15EC304- ANTENNA AND

WAVE PROPAGATION
Presented By : Dr. T.Deepa
Associate Professor,
Department of Telecommunication Engineering
SRM Institute of Science and Technology- 603203
 UNIT V- RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION (Topics)
• Basics of propagation: Definition and General Classification
• Different Modes of propagation
• Structure of ionosphere
• Refraction and Reflection of sky wave by ionosphere
• Ray path, Critical frequency, MUF, LUF , OF, Virtual Height and skip distance
• Relation between MUF & Skip distance for flat Earth & Curved Earth
• Ionospheric abnormalities, Impact of solar activity
• Multi-Hop propagation and
• Radio wave characteristics
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 RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
INTRODUCTION : RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

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 What is Electromagnetic Wave?

• Electromagnetic Waves also called Electro-

magnetic Radiations are basically defined
as superimposed oscillations of an Electric
and a Magnetic Field in space with
their direction of propagation
perpendicular to both of them.
• In simple words, electromagnetic waves
are oscillations produced due to crossing
over of an electric and a magnetic field.
The direction of the propagation of such waves is
perpendicular to the direction of the force of either of
these fields as seen in the above figure.
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 Properties of Electromagnetic(EM) Wave Propagation

• EM waves travel at the speed of light.

• EM waves do not require any medium for propagation.
• EM waves travel in a transverse form.
• EM waves are not deflected by electric or magnetic field.
• EM waves can be polarized.
• EM waves undergo interference and diffraction.

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Wavelength & Frequency of the EM waves

• The wavelength(λ) and frequency (f) of the EM waves can be related

as:
c = f.λ
where c = velocity of the wave.

Now let us study some MODES of propagation of EM waves:

Mesosphere, Troposphere, Ionosphere are the different layers.

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 Classification : Radio Wave Propagation
• These layers are used for propagation of EM waves and that EM
waves travel basically in any one of the three methods given below:
• Ground Wave
• Space Wave
• Sky Wave

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What is Ground Wave /Surface Wave Propagation ?
• To radiate signals with high efficiency, the
antennas should have a size comparable to the
wavelength λ of the signal (at least ~ λ/4).
• At longer wavelengths (i.e., at lower frequencies),
the antennas have large physical size and they
are located on or very near to the ground.
• In standard AM broadcast, ground based vertical
towers are generally used as transmitting
antennas. For such antennas, ground has a strong
influence on the propagation of the signal.
• The mode of propagation is called surface wave
propagation and the wave glides over the surface
of the earth.
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Properties of Ground Wave Propagation
 Used for a low-frequency range transmission, mostly less than 2MHz.
 Employs the use of large antennas order of which is equivalent to the
wavelength of the EM waves and uses the ground or Troposphere for
its propagation.
 Signals over large distances are not sent using this method.
 It causes severe attenuation which increases with increased
frequency of the waves. The maximum range of coverage depends on
the transmitted power and frequency (less than a few MHz).

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 2. Sky Wave Propagation

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 What is Sky Wave Propagation?
• In the Frequency range 300KHz–30MHz, long
distance communication can be achieved by
ionospheric reflection of radio waves back
towards the earth.
• The sky wave, often called the ionospheric
wave, is radiated in an upward direction and
returned to Earth at some distant location
because of refraction from the ionosphere.
• This form of propagation is relatively
unaffected by the Earth's surface and can
propagate signals over great distances.
Usually the high frequency (HF) band is used
for sky wave propagation.
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 Properties of Sky Wave Propagation

• Used for the propagation of EM waves with a frequency range of

300KHz – 30MHz.
• Make use of the ionosphere so called due to the presence of charged
ions in the region of about 60 to 300 km from the Earth surface.
These ions provide a reflecting medium to the radio or
communication waves within a particular frequency range.
• Use of the property of the ionosphere for long-distance transmission
of the waves without much attenuation and loss of signal strength.
• Examples
• o Amateur radio , Citizens Band (CB) radio , International broadcasts

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 3. Space Wave Propagation
• Another mode of radio wave propagation is by space waves.
• The space wave follows two distinct paths from the transmitting
antenna to the receiving antenna :
 one through the air directly to the receiving antenna,
 the other reflected from the ground to the receiving antenna.

