ECT 305

ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Module-4

G-S Procedure and Effects in the Channel

Prepared By
Sithara Jeyaraj
Assistant professor
Dept of ECE,MACE

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Syllabus
• Gram-Schmitt procedure.
• Signal space.
• Baseband transmission through AWGN channel.
• Mathematical model of ISI. Nyquit criterion for zero ISI.
• Signal modeling for ISI, Raised cosine and Square-root raised cosine spectrum,
• Partial response signalling and duobinary coding.
• Equalization.
• Design of zero forcing equalizer.
• Vector model of AWGN channel.
• Matched filter and correlation receivers. MAP receiver,
• Maximum likelihood receiver and probability of error.
• Capacity of an AWGN channel
• (Expression only) -- significance in the design of communication schemes..

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Baseband transmission through AWGN channel.

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Baseband transmission through AWGN channel.
•

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Baseband transmission through AWGN channel.
•

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Intersymbol Interference
•

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Intersymbol Interference
•

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Intersymbol Interference
•

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Intersymbol Interference

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Nyquist’s Criterion For Distoritonless Baseband Binary Transmission

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Nyquist’s Criterion For Distoritonless Baseband Binary Transmission

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Nyquist’s Criterion For Distoritonless Baseband Binary Transmission

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Ideal Solution
•

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Ideal Solution
• The special value of the bit rate Rb = 2W is called the Nyquist rate and W is itself called the
Nyquist bandwidth.
• Correspondingly, the baseband pulse p(t) for distortionless transmission is called the ideal Nyquist
pulse, ideal in the sense that the bandwidth requirement is one half the bit rate
• Figure 8.4 shows plots of P(f) and p(t).
• In part a of the figure, the normalized form of the frequency function P(f) is plotted for positive and
negative frequencies.
• In part b of the figure, we have also included the signaling intervals and the corresponding
centered sampling instants.
• The function p(t) can be regarded as the impulse response of an ideal low-pass filter with
passband magnitude response 1/2W and bandwidth W.
• The function p(t) has its peak value at the origin and goes through zero at integer multiples of the
bit duration Tb.

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Ideal Solution

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Ideal Solution
•

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Practical Difficulties
•

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Ideal Solution

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Raised-Cosine Spectrum
• We may overcome the practical difficulties encountered with the ideal Nyquist pulse by
extending the bandwidth from the minimum value W = Rb/2 to an adjustable value
between W and 2W.
• In effect, we are trading off increased channel bandwidth for a more robust signal design
that is tolerant of timing errors.
• Specifically, the overall frequency response P(f) is designed to satisfy a condition more
stringent than that for the ideal Nyquist pulse, in that we retain three terms of the
summation on the left-hand side of equation E and restrict the frequency band of interest
to [–W, W], as shown by

• where, on the right-hand side, we have set Rb = 1/2W

• We may now devise several band-limited functions that satisfy above equation.

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Raised-Cosine Spectrum
•

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Raised-Cosine Spectrum
•

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Raised-Cosine Spectrum

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Raised-Cosine Spectrum
• The time response p(t) is naturally the inverse Fourier transform of the frequency response P( f ).
Hence, transforming the P(f) defined in (8.22) into the time domain, we obtain

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Raised-Cosine Spectrum

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Raised-Cosine Spectrum

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Square-Root Raised-Cosine Spectrum

• A more sophisticated form of pulse shaping uses the square-root raised-cosine (SRRC)spectrum
rather than the conventional RC spectrum of Equation A.
• Specifically, the spectrum of the basic pulse is now defined by the square root of the right-hand
side of this equation.
• Thus, using the trigonometric identity

• To avoid confusion, we use G( f ) as the symbol for the SRRC spectrum, and so we may write

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Square-Root Raised-Cosine Spectrum

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Square-Root Raised-Cosine Spectrum

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Square-Root Raised-Cosine Spectrum

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Square-Root Raised-Cosine Spectrum

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Partial response signalling
• Thus far we have treated ISI as undesirable phenomenon that produces a degradation in system
performance.
• By adding ISI to the transmitted signal in a controlled manner it is possible to achieve a bit rate of
2W bits per second in a channel bandwidth W Hertz
• Such schemes are called correlative coding or partial-response signaling schemes
• Since ISI introduced into the transmitted signal is known, its effect can be interpreted at the
receiver in a deterministic way.
• Thus correlative level coding may be regarded as a practical method of achieving the theoretical
maximum signalling rate of 2W symbols per second in a bandwidth of W Hertz as postulated by
Nyquist using realizable filters

