0
Error of closures,
e = √ ΣL2 + ΣD2

where the sign obtained in ΣL and ΣD denotes the quadrant in which it belongs to.
Relative error of closure= error of closure/perimeter of traverse

Balancing the Traverse

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During the computation of the traverse, we need to balance the traverse

because of the different errors in the field measurement. There are different
methods of adjusting a traverse such as:

● Bowditch method
● Transit method
● Graphical method
● Axis method

The basis of these methods is on the assumptions that the errors in linear
measurements are proportional to ‘L’ and that the errors in angular measurements
are inversely proportional to ‘L’ where L is the length of a traverse leg. The
Bowditch’s Rule is commonly used to balance a traverse where linear and angular
measurements are of equal precision. The total error in latitude and in the
departure is distributed in proportion to the lengths of sides. The Bowditch rule
gives the correction as,
Correction to Lat. Or Dept = Total Error in Lat or Dept * (Length Of the
leg)/Perimeter of that Traverse

Adjustment of Angular Error and Bearing:

The error (e) in a closed traverse due to bearing may be determined by

comparing the two bearings of the last line as observed at the first and last
stations of traverse. If the closed traverse, has N number of sides then,

Correction for the first line = e/N

Correction for the second line = 2*(e/N)
And similarly, correction for the last line = N*(e/N) = e

In a closed traverse, by geometry, the sum of the interior angles should be

equal to (2n-4)*90˚ where n is the number of traverse stations. If the angles are
measured with the same degree of precision, the error in the sum of the angles
may be distributed equally among each angle of the traverse.

Discrepancy and Linear Misclosure:

In order to measure the lengths of the sides of the traverse, two ways taping
(forward and backward) is done. In difficult areas where taping is not possible,
other methods like the subtense bar is used. The difference in values obtained by
forward and backward taping is called discrepancy. The reciprocal of mean of the
two measurements divided by the discrepancy is called precision. Both the
discrepancy and the precision for each traverse leg should be within the given
limits.

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Mathematically,
Discrepancy = Forward length - Backward length |
&, Linear precision = 1 / (Mean length / Discrepancy)

Tacheometry

It is the branch of surveying in which both the horizontal and vertical

distances between stations are determined by making instrumental observations.
Tacheometry is used in the preparation of contour maps and they also provides a
good check on distances measured with tape or chain.

Principle of Tacheometry

In isosceles triangles, the ratio of the perpendiculars from the vertex on their
bases is constant.
The formula for the horizontal distance is
𝐻 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝑠 ∗ cos2θ + c cos θ
The formula for vertical distance is
V= 0.5 ∗ 𝑘 ∗ 𝑠 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Where,
k = multiplying constant (=100)
c = additive constant (= 0)
s = staff intercept
θ = vertical angle

Levelling

Levelling is the process of finding the elevation at a specified location relative

to another elevation. Levelling is the determination of the elevation of a point or
difference between points referenced to some datum. It is a major task in producing
necessary data for mapping, engineering design, and construction. Levelling results
are used to:

● Design highways, railways, canals, sewers, water supply systems

● Lay out the construction projects according to planned elevation
● Calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials
● Investigate drainage characteristics of an area

Terms used in Levelling

Level Surface or line: It is any surface parallel to the mean spherical surface of earth.
The line lying in the level surface is level line.
Horizontal plane or line: It is the plane tangential to the level surface of that

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point. Any line lying in the horizontal surface is horizontal line.

Vertical line or plane: It is a line normal to the surface through the point ex. a
plumb line. The plane containing the vertical line is vertical plane.
Datum surface or line: It is the arbitrarily assumed level surface or line
from which vertical distances are measured. The datum considered is the
mean sea level.

Elevation: It is the vertical distance of a point above or below datum. It is

also known as reduced level.

Bench-mark (BM): It is the fixed reference point of known elevation. One

setup by the surveyor for his own use in particular task is termed as temporary
bench mark (TBM).

The line of Collimation: It is the line joining the intersection of cross hairs of
the optical center of the object glass. It is also called the line of sight.

Turning point: It is a point denoting the shifting of the level. It is the point on
which is the fore sight and back sight are taken. Any stable and well defined
object such as boundary stone, rock etc. is used as change point. A bench
mark itself is a change point.

Height of instrument (HI): It is the elevation of line of sight.

Levelling is divided in two groups:

● Direct Levelling
● Indirect Leveling

Direct Levelling

It is the branch of levelling in which the vertical distances with respect to a

horizontal line (perpendicular to the direction of gravity) may be used to determine
the relative difference in elevation between two adjacent points. A level provides
horizontal line of sight, i.e., a line tangential to a level surface at the point where the
instrument stands. The difference in elevation between two points is the vertical
distance between two level lines. With a level set up at any place, the difference in
elevation between any two points within proper lengths of sight is given by the
difference between the staff readings taken on these points. By a succession of
instrument stations and related readings, the difference in elevation between widely
separated points is thus obtained.

