TOPIC 4: Psycholinguistics and foreign language teaching

1. Definition of psycholinguistics
- "Psycholinguistics is the study of the mental mechanisms that make it possible for
people to use language. It is a scientific discipline whose goal is a coherent theory of the
way in which language is produced and understood,"
Garnham, Alan. Psycholinguistics: Central Topics. Methuen, 1985.
- "Psycholinguistics... draws on ideas and knowledge from a number of associated areas,
such as phonetics, semantics, and pure linguistics. There is a constant exchange of
information between psycholinguistics and those working in neurolinguistics, who study
how language is represented in the brain. There are also close links with studies in
artificial intelligence. Indeed, much of the early interest in language processing derived
from the AI goals of designing computer programs that can turn speech into writing and
programs that can recognize the human voice,"
Field, John. Psycholinguistics: A Resource Book for Students. Routledge, 2003.
2. Key concepts of psycholinguistics
2.1. The Creativity of Human Language
Linguistic creativity is commonplace to every person who knows a language. The creativity
of human language is different from the communication system of any other animal in a
number of respects. Speakers of a language can create and understand novel sentences for an
entire lifetime. When speaking, people constantly produce novel sentences with no conscious
effort.
2.2. Speech, Thought, Language and Communication
Language is a special system that functions independently of speech, thought, and
communication.
Speech is the most frequent mode for transmitting linguistic information. Other modes for
transmission include the gestures used in sign language and the graphic representations used
in writing.
Thought is verbalized through using language. The distinction between language and thought
(or general intelligence) becomes clear when one considers the many kinds of individuals
who can think but cannot communicate through language.
Communication can take the forms of language, non-verbal, mathematical, and aesthetic
communication through music or the visual arts.
2.3. Characteristics of the Linguistic System
Language is a formal system for pairing signals with meanings. This pairing can go either
way. When people produce a sentence, they use language to encode the meaning that they
wish to convey into a sequence of speech sounds. When people understand a spoken
sentence, language allows them to reverse the process and decode a speaker’s speech to
recover the intended meaning.
2.4. Descriptive and Prescriptive Grammar
Prescriptive grammar refers to a standardized use of language, the form of a language that is
accepted in academic and business circles. Teachers are interested in this type. In contrast,
linguists are interested in descriptive grammar, the language system that underlies ordinary
use.
2.5. The universality of human language
Linguists tend to refer to human language as a single entity, despite the fact that there are
many different versions spoken by the thousands of different language communities around
the world. The fact is that all human languages are cut from the same mold. The universality
of human language has profound consequences for the way psycholinguists analyze the
human use of language.
2.6. Implications for the acquisition of language
An important area of psycholinguistics is language acquisition. Children in every culture
acquire language or languages without effort and without being taught. This scenario is
complicated somewhat by second language acquisition after early childhood, because
learning a language as a teenager or as an adult is perceived as being very difficult, especially
compared to the ease with which we learned our first language. Certain aspects of a second
language are quite difficult to master, pronunciation in particular.
2.7. How language pairs sound to meaning
Three kinds of rule systems that make up grammar are phonological rules, morphological
rules and syntactic rules. In psycholinguistics, the meaning of a sentence is a function of the
meaning of individual words and how those words are organized structurally. People are
consciously aware of many elements of language - like consonants or vowels, syllables, and
words - but they tend not to be aware of sentence structure.
2.8. Language competence and language performance
Linguistic competence simply refers to the knowledge of language that is in a person's brain
(or mind), knowledge that provides a system for pairing sound and meaning. Linguistic
performance, in contrast, is the use of such knowledge in the actual processing of sentences,
by which we mean their production and comprehension.In the encoding process, an abstract
object - an idea - is translated into a physical object - a speech signal. When the hearer
decodes the physical signal, he recovers the same abstract object - the idea - that was encoded
by the speaker.
2.9. The Speech Signal and Linguistic Perception
The fact that the signal is the only physical link between speaker and hearer is a critical
psycholinguistic point. The speech signal must contain enough information for the hearer to
reconstruct the abstract structures that eventually convey the abstract ideas, and that
reconstruction is essential to the decoding process. The phonological representation can be
thought of as an idealization of the physical speech sounds. Perceiving a linguistic