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 Direct Wave Propagation

 The primary path of the space wave is directly from the transmitting antenna
to the receiving antenna. So, the receiving antenna must be located within
the radio horizon of the transmitting antenna.
 Because space waves are refracted slightly, even when propagated through
the troposphere, the radio horizon is actually about one-third farther than the
LOS or natural horizon.

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 Direct Wave Propagation (Cont’d)
• At frequencies above 40 MHz, communication is essentially limited to
LOS paths. At these frequencies, the antennas are relatively smaller
and can be placed at heights of many wavelengths above the ground.
Because of LOS nature of propagation, direct waves get blocked at
some point by the curvature of the earth as illustrated in Fig.
• If the signal is to be received beyond the horizon then the receiving
antenna must be high enough to intercept the LOS waves.

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01-05-2020 15
 Direct Wave Propagation (Cont’d)
• If the transmitting antenna is at a height hT, then the distance to the
horizon dT is given as
dT  2 RhT
where R is the radius of the Earth (approximately 6400 km).
dT is also called the radio horizon of the transmitting antenna.
• The maximum LOS distance dM between the two antennas having
heights hT and hR above the earth is given by
d M  2 RhT  2 RhR
where hR is the height of receiving antenna.

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 Space wave propagation (Satellite)
• Space satellite communication and very high-frequency waves use
this propagation method.
• For very large distances, the height of the tower used for transmission
is high enough to prevent waves from touching the earth curvature
thus preventing attenuation and loss of signal strength.

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 Properties of Space Wave Propagation
• Space waves are used for LOS communication as well as satellite
communication.
• Space satellite communication and very high-frequency waves use
this propagation method.

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 Structure of Ionosphere
• In radio communication, skywave or skip refers to the propagation of radio
waves reflected or refracted back toward Earth from the ionosphere,
an electrically charged layer of the upper atmosphere.
• The ionosphere is a region of the upper atmosphere, from about 80 km to
1000 km in altitude, where neutral air is ionized by solar photons and cosmic rays.
• Ionization occurs due to the absorption of the ultraviolet and other high-energy
radiation coming from the sun by air molecules.

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Ionospheric Effects on Radio Wave Propagation
• Each ionized layer has a central region of relatively dense ionization, which
tapers off in intensity both above and below the maximum region.
As the wave enters into the upper part of the layer of
DECREASING IONIZATION, the velocity of the radio wave
decreases, and the wave is bent away from the Earth.

As the wave is in the highly dense centre portion of the layer,

however, refraction occurs more slowly because the DENSITY
OF IONIZATION IS ALMOST UNIFORM.

As a radio wave enters a region of INCREASING IONIZATION,

the increase in velocity of the upper part of the wave causes it
to be bent back towards the Earth.

The relationship between radio waves

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Ionisation in the Ionospheric Layers

 The ionosphere is further RADIATION CAUSING IONISATION IN THE IONOSPHERIC

subdivided into several layers, LAYERS
the details of which are given LAYERS PRIMARY IONISING
RADIATION FORMS
in Table.
C Cosmic
 Ionospheric Layers: C, D, E,
D Lyman alpha, Hard X-Rays
F1, F2, Regions
E Soft X-Rays and some
Extreme Ultra-Violet
F1 Extreme Ultra-violet, and
some Ultra-Violet
F2 Ultra-Violet

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Electron density as a function of altitude

• Layers of high electrons densities : D, E, and F layers, as shown in

Figure.
• During the day the F layer splits into two layers called the F1 and F2
layers.
• The D layer vanishes completely at night.

Electron density as a function of altitude, and various

ionospheric layers
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Refraction by the Ionosphere
 When a radio wave is transmitted into an ionized layer, refraction, or
bending of the wave, occurs.
 Refraction is caused by an abrupt change in the velocity of the upper
part of a radio wave as it strikes or enters a new medium.
 The amount of refraction that occurs depends on three main factors:
the density of ionization of the layer,
the frequency of the radio wave, and
the angle at which the wave enters the layer

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 Reflection by the Ionosphere
• When high-frequency signals enter the ionosphere at a low angle they are bent
back towards the earth by the ionized layer.
• When operating at frequencies just below the MUF, losses can be quite small, so
the radio signal may effectively "bounce" or "skip" between the earth and
ionosphere two or more times.
• If the ionization is not great enough, the wave only curves slightly downwards,
and subsequently upwards as the ionization peak is passed so that it exits the top
of the layer only slightly displaced. The wave then is lost in space.
• To prevent this a lower frequency must be chosen.