Following are some special methods of direct (spirit) levelling:

Differential Levelling

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It is the method of direct levelling the objective of which is solely to determine

the difference in elevation of two points regardless of the horizontal positions of the
points with respect of each other. This type of levelling is also known as fly levelling.

Profile Levelling

It is the method of direct levelling the objective of which is to determine the

elevations of points at measured intervals along a given line in order to obtain a
profile of the surface along that line.

Cross Sectioning

Cross-sectioning or cross levelling is the process of taking levels on each side

of main line at right angles to that line, in order to determine a vertical cross-section
of the surface of the ground, or of underlying strata, or of both.

Reciprocal Levelling

It is the method of levelling in which the difference in elevation between two

points is accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal observations when it is not
possible to set up the level between the two points.

True difference in elevation between A and B = H = h a- (hb-e)

Also, the true difference in elevation = H=(h a'-e)-hb'
Taking the average of the two differences we get the difference in elevation between
A and B.

Indirect Levelling

Indirect method or trigonometric levelling is the process of levelling in which

the elevations of points are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal
distances measured in the field, just as the length of any side in any triangle can
be computed from proper trigonometric relations. The first operation is
required to enable the works to be designed while the
second operation is required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering
works.
Levelling deals with measurements in a vertical plane.

Booking and Reducing Levels

There are two methods of booking and reducing the elevation of points from the
observed staff reading:

● Height of the Instrument method

● Arithmetic Check: ∑BS – ∑F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.
● Rise and Fall method
● Arithmetic Check: ∑ BS – ∑ F.S. = ∑ Rise – ∑fall = Last R.L. – First R.L.

Auto Level

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A level essentially comprises a telescope rotatable about a vertical axis; it is used to

create a horizontal line of sight so that height differences can be determined. The
line of sight is maintained perpendicular to the direction of gravity through a system
of prisms called a compensator. This compensator maintains a horizontal line of sight
when the instrument is approximately leveled.

Temporary Adjustment of Level

The temporary adjustment for a level consists of the following:

● Setting up the level: The operation of setting up includes fixing the

instrument on the stand and levelling the instrument approximately.
● Setting up the level: The operation of setting up includes fixing the
instrument on the stand and levelling the instrument approximately.
● Levelling up: Accurate levelling is done with the help of foot screws and
with reference to the plate levels. The purpose of levelling is to make the
vertical axis truly vertical and horizontal line of sight truly horizontal.
● Removal of parallax: Parallax is a condition when the image formed by
the objective is not in the plane of the cross hairs. Parallax is eliminated
by focusing the eyepiece for distinct vision of the cross hairs and by
focusing the objective to bring the image of the object in the plane of
cross hairs.

Height difference between two points

The basic principle of levelling involves determining the height

difference between two points. To eliminate systematic errors related to
atmospheric conditions or to residual line-of-sight error, the instrument
should be about equidistant from the two points. The height difference is
calculated from the difference between the two staff readings for the points
A and B respectively

Two Peg Test:

To check for the collimation error of level two-peg test method should be
performed. Two staffs were placed at A and B of known length (about 50 m).
First the instrument was setup on the line near B and both staff readings (Top,
Middle, and Bottom) were taken. Then, the instrument was setup at the middle C
on the line and again both staff readings on A and B was taken. Then
computation was done in order to check whether the adjustment was within the

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required accuracy or not.

Fig 3: Two peg test

Contouring:

A contour is an imaginary line, which passes through the points of equal

elevation. It is a line in which the surface of ground is intersected by a level
surface. Every fifth contour lines must be made darken. While drawing the
contour lines, the characteristics of the contours should be approached.
The characteristics are as follows:

● Two contours of different elevations do not cross each other except in

the case of an overhanging cliff.
● Contours of different elevations do not unite to form one contour
except in the case of a vertical cliff.
● Contours drawn closer depict a steep slope and if drawn apart,
represent a gentle slope.
● Contours equally spaced depict a uniform slope. When contours are
parallel, equidistant and straight, these represent an inclined plane
surface.
● Contour at any point is perpendicular to the line of the steepest slope
at the point.
● A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the
limits of the map itself.
● A set ring contours with higher values inside depict a hill whereas a
set of ring contours with lower values inside depict a pond or a
depression without an outlet.
● When contours cross a ridge or V-shaped valley, they form sharp V-
shapes across them. Contours represent a ridgeline, if the concavity of
higher value contour lies towards the next lower value contour and on
the other hand these represent a valley if the concavity of the lower
value contour, lies toward the higher value contours.

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● The same contour must appear on both the sides of a ridge or a

valley.
● Contours do not have sharp turnings.