representation based on the stimulus of a speech signal requires the hearer to have linguistic
competence. For humans, understanding a sentence involves very different processes.
3. First language acquisition (FLA)
3.1. Definition of FLA
‘First Language Acquisition’ or also known as the ‘Child Language Acquisition’ is a process
whereby children from infancy through early school years acquire their first languages
(Lightbown & Spada, 2006). The term ‘First Language Acquisition’ or ‘FLA’ can be referred
to the field that investigates the process by which children develop to use words and
sentences in their first language, to communicate with other people (Dictionary of
Sociolinguistics, 2004).
3.2. Theories of FLA
a. Behaviorist
Behaviorist Theory can be traced back to J.B. Watson’s (1924) habit formation hypothesis.
The behaviorist B. F. Skinner then proposed this theory as an explanation for language
acquisition in humans. In Verbal Behavior (1957), he stated: "The basic processes and
relations which give verbal behavior its special characteristics are now fairly well understood.
Much of the experimental work responsible for this advance has been carried out on other
species, but the results have proved to be surprisingly free of species restrictions. Recent
work has shown that the methods can be extended to human behavior without serious
modifications." (Cited in Lowe and Graham, 1998, p68)
Skinner suggested that a child imitates the language of its parents or carers.
b. Nativist
In the nature vs nurture debate, which has been ongoing since 1869, Nativist theorists are
typically team nature.
Chomsky and the Nativist Theory
During the 1960s, Chomsky questioned the idea that the human mind begins as a 'blank slate'
and rejected the behaviorist theory. Chomsky believes that the basic concepts of language are
innate and are influenced by the language environments.This innate ability to easily learn a
native language is due to the language acquisition device (LAD) and Universal grammar.
The Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
The language acquisition device (LAD), is a hypothetical 'tool' in the brain that contains
specific knowledge about language and grammar. Chomsky proposed the LAD to help
explain how children are able to comprehend the basic structures of language from such a
young age. Chomsky suggests that a child's LAD is triggered once they hear speech.
Universal Grammar has been used to describe the knowledge contained within the LAD.
c. Functional
Functionalism is an approach to language development that focuses on the relationship
between language form and social meaning. (Emmit et al. 2015) That is, language is not so
much a system of rules as posed by Chomsky, but a means of performing particular socially
communicative functions.
Another element of Halliday's functionalist theory are the "seven functions of language,"
which were designed to reflect the various conversational interactions that children develop
during language acquisition. They are listed below:
1. Instrumental - "I want" 5. Heuristic - "Tell me why"
2. Regulatory - "Do as I tell you" 6. Imaginative - "Lets pretend"
3. Interactional - "Me and you" 7. Representational - "I've got something for you"
4. Personal - "Here I come" (Zhao, n.d)
Halliday believed that children when children realise the potential that these functions serve,
they will become more skilful in using them when communicating and expressing meaning to
others.
3.3. Stages of FLA
Pre-talking -> Babbling -> Holophrastic -> Two-word -> Telegraphic -> Multiword
4. Second language learning (SLL)
4.1. Definition
Second language acquisition (SLA) has two meanings. In the broad sense, it is a term to
describe learning a second language. In the narrow sense, it is the name of the theory of the
process by which we acquire - or pick up - a second language. It can be compared with
second language learning.
4.2. Theories of SLA/SLL
4.2.1. An innatist model: Krashen’s hypotheses
a. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: There are two independent systems of second
language performance. The 'acquired system' is the product of a subconscious process. It
requires meaningful interaction in the target language. The 'learned system' is the product of
formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process.
b. The Monitor Hypothesis: The learning system monitors the acquisition system. The
acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the
'monitor' or the 'editor'.
c. The Natural Order Hypothesis: The acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural
order' which is predictable.
d. The Input Hypothesis: The Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition'. The
learner improves and progresses when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step
beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence.
e. The Affective Filter Hypothesis: A number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but
non-causal, role in SLA. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence, anxiety and
personality traits.
4.2.2. A cognitive model: McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Model
This model argues that learning an L2 involves moving from controlled processes to
automatic processes via practice. Controlled processes are "capacity limited and temporary,"
and automatic processes are "relatively permanent".
4.3. Stages of SLA/SLL
Students learning a second language move through five predictable stages (Krashen &
Terrell, 1983).