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Properties of Ionization
• The degree of ionization varies with the height. The density of
atmosphere decreases with height.
• At great heights the solar radiation is intense but there are few
molecules to be ionised.
• The ionospheric layer acts as a reflector for a certain range of
frequencies (3 to 30 MHz). EM waves of frequencies higher than 30
MHz penetrate the ionosphere and escape.
• The phenomenon of bending of EM waves so that they are diverted
towards the earth is similar to total internal reflection in optics.

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Key factors within ionospheric High Frequency (HF) radio
communication link

• Ray path
• Critical frequency
• Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)
• Lowest Usable Frequency (LUF )
• Optimum Frequency (OF)
• Virtual Height and
• Skip distance

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 Ray Path/Propagation Path
• The path that a refracted wave follows to the receiver depends on the angle at
which the wave strikes the ionosphere.
• It may also, reach the receiving antenna over a path involving more than one layer,
by multiple hops/skip between the ionosphere and Earth, or by any combination
of these paths.
The various angles at which RF waves strikes
the layer are represented by dark lines and
designated as rays 1 through 6.

Ray paths with varying angles of incidence.

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 Ray Path/Propagation Path (Cont’d)
• Ray 1 -- the propagation path is long.
• Ray 2 and Ray 3-- the rays penetrate deeper into the layer but the range of these rays decreases.
• When a certain angle is reached (Ray 3), the refraction of the ray is first returned to Earth , its
second refraction from the ionospheric layer.
• Ray 4 and Ray 5--the RF energy penetrates the central area of maximum ionization of the layer. These rays
are refracted rather slowly and are eventually returned to Earth at great distances.
• Ray 6-- the ray is not returned at all, but passes on through the layer.

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 Frequency Selection Considerations
Selection of a suitable operating frequency (within the bounds of
frequency allocations and availability) is of prime importance for
successful communications between any two specified locations at any
given time of the day:

Critical frequency (CF)

Maximum usable frequency(MUF),
Lowest usable frequency(LUF),
Optimum working frequency(OWF) that can be used.

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Critical frequency

 The critical frequency is an important figure that gives an indication of the state
of the ionosphere and the resulting HF propagation.
 It is obtained by sending a signal pulse directly upwards.
 Critical frequency is defined as the maximum frequency at which the total
internal reflection(TIR) takes place from the ionosphere.
The mathematical representation is given as:
f c  9 N max
Where,
fc is the critical frequency in Hz
Nmax is the maximum electron density /ionization density
(electrons per cubic meter)

Critical frequency varies depending upon atmospheric conditions, time of the day and the angle of
incidence of the radio waves by the antenna.

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Total Internal Reflection
• Example: A ray of light passes from a medium of water to that of air.
• Obviously, the light ray will be refracted at the junction separating the two media.
Since it passes from a medium of a higher refractive index to that having a lower
refractive index, the refracted light ray bends away from the normal.
• At a specific angle of incidence, the incident ray of light is refracted in such a way
that it passes along the surface of the water.
• This particular angle of incidence is called the critical angle. Here the angle of
refraction is 90 degrees.

Definition : The radio frequency at or

below the wave gets reflected from the
ionosphere and above this frequency
waves penetrate through the
ionospheric layer . This frequency is
known as Critical Frequency
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Maximum usable frequency (MUF)
• When a signal is transmitted using HF propagation, over a given path
there is a maximum frequency that can be used.
• A maximum frequency that can be used for communications
between two given locations. This frequency is known as the MUF.
• Waves at frequencies above the MUF are normally refracted so slowly
that they return to Earth beyond the desired location, or pass on
through the ionosphere and are lost.
• However, that use of an established MUF certainly does not
guarantee successful communications between a transmitting site
and a receiving site. Variations in the ionosphere may occur at any
time and consequently raise or lower the predetermined MUF.