Methods of Contouring

Taking the reading at the change point on the ground does the indirect
method of locating contours. The interpolation method is used to draw
the contour lines. Interpolation of contours is done by estimation, by
arithmetic calculations or by graphical method. The eye estimation
method is extremely rough and is used for small-scale work only.
There are two method of locating contour:

i) The Direct Method:

In this method, the points of equal elevations are found directly

on the field. The horizontal control of the point is found by the
help of plane table.

ii) The Indirect Method:

In this method, some suitable guide points need not necessarily be

on the contour. There are some of the indirect methods of
location the ground points:

● By square method: In this method, the area to be

contoured is divided into a series of squares, the
corners of which define the points to be observed.
● By cross section method: In this method, suitably sections
are set out from traverse lines such as the center “line of
road”, railway, canal, etc. and the observations are made
on the different point of each section with the help of
theodolite.
● By tacheometric method: In this method, a number of
radial lines are set by making different angles with respect
to any reference line. On each radial line, tacheometric
readings may be taken on levelling staff kept at different
points. This method was used to locate the contours in the
field. This method was used to locate the contours in the
field. Interpolation is the process of spacing the contours
proportionately between the slopes of the ground

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between the two points is uniform. The interpolation of

contour cans be done on following three ways:
1. Estimation: The method of estimation is not very
precise. In this method contours are interpolated
between two known R.L. by eye judgment. So, the
accuracy of this method is low compared to other
two methods. The accuracy of this method depends
upon the experience of the surveyor.
2. Arithmetic Calculation: Generally, arithmetic
calculation method of interpolation is used to draw
the contour lines and is performed as follows:
Dist. Of Contour Point = Diff. in RL Two Points *
Hz. Dist. In Scale/Difference in RL of two Known
Points
3. Graphical Method: The graphical method is one of
the methods of contour interpolation. The
accuracy of this method is high compared to the
estimation method but this method is
long and tedious.

2.5.1Reconnaissance:
Reconnaissance (Recce) means the preliminary inspection of the area before
commencing the actual detail survey, for the purpose of fixing the survey stations
and forming a general plan for the network of the chain lines. For this purpose, the
detailed inspection of the given area of Paschimanchal Campus was carried out by
reconnaissance survey.

During reconnaissance the major and minor traverse control points to

form a closed traverse around the perimeter of the area was found out. While
selecting and minor control points following points should be considered:

● The adjacent stations should be clearly inter-visible.

● The whole area should include the least number of stations possible.
● The steep slopes and badly broken ground should be avoided as far as
possible, which may cause inaccuracy in taping.
● The traverse station should maintain the ratio of maximum traverse leg to
minimum traverse leg less than 2:1 for Major Traverse and 3:1 for Minor
Traverse.
● The traverse line of sight should not be near the ground level to avoid the
refraction. The stations should provide minimum level surface required for
setting up the instrument.

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2.5.2 Traversing
The skeleton of lines joining those control points covering the area
to be surveyed is called Major Traverse. To do the survey precisely, two-sets
of reading should be taken for Major Traverse. We take two sets as 0 set and
90 set.

In the Survey Camp, two traverses - major and minor had to be established.
The major traverse had 20 control stations including two given control points. The
control stations were named as AM1, AM2, …… AM9 along with CP1, CP2 (the two
given control points) .The leg ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg
was maintained within 2:1. The discrepancy in length between the forward
measurements and the backward measurements of all the traverse legs was within
1:5000. Two sets of readings were taken for measuring the horizontal traverse
angles. The difference between the mean angles of two sets of readings was within a
minute for all the angles.

It is not sufficient to detail the area by enclosing with the help of major
traverse. So, minor traverse was established to cover small area. Only one set of
reading is taken as less precision is acceptable. We made 5 minor traverse station to
cover all the area. The control stations were named as Am1, Am2,Am3,Am4,Am5
and along with four major stations of major traverse AM3,AM4,AM5 and AM6.. The
leg ratio was maintained within 3:1. The discrepancy in length between the forward
measurements and the backward measurements of all the traverse legs was within
1:3000.

In a closed traverse, by geometry, the sum of the interior angles should be

equal to (2n- 4) *90˚ where n is the number of traverse stations. If the angles are
measured with the same degree of precision, the error in the sum of the angles may
be distributed equally among each angle of the traverse.

The error (e) in a closed traverse due to bearing may be determined by

comparing the two bearings of the last line as observed at the first and last stations
of traverse. If the closed traverse, has N number of sides then,

Correction for the first line = e/N

Correction for the second line = 2 e/N
Correction for the last line = e

2.5.3 Detailing
Tacheometry was used for the detailing process. Total station was used to
carry out the detailing process. From total station horizontal distances, vertical
distances, and horizontal angles are measured that locates the control points of
different RL at the topographic map.

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2.5.4 Total Station

A total station is an optical instrument used a lot in modern surveying and
archaeology. It is a combination of an electronic theodolite (transit), an electronic
distance meter (EDM) and software running on an external computer known as a
data collector.

With a total station one may determine angles and distances from the
instrument to points to be surveyed. With the aid of trigonometry and triangulation,
the angles and distances may be used to calculate the coordinates of actual positions
(X, Y, and Z or northing, easting and elevation) of surveyed points, or the position of
the instrument from known points, in absolute terms.