4.4. Key factors affecting SLA/SLL

4.4.1. Internal Factors
a. Age: Cazden (1988) believes that children, teenagers, and adults will experience the same
learning period, during which they have to deal with language data. However, in terms of
learning speed and achievement, there are great differences between them. Generally, adults
can do better on the initial stage for their better cognitive ability, while children can do better
in pronunciation and standard accent, and after a long period of learning they can be more
likely to succeed in acquiring second language and communicating with it.
b. Attitude: With a positive attitude, a learner will be active in communicating with the
people speaking the target language, which will promote the SLA. Holding a negative
attitude, a learner tends to refuse or be afraid to contact the people speaking the target
language, which will definitely hinder the development of SLA and the improvement of the
communicative ability.
c. Personality: Personality factors consist of self-esteem, anxiety, depression, spirit of
adventure, extraversion and introversion, etc, which will have an effect on SLA and will
make much difference to learning efficiency.
d. Motivation: Motivation is an internal process that stimulates an individual’s activity and
helps them to maintain the effort to realize their expected goal (Wei & He, 2013). As an
internal impetus, motivation can promote the learning process, and can inspire and guide
learners’ learning. On the contrary, learners with weak motivation always take a negative
attitude in the learning process, and they tend to spend less time and energy in a second
language learning, which often leads to low learning efficiency.
e. First Language Proficiency: The impact of the mother tongue on SLA is language transfer.
When there are similar components between L1 and L2, positive transfer happens, which can
help learners to master and practice a second language. Due to differences between two
languages, mother tongue often exerts a negative impact on SLA. Positive transfer and
negative transfer often coexist in the process of language learning.
4.4.2. External factors
a. Curriculum: For ESL students, in particular, it is important that the totality of their
educational experience is appropriate for their needs.
b. Instruction: Language teachers better than others at providing appropriate and effective
learning experiences for the students in their classrooms will help them make faster progress.
c. Access to native speakers: The opportunity to interact with native speakers both within and
outside of the classroom is a significant advantage. Native speakers are linguistic models and
can provide appropriate feedback.
5. The similarities and differences between FLA and SLL
5.1. Similarities
Universal grammar: Universal grammar may influence learning. Chomsky suggests that all
human languages share many of the same common grammar principles. This sharing of
common grammar principles is what Chomsky refers to as Universal Grammar. The basic
grammatical structures of language are already encoded in the human brain at birth.
Predictable stages: There are predictable stages. There are particular stages in a set order.
Individuals may move more slowly or quickly through these stages, but they can’t skip ahead.
Making errors: Making errors is a part of learning.
Context: Learners use context clues, prior knowledge and interaction to comprehend
language.
Overgeneralization: Learners may over generalize vocabulary or rules and use them in
broader contexts.
Input: Learners need comprehensible input and opportunities to learn language in contexts to
increase their proficiency.
5.2. Differences
Criteria FLA SLL

Learning Acquired from birth by actively listening Usually learned at a later stage after
point to parents communicating with you a mother tongue

Motivation A subconscious process An active and conscious process

An instinct, triggered by birth A personal choice, required
motivation

Nature Natural (no instruction) Natural or guided (for synthetic

languages grammatical instruction
is required)

Input Motherese or Caregiver speech Foreign talk or negotiated input

 This simplified form of input makes it
easier for the child to comprehend and
understand the speech, thus resulting in an
effective output.