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Maximum usable frequency (MUF)
The mathematical representation of critical frequency as a function of
MUF is:
f c  f MUF / sec  ; f MUF  f C / cos 
Where,
fc is the critical frequency in Hz
fMUF is the maximum usable frequency (3 to 4 times of fc)
θ is the angle of incidence
The factor sec θ is called the MUF factor and it is a function of the path
length if the height layer is known.

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Lowest Usable frequency (LUF)
 As there is a maximum operating frequency that can
be used for communications between two points,
there is also a minimum operating frequency. This is
known as the LUF.
 As the frequency of a radio wave is lowered, the rate
of refraction increases. So the wave whose frequency
is below the established LUF is refracted back to Earth
at a shorter distance than desired, as shown in Figure.
 The LUF is defined as the frequency at below which
the signal falls below the minimum strength required
for satisfactory reception.
 The LUF is the practical limit below which
communication cannot be maintained between two Refraction of frequency below the LUF
particular radio communications stations.

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 Optimum Working Frequency (OWF)
• Neither the MUF nor the LUF is a practical operating frequency.
• When the radio waves at the LUF can be refracted back to Earth at the desired
location, the signal-to-noise ratio is still much lower than at the higher
frequencies, and the probability of multipath propagation is much greater.
• Operating at or near the MUF can result in frequent signal fading and dropouts
when ionospheric variations alter the length of the transmission path.
• The most practical operating frequency is one that you can rely on with the least
amount of problems. It should be high enough to avoid the problems of
multipath, absorption, and noise encountered at the lower frequencies; but not
so high as to result in the adverse effects of rapid changes in the ionosphere.
• A frequency that meets the above criteria has been established and is known as
the OWF

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OWF (Cont’d)
• The frequency, which is being used mostly for a particular
transmission and which has been predicted to be used over a
particular period of time, over a path, is termed as OWF.
• Estimates the maximum frequency that must be used for a given
critical frequency and incident angle. It is the frequency chosen to
avoid the irregularities of the atmosphere.

OWF  0.85 f MUF  0.85 f C / cos 

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Virtual Height
• When a wave is refracted, it is bent down gradually, but not sharply. However, the
path of incident wave and reflected wave are same if it is reflected from a surface
located at a greater height of this layer.
• Such a greater height is termed as virtual height.

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Virtual Height(Cont’d)
• As shown in Figure, the curve path reaches an altitude of h1 before
being returned to the Earth.
• If the incident and returned rays are extrapolated to a vertex, they
meet at a height h’, which is called the virtual reflection height of the
ionospheric layer.

Fig. The curved path of a refracted ray associated with frequency

fob.
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Virtual heights of various ionospheric layers
• The virtual height depends on conditions, the time of day, and the
layer, as shown in Table.

Ionospheric Daytime Night time

Layer virtual re. virtual ref.
height height

F2 250-400 km -
F1 200-250 km -
F - 300 km

E 110 km 110 km

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Skip distance, Sky zone
 The skip distance is the distance over the Earth's surface between the point where a
radio signal is transmitted, and the point where it is received having travelled to the
ionosphere, and been refracted back by the ionosphere.

2
 f MUF 
 
Dskip  2h  fC 
1

Where,
Dskip: skip distance
h: height at which reflection happens
fMUF: maximum usable frequency
fc: critical frequency

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 Skip distance, Sky zone (Cont’d)
• The size of the skip distance depends on
• the frequency of the wave,
• the angle of incidence, and
• the degree of ionization present.
• The SKIP ZONE is a zone of silence between the
point where the ground wave becomes too
weak for reception and the point where the sky
wave is first returned to Earth.
• The size of the skip zone depends on the extent
Relationship between skip zone, skip distance, and
of the ground wave coverage and the skip ground wave coverage
distance.
• When the ground wave coverage is great
enough or the skip distance is short enough
that no zone of silence occurs, there is no skip
zone.
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Refractive Index in the Ionosphere
 As the wave incident at angle of incidence,  i the wave is bent
towards the Earth. The bending of the wave produced by the
ionosphere follows optical laws.