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Duobinary Signalling
•

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Duobinary Signalling

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Duobinary Signalling
•

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Duobinary Signalling

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Duobinary Signalling

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Duobinary Signalling

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Duobinary Signalling

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Duobinary Signalling

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Duobinary Signalling

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Duobinary Signalling

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Duobinary Signalling

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Duobinary Signalling

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Duobinary Signalling

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Duobinary Signalling

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Duobinary Signalling

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

Conversion of the Continuous AWGN Channel into a

Vector Channel
• Suppose that the si(t) is
not any signal, but
specifically the signal at
the receiver side, defined
in accordance with an
AWGN channel:
• So the output of the
correlator (Fig. 5.3b) can
be defined as:
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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

deterministic quantity random quantity

contributed by the sample value of the

transmitted signal si(t) variable Wi due to noise

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

Now,
• Consider a random
process X1(t), with x1(t), a
sample function which is
related to the received
signal x(t) as follows:
• Using 5.28, 5.29 and 5.30
and the expansion 5.5 we
get:

which means that the sample function x1(t) depends only on

the channel noise!
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• The received signal can

be expressed as:

NOTE: This is an expansion similar to the one

in 5.5 but it is random, due to the additive
noise.

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

Statistical Characterization
• The received signal (output of the correlator of Fig.5.3b) is a random
signal.
• To describe it we need to use statistical methods – mean and variance.
• The assumptions are:
– X(t) denotes a random process, a sample function of which is represented by the
received signal x(t).
– Xj denotes a random variable whose sample value is represented by the correlator
output xj, j = 1, 2, …N.
– We have assumed AWGN, so the noise is Gaussian, so X(t) is a Gaussian process
and being a Gaussian RV, Xj is described fully by its mean value and variance.

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Mean Value
• Let Wj, denote a random variable, represented by its
sample value wj, produced by the jth correlator in
response to the Gaussian noise component w(t).
• So it has zero mean (by definition of the AWGN
model)

• …then the mean of

Xj depends only on
sij:

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

Variance
• Starting from the definition,
we substitute using 5.29 and
5.31

Autocorrelation function of
the noise process
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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis
• It can be expressed as:
(because the noise is
stationary and with a
constant power spectral
density)
• After substitution for
the variance we get:

• And since φj(t) has unit

energy for the variance
we finally have:
• Correlator outputs, denoted by Xj have variance
equal to the power spectral density N0/2 of the noise
process W(t).
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Properties (without proof)

• Xj are mutually uncorrelated
• Xj are statistically independent (follows from above
because Xj are Gaussian)
• and for a memoryless channel the following equation
is true:

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

• Define (construct) a vector X of N random variables, X1, X2,

…XN,
• whose elements are independent Gaussian RV with mean
values sij, (output of the correlator, deterministic part of the
signal defined by the signal transmitted)
• and variance equal to N0/2 (output of the correlator, random
part, calculated noise added by the channel).
• then the X1, X2, …XN , elements of X are statistically
independent.
• So, we can express the conditional probability of X, given si(t)
(correspondingly symbol mi) as a product of the conditional
density functions (fx) of its individual elements fxj.

NOTE: This is equal to finding an expression of the probability

of a received symbol given a specific symbol was sent,
assuming a memoryless channel
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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

• …that is:

• where, the vector x and the scalar xj, are sample

values of the random vector X and the random
variable Xj.

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

Vector x is called
observation vector
Vector x and scalar xj Scalar xj is called
are sample values of observable element
the random vector X
and the random
variable Xj

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

• Since, each Xj is Gaussian with mean sj and variance

N0/2

• we can substitute in 5.44 to get 5.46:

 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

• If we go back to the formulation of the received

signal through a AWGN channel 5.34

Only projections of the noise onto

the basis functions of the signal set
The vector that we
{si(t)Mi=1 affect the significant
have constructed fully statistics of the detection problem
defines this part

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

Finally,
• The AWGN channel, is equivalent to an
N-dimensional vector channel, described by the
observation vector

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

Likelihood Functions
• The conditional probability density functions
fX(x|mi), I = 1, 2, 3, …M are the very
characterization of the AWGN channel.
• They express the functional dependence of the
observation vector x on the transmitted
message symbol mi. (known as the transmitted
message symbol)

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However,
• If we have the observation vector given, and we
want to define the transmitted message signal, then
we have the reverse situation
• We introduce the “likelihood function” L(mi) as:

• Or log likelihood function ..l(mi) as:

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

Log-Likelihood Function of AWGN

Channel
Vector presentation of the
• Substitute 5.46 into 5.50: AWGN channel

• where sij, j = 1, 2, 3, ..N are the elements of the signal

vector si, representing the message symbol mi.