Some total stations also have a GPS interface which combines these two
technologies to make use of the advantages of both (GPS - line of sight not required
between measured points; Traditional Total Station - high precision measurement
especially in the vertical axis compared with GPS) and reduce the consequences of
each technology's disadvantages (GPS - poor accuracy in the vertical axis and lower
accuracy without long occupation periods; Total Station - requires line of sight
observations and must be set up over a known point or within line of sight of 2 or
more known points).

Most modern total station instruments measure angles by means of

electrooptical scanning of extremely precise digital bar-codes etched on rotating
glass cylinders or discs within the instrument. The best quality total stations are
capable of measuring angles down to 0.5 arc-second. Inexpensive "construction
grade" total stations can generally measure angles to 5 or 10 arc-seconds.

Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated microwave or

infrared carrier signal, generated by a small solid-state emitter within the
instrument's optical path, and bounced off of the object to be measured. The
modulation pattern in the returning signal is read and interpreted by the onboard
computer in the total station. The distance is measured by Emitting and receiving
multiple frequencies, and determining the integer number of wavelengths to the
target for each frequency determine the distance. Most total stations use a purpose-
built glass Porro prism as the reflector for the EDM signal, and can measure
distances out to a few kilometers, but some instruments are "reflector less", and can
measure distances to any object that is reasonably light in color, out to a few
hundred meters. The typical Total Station EDM can measure distances accurate to
about 3 millimeters or 1/100th of a foot.

Some modern total stations are 'robotic' allowing the operator to control the
instrument from a distance via remote control. This eliminates the need for an
assistant staff member to hold the reflector prism over the point to be measured.

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The operator holds the reflector him/herself and controls the total station
instrument from the observed point.

The basic principle of Total Station is that the distance between any two
points can be known once the time light takes to travel the distance and back and
the velocity of light is known. Then the following relation, which is already
programmed in the memory of the instrument along with other correction factors,
calculates the required horizontal distance and is displayed on the LCD screen.

Setup:

1. Place tripod approximately over a known point locking legs at a convenient

height so machine will be at or lower than eye level and the legs are at equal
distances from each other. Eyeball the head of the tripod so it is as close to
level as possible.
● Be sure the legs of the tripod are firmly planted into the ground.
● For smooth surfaces (such as concrete, asphalt, or tile), use folding
metal tripod footing to secure the legs.
2. Remove instrument carefully from casing with both hands. Place on top
(supporting with top handle) of tripod and tighten centering screw below
platform into instrument, aligning the three corners of machine and platform.
Use sight tangent screw on back side of LCD display to center the instrument
over the exact known point to be surveyed.
3. After instrument is installed on the center, then it is leveled observing the
bubble using the tripod legs and levelling screws.

Power and preparation:

Power on the instrument and check the level of battery, if it shows low
replace it with the charged one otherwise it is okay. For the lights on display it can be
made from the buttons provided. Afterwards, the image from the lens was adjusted
so that clear view of the prism center point can be viewed. Then height of the
instruments was noted.

Angular and linear measurement:

For the angular measurement, the telescope is aligned in the direction of one
of the leg from which angle needs to be measured. Then aligning the telescope, the
instrument is zero set and then the horizontal frame of the total station is rotated
and sighted to the next station. It gives the angle between two adjacent legs in
clockwise direction. In the same way when telescope is focused to the center of the
prism located at any distance give the horizontal distance between them.

For the good operation of Total Station one can refer the catalogue provided
such as for data transfer, layout and other operations.

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2.6 Resection:
Resection is the process used for determining the position of an unknown
point with the help of already defined known coordinated points. The readings are
taken from the unknown points. Either two-point resection or three-point resection
can be performed. We performed three-point resection in the field

COMMENTS AND CONCLUSION

Our surveying site was the campus area of Paschimanchal Campus, Pokhara
and Kali khola which was suitable for gaining experience in surveying various kinds of
terrains and man-made structure. The arrangements of survey instruments were
appreciable and are in good working conditions although there were some old
instruments. The rainy and cold weather created some problems and loss in time. In
the field, even though the teachers helped us a lot, we felt that their visiting was not
sufficient. We hope that the above mentioned problems will be solved in upcoming
years. Some other problems were pegs of major stations getting lost due to
conjunction.We had to find our station by referencing at some point.

The given topography survey cap was finished satisfactorily within the given
span of time.The campus domain was divided into five numbers of plots . A group
had to complete a single plot following the routine provided. Drawing was plotted in a
full-size sheet i.e. A1 in the same scale i.e., 1:1000 for major traverse and 1:500 for
minor traverse. The topographic maps of several plots such prepared can then be
mosaics to form a single map of the whole area.This has made us clearer about the
principles and field practice of surveying and will ultimately help us to become a
better civil engineer in the future.