 The direction of propagating the wave at a point in the

ionosphere is given by SNELL’S LAW

sin  i
n (1)
sin  r

Where,
 i is the angle of incidence at lower edge of the ionosphere
r is the angle of refraction at point P
n is the refractive index
εr is the relative permittivity of the ionosphere
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Relation between MUF & Skip distance for Flat Earth
The ionosphere has many tiny layers , for atmospheric refraction

n0 sin  i  n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2  nk sin  k (2)

• The condition for the wave to return to earth is to have total internal reflection(TIR), which
begins when the refracted angle ,θr is 900.
• If this happens at the kth layer,
(3)
n0 sin  i  nk sin 900  nk
and since n0 = 1,
sin  i  nk sin 2  i  nk2   r nk   r (4)

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Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
Critical Frequency (CF)
• For a given angle of incidence θi and frequency f, the minimum electron density required
to achieve TIR is

NQe2
 r  sin  i  1 
2 (5)
 0 me w2

Where, N is the electron density (m-3)

me is the mass of electron at rest , me  9.109 10 31 kg
w is the angular frequency of the wave , w  2f
Qe is the magnitude of electron charge Qe  1.602110 19 C
εo is the permittivity of free space   8.854 10 12 F / m
o

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Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
Critical Frequency (CF)
• If the maximium electron density present is Nmax, refraction of the wave at
normal incidence (θi=0 & sinθi = 0), the only possible way for the wave to be
totally internally reflected is if ε= 0.
• This requires the frequency to be less than the critical frequency fc, given by

NQe2 81N
 r  sin  i  1 
2
 1  (5)
 0 me w2 f2

81N max
if εr= 0,
2
1
fC

f C  9 N max
(6)

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Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)
• Refractive Index as the function of frequency

n  1
2
w2p
 1
2f  p
2
 fp 
 1   
2
(7)
w2 2f 2  f 
2
 fp 
2 2
 fp  sin  i  fp 
n 2  1    n  1    n   1   
 f   f  sin  r (8)
 f 

• For MUF,  fp 
2

 r  90o , sin  i  1     sin 90o  1

 f MUF  (9)
2
 fp  2 f C2
 2  f C2 sec 2  i
   1  sin 2  i  cos 2  i f MUF
cos  i (10) f p  fc
 f MUF 
f MUF  f C sec  i (11)
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Where, wp is the angular plasma frequency
Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
MUF,
f MUF  f c sec  i  9 N max sec  i

 This value of fMUF is called the maximum usable frequency, and is less than 40 MHz, and can be
as low as 25-30 MHz in period of low solar activity.

 Equation (11) is called the Secant Law.

 Secant law is applicable for flat earth and ionospheric layer.

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Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
Skip Distance
h
cos  i  (12)
 2 d2 
 h  
 4 

2h
cos  i 
d 2  4h 2

f C2
Eqn(10) f 2

cos 2  i
MUF

2
 d 2  4h 2 
  d  4h
2 2 2
f 1
h is the height of the layer
MUF
 
fC
2
cos  i 
2
2h 
 4 h 2

d is the skip distance on the flat

Earth’s surface 2
d2 d2
f MUF
 2 1 f MUF  f C 1 (13)
f C2 4h 4h 2
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Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
Skip Distance
h
tan  C  (14)
d /2

d
h  tan  C
2

2h
d
tan  C
1/ 2
 f 
2

d skip  2h  MUF   1 (15)
 f C  

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Critical Angle

The wave will NOT be reflected when    C

The wave will be reflected when   C

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Curved Earth Case :
The Relationship between MUF and the skip Distance
Considering the ionospheric layer is thin with sharp ionization density gradient so as to obtain mirror like
reflections.
In this figure, 2θ is the angle subtended by the skip distance d’ at the center of the earth.
From the geometry of Fig., the following relations are obtained:
d'
Arc d  2 R ; Angle 2 
'