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So,

which is the log likelihood function of the AWGN channel..

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

5.5 Maximum Likelihood Decoding

• Defining the problem
– Suppose that in each time slot duration of T seconds, one of
M possible signals, s1(t), s2(t), …sM(t) is transmitted with
equal probability, 1/M.
– the vector representation, the signal si(t), i=1, 2, …M is
applied to a bank of correlators, with a common input and
supplied with a suitable set of N orthogonal basis functions,
N. The resulting output defines the signal vector si.
– We represent each signal si(t) as a point in the Euclidian
space, N ≤ M (referred to as transmitted signal point or
message point).The set of message points corresponding to
the set of transmitted signals si(t) {i = 1 to M} is called
signal constellation.

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

Figure 5.3
(a) Synthesizer for generating the signal si(t). (b) Analyzer for
generating the set of signal vectors {si}.

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

– The received signal x(t) is applied to a bank of N

correlators (Fig. 5.3b) and the correlator outputs
define the observation vector x.
– On the receiving side the representation of the
received signal x(t) is complicated by the additive
noise w(t).
– As we discussed the previous class, the vector x
differs from the vector si by the noise vector w.
– However only the portion of it which interferes
with the detection process is of importance to us,
and this is fully described by w(t).

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

• Based on the observation vector x we may represent

the received signal signal x(t) by a point in the same
Euclidian space used to represent the transmitted
signal.

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Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

Maximum a posteriori probability (MAP Rule)

So the optimum decision rule is:

Where k=1,2,…M

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

• The same rule can be more explicitly expressed

using the a priori probabilities of the transmitted
signals as:
Conditional pdf of
observation vector X
given mk was transmitted

Unconditional pdf
of observation
vector X
a priori probability
of transmitting mk

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

• Thus we can conclude, according to the definition of

likelihood functions, the likelihood function l(mk) will be
maximum for k = i.
• So the decision rule using the likelihood function will be
formulated as:
Maximum Likelihood rule

• For a graphical representation of the maximum likelihood rule

we introduce the following:
– Observation space – Z, N-dimensional, consisting of all possible
observation vectors x
– Z is partitioned into M decision regions, Z1, Z2, .. ZM

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

Figure 5.8

Illustrating the
partitioning of the
observation space
into decision regions
for the case when
N = 2 and M = 4;
it is assumed that the
M transmitted
symbols are equally
likely.

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

For the AWGN channel..

• Based on the log-likelihood
function, of the AWGN channel,
l(mk) will be max when the term:
is minimized by k = i.
• Decision rule for
AWGN:

• Or using Euclidian
space notation

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Finally,
• (5.59) states that the maximum likelihood decision rule is
simply to choose the message point closest to the received
signal point.
• After few re-organizations we get: (left as homework brain
gymnastic exercise for you)

Energy of the
transmitted signal
sk(t) 76/26
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Correlation Receiver

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Correlation Receiver

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Correlation Receiver

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 Chapter 5: Signal Space Analysis

5.7 Probability of Error

• To complete the statistical characterization of the
correlation receiver (Fig. 5.9) we need to discuss its
noise performance.
• Using the assumptions made before, we can define the
average probability of error Pe as:

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• Using the likelihood function this can be re-written

as:

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Correlation Receiver

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Matched Filter

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Matched Filter

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Matched Filter

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Matched Filter

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Matched Filter

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Matched Filter

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Matched Filter

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Matched Filter

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Properties of Matched Filter

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Properties of Matched Filter

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Properties of Matched Filter

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Properties of Matched Filter

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Properties of Matched Filter

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Equalization
•

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The Zero-forcing Equalizer
•

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The Zero-forcing Equalizer

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The Zero-forcing Equalizer

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The Zero-forcing Equalizer

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The Zero-forcing Equalizer

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The Zero-forcing Equalizer

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The Zero-forcing Equalizer

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The Zero-forcing Equalizer

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The Zero-forcing Equalizer

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Error rate due to noise

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Error rate due to noise

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Error rate due to noise

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Error rate due to noise

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Error rate due to noise

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Error rate due to noise

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Error rate due to noise

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Error rate due to noise

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Error rate due to noise

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Error rate due to noise

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Error rate due to noise

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Error rate due to noise

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Error rate due to noise

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Error rate due to noise

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Error rate due to noise

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Channel Capacity Theorem

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