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3.ROAD ALIGNMENT SURVEY

The alignment is the route of the road, defined as a series of horizontal

tangents and curves. Roads are designed in conjunction with design guidelines and
standards. These are adopted by national and sub-national authorities (e.g., states,
provinces, territories and municipalities). Design guidelines take into account speed,
vehicle type, road grade (slope), view obstructions, and stopping distance. With
proper application of guidelines, along with good engineering judgement, an
engineer can design a roadway that is comfortable, safe, and appealing to the eye.

3.1 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF AREA

Road alignment and bridge site survey includes both the works to run a road
between two terminals and to carry a survey for the bridge construction along the
route. Horizontal alignment in road design consists of straight sections of road,
known as tangents, connected by circular horizontal curves. Circular curves are
defined by radius (tightness) and deflection angle (extent). The design of a horizontal
curve entails the determination of a minimum radius (based on speed limit), curve
length, and objects obstructing the view of the driver This specific job is essential for
an engineer combating with the hilly topography of Nepal. The maximum allowable
gradient is 12%. There are several rises and fall along the route needing lots of
cutting and filling.

3.2 HYDROLOGY AND GEOLOGY

The site is surrounded by ups and downs, which is covered with some
vegetation. The road had to go along a damp route that was much undulated. There
were no large boulders or rocks of any kind along the proposed site. There are
several places where culvert or cause way can exist. The soil is not uniform
throughout the whole length of the road. Although the road alignment has certain
up and downs.
Finally the starting and ending point of the road has some elevation difference.

3.3 SOIL
If along the potential slip surface in the soil the stress produced by gravity
exceeds the shear strength of the soil along the potential failure surface, the slope

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will become unstable. Obviously, the shear strength of soil is largely depending upon
the type of soil. Cohesive soil has more shear strength than others do. The hard and
dense soil is best for slopes. We found soft clayey soil that was very damp.

3.4 NORMS (TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS)

1. The road has to be designed for a width of 5 meter and length of 1000m.
2. Simple horizontal curve has to be laid out where the road changes its direction,
determining and pegging the three points on the curves the beginning of the curve,
mid of the curve and the end of the curve along the central line of the road.
3. The radius of the curve should be greater than 15m.
4. The gradient of the road has to be maintained below 12%.
5. Cross‐section should be taken at the interval of 20m and also at the beginning,
middle and end of the curve along the central line of the road.
6. Topographic map of the road should be prepared in the scale of 1:1000.
7. L‐ Section of the road has to be plotted on scale of 1:1000 on X‐ axis and 1:100
vertically.
8. The cross section of the road should be plotted on the scale of 1:100 for both the
axis.

3.5 EQUIPMENTS AND ACCESSORIES

The equipment used in the survey during the road surveying are as follows:

i. Theodolite
ii. Leveling Staffs
iii. Ranging rods
iv. Measuring Tapes 30m
v. Leveling instruments
vi. Compass
vii Pegs
viii Marker

3.6 METHODOLOGY

3.6.1 Horizontal alignment

The location of the simple horizontal curve were determined carefully
considering factors like the stability of the area, enough space for the turning
radius etc.

The I.P. was fixed so that the gradient of the road at any place was
less than 7 ‐ 10%. After determining the I.P. for road, theodolite was

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stationed at each I.P. and the deflection angles measured. The distance
between one I.P. and another was measured by two way taping. The
horizontal curve was set out by angular using theodolite at I.P. Then for that
radius, the tangent length and apex distance of the curve were calculated
using the following formulas.

Tangent Length = Rtan∆/2

Apex Distance =R(sec∆/2-1)

Length of the Curve = π ∆R/180

Where ∆ = External deflection angle

After performing the necessary calculation, the points T1 and T2 were

fixed at a distance equal to tangent length from the I.P. using a tape. Then the
line bisecting the internal angle at the I.P. was found out with the help of a
theodolite. And on this line, a peg was driven at mid of curve at a distance
equal to the apex distance from the I.P. Then the necessary calculation was
done, thus giving the required numerical values of different para meters.

3.6.2 Vertical alignment

Vertical profile of the Road alignment is known by the vertical
alignment. In the L-section of the Road alignment, vertical alignment was
plotted with maximum gradient of 12 %. According to Nepal Road Standard,
Gradient of the Road cannot be taken more than 12 %. In the vertical
alignment, we set the vertical curve with proper design. While setting the
vertical alignment, it should keep in mind whether cutting and filling were
balanced or not.

3.6.3 Leveling
The method of fly leveling was applied in transferring the level from
the given B. M. to all the I.P., beginnings, mid points and end of the curve as
well as to the points along the center line of the road where the cross section
were taken. After completing the work of one way leveling on the entire
length of the road, fly leveling was continued back to the B.M making before
and forming the loops should be less than 25√K mm, where k is tot al loop
distance in km.

3.6.4 Longitudinal section

The L‐section of the road is required to the road engineer an idea
about the nature of the ground and the variation in the elevation of the
different points along the length of the road an also to determine the amount
of cutting and filling required at the road site for maintaining a gentle slope.