Result Learners reach native fluency Often difficult to reach native-like

fluency, though good competence
can be achieved

In second language learning, there

First-language learners always attain may be less access to universal
native-like proficiency, unless they have a grammar, and sensitivity to
disability that affects language learning. phonological distinctions not
present in the native language will
Learners have many chances to practice be reduced. Students learning in a
with native speakers (especially classroom setting may also have
caregivers). fewer opportunities to learn
language authentically and practice
extensively with native speakers.
These factors may reduce the
likelihood that language learners
will attain native-like proficiency.

Time Learners spend years of listening to Learning is more rapid and people
language, babbling and using telegraphic are able to form sentences within a
speech before they can form sentences short period of time

In formal second language learners,

learners are able to use more met
cognitive processes in their
learning. They can consciously
manipulate grammatical structures,
and they can explicitly describe
how language works. This can
speed the learning process.

In second language learning in

older learners, learners bring more
life experience and background
knowledge to their learning. They
have more schemata and more
learning strategies to help them
learn the second language.

6. The relationships between psycholinguistics and FLT

6. 1. Psycholinguistics Approach
Psycholinguistics theories have explained the mental processes that occur in the
human brain when a person produces and perceives a language. Language perception
includes the activity of listening and reading, while the language production includes the
activity of speaking and writing. The four activities are called the four of language skills.
Following will describe some benefits of psycholinguistics theories in language learning and
teaching as explained by Demirezen (2004).

6.1.1. Psycholinguistics Approach and Listening Skill

Psycholinguistics researchers have indicated that in teaching listening, the intrinsic
and extrinsic difficulties should be overcome in order to reach a highly qualified listening
activity. Intrinsic difficulty refers to the speed, number of unknown words, and prior
knowledge about the topic. Extrinsic difficulty refers to students’ interest, motivation,
purpose of listening activity, and noise in the environment. Psycholinguistics knowledge will
help teachers to reduce the intrinsic and extrinsic difficulties.
Teachers can prepare a listening text with a topic that is familiar for students,
consisting of 100 words, and including 10 new vocabulary items. Teacher also minds about
the reading speed and the noise of the environment. Moreover, teachers can increase
students’ interest and motivation by designing an interesting and comfortable class.

6.1.2. Psycholinguistics Approach and Reading Skill

Psycholinguistics approach resorts to text-based approach as a case of bottom-up
processing so as to emphasize the comprehension activity and top-down processing to stress
the fact that comprehension rests primarily on students’ knowledge base.
Bottom-up processing happens when someone tries to understand language by
looking at individual meanings or grammatical characteristics of the most basic units of the
text and moves from these to trying to understand the whole text.
Top-down processing of language happens when someone uses background
information to predict the meaning of the language they are going to read. Rather than relying
first on the actual words, they develop expectations about what they will read, and confirm or
reject these as they read. This theory emphasizes that the understanding of the meaning of a
text essentially relies on the prior knowledge of students.
Psycholinguistics helps learners to reduce the intrinsic difficulties in reading activity
by arousing the interest of the students onto the reading text.
Teachers need to provide authentic and contextual reading material because if students are
not properly exposed to authentic materials they may fail in seeing their relevance to the real
world.

6.1.3. Psycholinguistics Approach and Writing Skill

Psycholinguistics helps in understanding the students’ mistakes in writing. It has a

clear contribution to spelling mistakes since in English words are not spelled as they sound.
Psycholinguistics approach indicates that there are mistakes in writing caused by agraphia.
Psycholinguistics helps to specify the writing levels and writing types. It pins down the
mechanical mistakes on punctuation and suggests certain cures for them.