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In order to obtain the data for L‐Section, Staff reading was taken at a point at
20m intervals along the central line of the road with the help of a level by the
method of fly leveling. And thus after performing the necessary calculation
the level was transferred to all those point with respect R.L. of the given B.M.
Then finally the L‐Section of the road was plotted on a graph paper on a
vertical scale of 1:100 and a horizontal scale of 1:1000.

3.6.5 Cross section

In many projects, terrain information transverse to the longitudinal
section (through profile leveling) is also required such as for highways,
railways, canals etc. In those cases, surveying is carried out at right angle to
the central line, generally, at regular interval is being carried out and is
termed as cross- sectioning. If, for any reason, a cross-section is run in any
other direction, the angle with the centre line is required to be noted. The
observations are then recorded as being to the left or right of the center line.
The notes of the readings are maintained as shown in for taking a cross-
section along the stake point 4. Reduction of levels, plotting etc. can be done
as in case of profile leveling cross section was run at right angles to the
longitudinal profile on either side up to 15m distances wherever possible and
the change in the slope was directly measured using the staff intercept made
by the horizontal tape i.e., the stepping method.

Horizontal scale =1:100 Vertical scale =1:100

3.6.6 Calculation and Plotting

After the work of taking the data was completed, all the necessary
calculations were done and tabulated in order to compute the Chainage of the
different distinct points of the road using the following relation:

Chainage of beginning of curve, T1=Chainage of I.P.‐Tangent length

Chainage of midpoint of curve, M=Chainage of T1‐1/2*curve

Chainage of end of curve, T2= Chainage of T1+Curve length

Similarly, Chainage of an I.P. = Chainage of previous I.P. +I.P. to distance The R.L. of
the different points was also computed using this formula.

R.L. of a point =R.L. of station + Height of instrument + H* Tan ѳ‐Mid wire

reading

Where θ =Vertical Angle

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Hence, with the required calculation data regarding the road site in hand, the
plan was plotted on a scale of 1:1000, L‐Section on a graph paper on a scale of
1:1000 horizontal and 1:100 vertical and the cross section at different points also on
a graph paper on a scale of 1:100(both vertical and horizontal). All the data,
calculation (in a tabulated from) and the drawing of the necessary plan, longitudinal
section and the cross section of the road are presented here with this report.

3.6.7 Structures
The main structures provided for road constructions are retaining structures,
cross drain, side-drain, bio-engineering structures etc. retaining structures are
provided where the slope is critical. Gabion structure, dry masonry structures are the
example. The camber of the road is made perfectly by putting 4% of stage for gravel
road so as to avoid any collection of water on it.

The maximum gradient of the road is about 10% and the minimum gradient
of road is about 0% so as to facilitate the flow of drainage to specified direction.
However, the maximum of 12% was taken wherever not possible. Longitudinal drain
is provided on the sides of the road. Retaining walls are provided on required places.

Construction of hill roads involves many special structures. These may include
wide range of structures which are used to retain soil mass, to increase stability of
road embankment slopes as well as natural hill slopes, to accommodate road bed in
steep slope, to penetrate deep through mountain pass and so on. Integration of
bioengineering measures with engineering structures is yet another sector requiring
special attention.
The following types of structures are used normally on the hill road:

1. Retaining structures
2. Drainage structures
3. Slope protection structures

Retaining Structures:
A retaining structure is usually a wall constructed for the purpose of
supporting or retaining a vertical or nearly vertical earth bank, which in turn may
support vertical loads along with the self-weight of it. It provides adequate stability
to the road way and to the slope. Retaining walls are constructed on the valley side
on the roadway and also on the cut hillside to prevent slide towards the roadway.
Types of retaining wall are:

i. Gravity walls v.Semi gravity walls

ii. Cantilever walls vi.Crib walls
iii. Counter fort walls vii Breast walls

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iv. Buttressed walls viii Reinforced wall

Drainage structure
Roadway drainage structure means a device such as a bridge, culvert or ditch,
composed of a virtually non-erodible material such as concrete, steel, plastic or
other such material that conveys water under a roadway by intercepting the flow on
one side of a traveled way consisting of one or more defined lanes, with or without
shoulder areas, and carrying water to a release point on the other side.

3.7 COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS

We faced difficulty in the starting phase of road alignment but with the help
of our instructors, friends and group discussion we are able to finish the work in
given time. The work was tedious as compared to other surveying work, now with
the experience and knowledge we gained through this survey camp we are confident
enough to carry out in future.We understood factors like economy, convenience and
its use are to be taken in mind while designing such project.

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4.BRIDGE SITE SURVEY

This part of the survey camp dealt with the bridge site survey at Kalikhola.
Bridges are the structures that are constructed with the purpose of connecting two
places separated by deep valleys or gorges or rivers and streams. Bridges are usually
the cross drainage and hence a part of road making them shorter and hence
economical. In countries like Nepal, where ground surface is undulated and where
there are plenty of rivers, bridges are the most economic and efficient way to join
two places. Hence, the task of bridge site surveying has been included in the
curriculum of B.E. in Civil Engineering, IOE.

The site for the bridge site survey was selected in Kali Khola which was only
few minutes of walk away from Paschimanchal Campus. The site consists of mild
vegetation including cultivated land and scarcely available houses. The duration of
survey was 2 days.

3.1 Objectives
The adequate functioning of a road depends to a large extent on the
effectiveness of the cross drainage like bridges,etc. The main objective of the bridge
site survey it to give the students the preliminary knowledge on selection and
planning of possible bridge site and axis for the construction of the bridge.

The purpose of the bridge site survey was not only to prepare and layout of
the bridge site but also form the engineering point of view, the purpose is to collect
the preliminary data about the site such as normal water flow level, high flood level,
geological features of the ground for planning and designing of the bridge from the
details taken during the surveying.

The other objectives of Bridge site survey are:

1. To find the best location for a bridge over the river considering factors like
convenience, economic and geological stability.
2. To use triangulation method for the calculation of the bridge axis length.
3. To take sufficient data of the details including the spot heights, around the
bridge in order to prepare a topographical map of the area, cross section of
the river at certain intervals and longitudinal section of the river.
4. To determine the physical properties of the river like its discharge, velocity of
water, bed slope, etc.

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3.2 Brief description of the site

The site for the bridge site survey was selected in Kali Khola which was only
few minutes of walk away from Paschimanchal Campus. The site consists of mild
vegetation including cultivated land and scarcely available houses.

3.3 Hydrology, Geology and Soil

Sloppy hills with trees surrounded the site. There was an abundance of rocks.
The ground was damp and swampy. The soil was soft and clayey. It was blackish
brown in color . The hill slopes on both sides are very steep. There is adequate water
to be found on the bridge site. The water is collected from rain and other sources
like natural springs, etc.

3.4 Norms (Technical Specifications)

The following norms were followed while performing the bridge site survey:
1. Control point fixing as well as determining the length of the bridge axis had to
be done by the method of triangulation. While forming triangles, proper care
had to be taken such that the triangles were well conditioned, i.e., none of
the angles of the triangle were greater than 120° or less than 30°.
2. The triangulation angle had to be measured on two sets of readings by
theodolite and the difference between the mean angles of two sets of
readings had to be within a minute.
3. Transferring the level from one bank to another bank had to be done by the
method of reciprocal leveling.
4. The scale for plotting the topographical map was given to be 1:500.
5. In order to plot the longitudinal section of the river, data had to be taken
along the riverbed 125 m upstream and at least 75 m downstream. The plot
for the longitudinal section along the flow line had to be done in a scale of
1:100 for vertical and 1:500 for horizontal.
6. For the cross-section profile, data had to be taken at 25 m intervals both
upstream and downstream, and one at the bridge axis. Observation had to
cover about 10 m beyond the bank of river on either side. The scale being
1:100 for both vertical and horizontal directions.

3.5 Equipment and Accessories

The equipment used in the survey during the preparation of topographic map in
bridge site are as follows:

1. Total Station (Theodolite)

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2. Prism, Prism pole, Levelling staffs

3. Ranging Rods
4. Measuring Tapes
5. Hammer
6. Pegs
7. Compass
8. Marker

3.6 Methodology
For the bridge site surveying we use the methods of triangulation, levelling,
tacheometry etc. The methodology of the bridge site survey is given below:

3.6.1 Site Selection

There are various factors for the selection of bridge site such as geological
condition, socio-economic and ecological aspect etc.

1. The site was chosen such that it should be laid on the very stable rocks at the
bed of river as far as possible and not affect the ecological balance of the
flora and fauna of the site area.
2. The bridge axis should be so located that it should be fairly perpendicular to
the flow direction and at the same time.
3. The river width should be narrow from the economical point of view and the
free board should be at least 5m.
4. The starting point of bridge axis should not in any way lie or touch the curve
of the road.

The site selected for the bridge axis was near the curve of the river with no
community nearby. For the purpose of the shortest span, the stations were set
perpendicular to the river flow direction. The riverbanks were not eroded and were
suitable for bridge construction. The chance of change of direction of river on the
selected axis line was nominal.

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3.6.2 Triangulation

Figure 4: Triangulation

Triangulation was performed for the determination of the approximate span

of the bridge axis. The triangulation stations can be taken as the control points for
detailing. Two points on either bank of the river were fixed as control points and one
of the sides of the triangle was taken as the bridge axis. Then two triangles from
each bank were fixed.
The base line was measured accurately by two-way taping and interior angles
were measured by taking two sets of reading by total station, The accurate span of
bridge was computed by applying sine rule. To minimize the plotting error, well-
conditioned triangles were constructed i.e. the angles greater than 30 degree, less
than 120 degrees and nearer to 60 degree. The best triangle is equilateral triangle.