6.1.4. Psycholinguistics Approach and Speaking Skill

Psycholinguistics has specified several difficulties in speaking.

Psycholinguistics also explains that personality affects students’ performance in language
learning. There are also some traumatic disorders caused by localized damage. It
recommends therapies and counseling practices for such difficulties.

6.2 Language Teaching Methods of Psycholinguistics Approach

6.2.1. Natural Method
This method proposes that language education reflects the natural process in which
people acquire their mother tongue. This method rejects previous methods like the audio
method. Psycholinguistic principles follow this strategy in language learning:

(a) Language mastery depends on the natural learning of the language abilities in a
natural setting
(b) Language learning is an endeavor to improve communication skills, the ability to
understand the language of native speakers and language speakers without making mistakes
that interfere with the meaning of the language;
(c) Understanding is primary than manufacturing.
(d) Five monitors theory is the model underlying this method.

Natural technology established by the teacher demonstrates the consistency of this method.
The teacher encourages pupils to do skills such as problem-solving, gambling, and
humanistic affection. Problem-solving is intended to train learners to find the proper solution.
Games are regarded as a crossroads but are aimed to develop the language ability of students.

6.2.2. Total Physical Response (TPR)

TPR is a language teaching method which attempts to teach language through
physical activity. It is developed by James Asher, a psychology professor. There are two
psycholinguistic principles in this teaching method. First, language competence will improve
significantly by involving kinesthetic sensory system in language learning. Second,
comprehension is primary rather than speech production, so students are directed to achieve
comprehension competences before they try to speak or write. In this method, learners have
the primary roles of listener and performer while the teacher plays an active and direct role.
A spacious classroom is required in applying this method. The class ideally consists
of 20-25 students. This method can be applied to teach children or adults. Grammatical rules
are presented in imperative sentences. Dictionary is unneeded because the meaning of words
will be expressed by physical activities. Students usually do not get homework because
language learning is performed together in the classroom. The procedure in a TPR classroom
includes 5 steps: (1) Review, (2) New commands, (3) Simple questions, (4) Role reversal, (5)
Reading and Writing.

6.2.3. Suggestopedia
Three elements for the system to work effectively:
(1) an attractive classroom and a pleasant classroom atmosphere (with soft lighting,
comfortable seats, baroque music, and yoga breathing) ;
(2) a teacher with a dynamic personality who is able to act out the materials and motivate the
students to learn;
(3) a state of relaxed alertness in the students
Procedure of a classic Suggestopedia class
Class size: around 12 students (small groups)
Duration: a 4-hour meeting per day for 1 month (very intensive)
Three phases:
(1) Review, done via traditional conversations, games, plays, etc. It may include some
exercises and error correction, but does not include the use of a language lab or pattern drill.
(2) Presentation of new material. New material is introduced in the form of dialogues with the
necessary grammar and translation based on situations familiar to the students. The material
is quite long, about 10-14 pages.
(3) Seances
(3.1) The active séance, the dialogue is read by the teacher, while students follow the text and
engage in deep and rhythmic breathing. Concentration is greatly promoted by the retention or
suspension of breath.
(3.2) The passive / convert séance, the teacher's reading of the dialogue "with an emotional
intonation", the students, "with eyes closed, meditate on the text" while baroque music is
played.
Criticism
Firstly, suggestopedia has been criticised as a ‘pseudo-science’. It strongly depends on the
trust that students develop towards the method by simply believing that it works while other
important factors of language acquisition are being neglected. In fact, language is not only
about the power of the mind to memorize.
Secondly, it is not a practical method. Teachers face the problem of the availability of music,
comfortable chairs, lighting, etc. In addition, the course is quite intensive. Adult learners
may find themselves being brought into a childlike state.

REFERENCES:
Fermández, E. M. & H. S. Cairns (2016). Fundamentals of Psycholinguistics. Singapore:
Wiley-Blackwell.