3.6.3 Topographic Survey

For the topographic survey of bridge site, triangulation was done. The main
purpose of the triangulation was to determine the length of the bridge axis. The
triangulation also serves the control points for detailing. First, the bridge axis was set
and horizontal control stations were fixed on either side. Distances between stations
on the same sides of river i.e. base lines were measured with tape precisely. Then
the interconnecting triangles were formed and angles were measured with a Total
station or a Theodolite with two sets. The bridge axis length or span was calculated
by solving the triangles using the sine rule. Thus, the horizontal control was set out.
For vertical control, the level was transferred from the temporary benchmark
and RL was transferred to the stations on the next bank by reciprocal leveling while
direct level transfer method was used for the same bank. A closed loop was formed
at the either side of the bank so as to check the accuracy.

3.6.4 Longitudinal Section

The L-Section of the river is required to give an idea about the bed slope,
nature of the riverbed, and the variation in the elevations of the different points
along the length of the river. Keeping the instrument at the control (traverse)
stations on the river banks, the staff readings were taken at different points along

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the center line of the river at an interval of about 25 m up to 125 meters upstream
and 75 m downstream. The R. Ls of the traverse stations being known previously, the
levels of the different points on the river were calculated. Then the L-Section of the
riverbed was plotted on a graph paper on scale for vertical and horizontal.

3.6.5 Cross Section

Cross-section of a river at a particular point is the profile of the lateral sides
from the centerline of the river cut transverse to the L-Section at that point. The
cross section can be used to calculate the volume and discharge of water at the
particular section if the velocity at the cross section is known. Cross sections were
taken at an interval of about 25 m extending 125 m upstream and 75 m downstream
of the river. Staff readings of points along a line perpendicular to the flow of river
were taken from the station points and the elevations of the points were calculated
using tachometric methods. With all the calculations done and the required data in
hand, the cross section was plotted on a graph paper on required scale.

3.6.6 Leveling
Transferring R.L. from B.M. to control points: The benchmark was on the bank of
the river.. The R.L. was transferred to the triangulation station from the B.M. by fly
leveling by taking the back sight-reading to the bench mark which should be within
the given accuracy. The R.L. was transferred to the opposite bank of the river by
reciprocal leveling.
Reciprocal Leveling: This method is applicable when taping is obstructed but not the
vision. For transferring the RL across the bridge reciprocal leveling was performed.
This method eliminates the error due to focusing, collimation, earth’s curvature and
refraction of atmosphere etc.

Figure 5: Reciprocal levelling

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True difference in elevation between A and B = H = ha- (hb-e)

Also, the true difference in elevation = H = (ha'- e)-hb
Taking the average of the two differences we get the difference in elevation between
A and B.
Where,
ha= staff reading at station A, when level is kept near staff held at A
hb= staff reading at station B, when level is kept near staff held at A
ha'= staff reading at station A, when level is kept near staff held at B
hb'= staff reading at station B, when level is kept near staff held at B

Then, the true difference in elevation between the two stations A and B is given by
H=½ x [(ha - hb) + (ha'- hb')].

3.6.7 Detailing
Detailing of the entire bridge site was done by tachometric method, the
readings being taken with a Total station stationed at the different traverse stations.
The detailing was done with respect to the skeleton formed by triangulation. The
vertices of triangles serve as a control point. With the help of tachometer, the details
were booked, up to 125m upstream and 75m downstream. Trigonometric Leveling
was also done to find out the RL of the inaccessible points. The data and the
calculations have been tabulated in a systematic way.

3.6.8 Computation
The use of total station made the detailing process easy and fast. The total
station gives the direct vales of the horizontal distances and vertical height
difference between the station point and the detailing point. The RLs of the points
can be calculated by using following formula.
RL of detail = RL of station + HI ± V-Target Height

3.6.9 Plotting
The topographic map, the longitudinal section and the cross section were
plotted on the respective scales after the completion of calculations. Control stations
were plotted accurately in the grid paper. Then all hard details as well as contours
were plotted with reference to the control stations by the method of angle and
distances.

3.7 Conclusion and Recommendation

The bridge site survey was performed to gain idea for selecting the bridge
axis. Triangulation was performed to get the length of the proposed bridge. The
bridge site survey was conducted to give broad knowledge about importance of

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reciprocal leveling result of the computations of the triangulation gave the axis span
of AB=28.481mm.
During the selection of the site all the considerations like geological,socio-
economical and topographical considerations were made and the best site was
selected.For triangulation, we chose three stations in one bank and one station on
the next bank. The distance between the three stations on same side was measured
by taping. Similarly, the cross-section and longitudinal section were performed. The
X-section was performed at the interval of 25m. The longitudinal section was about
125m upstream and 75m downstream.

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REFERENCES
1. Surveying vol. 1 by B.C. Punmia, Ashok K jain, Arun K Jain. Laxmi Publication Pvt. Ltd
2. Surveying vol. 2 by B.C. Punmia, Ashok K jain, Arun K Jain. Laxmi Publication Pvt. Ltd
3. A Text Book of Surveying and Levelling, R. Agor, Khanna Publishers
4. Reference link
www.googleearth.com
www.wikipedia.com
www.google.com
5. Past survey report 2075

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