R
OE  R; EB  h
AD  R sin  ; OD  R cos  ; BD  OE  EB  OD
BD  R  h  R cos 

AB   AD 2  BD 2
AB  R sin  2  R  h  R cos  2
Fig. The ionized layer and the curved earth
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Curved Earth Case :
The Relationship between the MUF and the skip Distance(Cont’d)
BD R  h  R cos 
cos  i   (1)
AB R sin    R  h  R cos 
2 2

cos  i    R  h  R cos  
2
f C2
 cos  i 
2 2
Since
R sin  2  R  h  R cos  2 2
f MUF

cos  i  2

f C2

 R  h  R cos  
2
(2)
f 2
MUF R sin  2  R  h  R cos  2 OA R R  h
1

cos      1  
OB R  h  h
R 1   
R
When the skip distance d’ is maximum. OAB  90O  R
The curvature of the earth limits both the MUF and the skip distance. h
This limit is obtained when a wave leaves the transmitter at a grazing cos   1  h
R  cos   1   ...
angle OAB = 90o◦. R
h
Under this condition, 1  sin 2   1 
R
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 52
Curved Earth Case :
The Relationship between MUF and the skip Distance(Cont’d)
Since the actual value of θ is very small, this relation can be expanded as

h
cos   1 
R
h 2 2h
1  sin   1 
2
1  1
2 h
1  1
h
2 
2h
2 
R R 2 R R R (3)

From Fig ., Arc d '  2 R

2h
d '  4 R 2 2  4 R 2 .
2
 8hR
R  d '2 
 
d '2
d '2 cos   1   1    cos   1  2
h 8R (4)
d '  8hR (or ) h
8R R R 8R

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 53

Curved Earth Case :
The Relationship between MUF and the skip Distance(Cont’d)

2h 2h
Eqn (3) 2  sin    
R R

sin    
2 d 
'2

8R  d '2

d '
sin  
d' (5)

R 4R 2
2R 2R

By substituting the values of sin  and cos 

Eqn (2) cos  i 

2

f C2

 R  h  R cos  
2

2
f MUF R sin  2  R  h  R cos  2
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 54
Curved Earth Case :
The Relationship between MUF and the skip Distance(Cont’d)

f C2

hd
'2

8R
 2

(6)
2
f MUF d 4  h  d 8R
'2 '2 2

d '2
 f 
2 2 2
f 4 
'2
d  '2
 (7)
 1
h  d 8R
MUF d
2 2   h    MUF   1
fC
'2
4  8R   f C  
The equations (8) and (9) give maximum usable frequency in terms of skip distance

1/ 2
 '2  1/ 2
d   f MUF 
 d 
2 (9)
4  '2

 f C 1  d  2 h    
 
f MUF 2
(8) '
 1
 hd
'2
  8 R   f C  
 8R  
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 55
The Relationship between MUF and skip distance
(a) Flat Earth case

1/ 2
2  f 
2

d  2h  MUF   1
f MUF  f C 1 d skip
4h 2  f C  

(b) Curved Earth case

1/ 2
 '2  1/ 2
d   f MUF 
 d 
2
4  '2

 f C 1 

  

f MUF 2 d  2 h 
'
 1
 hd
'2
  8 R   f C  
 8R  

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 56

Ionospheric Abnormalities (Cont’d)
The variations of the ionosphere are classified as follows :
• Normal
Dirnual (Daily)
Seasonal
Thickness and
Height variations of the ionospheric layer

• Abnormal
Ionospheric storms
Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances
Sunspot Cycle
Fading
Whistlers
Tides and winds
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 57
Ionospheric Effects on Radio Wave Propagation

• Normal
• Abnormalities

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 58

Ionospheric Effects (Cont’d)

 During the night, the ionosphere has only the F and E layers.
 A VLF wave from a transmitter reflects off the ions in the E layer and bounces back.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 59

The Sun Effects on the Ionosphere

 During the daytime, Flares on the Sun’s X-ray and UV light increase the
ionization of the ionosphere, creating the D and enhancing the E layers, and
splitting the F region into 2 layers. The D layer is normally not dense enough to
reflect the radio waves.
 The signals lose energy as VLF waves penetrate through the D layer and hence
radios pick up weaker signals from the transmitter during the day.
 So, the more active the Sun, the thicker the ionosphere
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 60
Solar Flare
• A solar flare is a sudden flash of increased brightness on the Sun, usually
observed near its surface and in close proximity to a sunspot group.

NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory captured this

imagery of a solar flare, as seen in the bright flash.
Image credit: NASA/SDO/Goddard

 Solar flares release a lot of radiation into space.

 If a solar flare is very intense, the radiation it releases can interfere with radio
communications on the Earth.
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 61
Ionospheric storms

• An Ionospheric storm is a turbulence in the ionosphere of

the Earth's atmosphere. Such storms are triggered by enhanced flux
of energetic electrons that are emitted at a large level by the Sun.
• Solar activity such as flares produce large variations in the particle
and electromagnetic radiation incident upon the earth. Such
variations lead to disturbances of the "quiet-time" magnetosphere
and ionosphere.
• These disturbances, when affecting the ionosphere are known as
ionospheric storms, tend to generate large disturbances in
ionospheric density distribution, total electron content, and the
ionospheric current system.
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 62
Ionospheric storms (Cont’d)
• Ionospheric storms have important terrestrial consequences such as
disrupting satellite communications and interrupting the flow of
electrical energy over power grids.
• Important to monitor such storms and forecast their evolution.
• These storms mainly affect the F2 layer, reducing its ion density and
causing critical frequencies, fC to be lower than the normal.
• These storms usually persist for a few days.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 63

Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance (SID)

• Abnormally high ionization/plasma density in the D region of

the ionosphere and caused by a solar flare and/or solar particle
event (SPE).
• The SID results in a sudden increase in radio-wave absorption that is most
severe in the upper medium frequency (MF) and lower high frequency (HF)
ranges, and as a result often interrupts or interferes
with telecommunications systems.
• The ionospheric disturbance enhances VLF radio propagation. Scientists on
the ground can use this enhancement to detect solar flares; by monitoring
the signal strength of a distant VLF transmitter, sudden ionospheric
disturbances (SIDs) are recorded and indicate when solar flares have taken
place.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 64

SID-Effects on radio waves

• Short wave radio waves (HF range) are absorbed by the increased
particles in the low altitude ionosphere causing a complete blackout
of radio communications. This is called a short wave fadeout (SWF).
• These fadeouts last for a few minutes to a few hours and are most
severe in the equatorial regions where the Sun is most directly
overhead.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 65

Sunspot Cycle
• Sunspots are the dark, irregularly shaped areas on the surface of the
sun which keep on appearing and disappearing in two cycles, every
27 days and every 11 years.
• Caused by violent eruptions on the sun and are characterized by
strong magnetic fields.
• The occurrence of sunspots, their life span, shapes, size and location
on the sun’s surface are all variable and unpredictable.
• Sunspots cause variations in the ionization level of the ionosphere
and hence affect the propagation characteristics of the waves.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 66

Sunspot Cycle (Cont’d)
• Sunspots are areas that appear dark on the surface of the Sun. They
appear dark because they are cooler than other parts of the Sun’s
surface. Solar flares are a sudden explosion of energy caused by
tangling, crossing or reorganizing of magnetic field lines near
sunspots.

An active region on the sun with dark sunspots.

Source: NASA/SDO/AIA/HMI/Goddard Space Flight
Center
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 67
Whistlers

• The transient electromagnetic disturbances which occur naturally.

• EM pulses of audio frequency radiation along the direction of the
magnetic field of the earth between conjugate in the northern and
southern hemisphere.
• Types : Long, Short and Noise

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 68

Tides and Winds

• Occurred due to the motion of turbulence in F2 layer

• Introduces a small peak of maximum ionization density in the layer at
mid-night

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 69

Multi-hop Propagation
• Multiple reflections from the ionosphere and returned to the earth
like Multi-Hops
• Ionosphere- Reflector
• Earth- Reflector

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 70

Multi-hop Propagation- Example

 2 Hop transmission

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 71

Need of Multi-hop Propagation
 Lower ray(LR) is preferred for communication
 Upper ray(UR) also called Pedersen ray
 The UR is weaker than the lower ray interms of its energy contents

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 72

Multi-hop propagation modes :
(a) single hop single layer, (b) single hop multi layer,(c) multi hop single layer, and (d)
multi hop multi layer systems.

(b) single hop multi layer

(a) single hop single layer/ 2 hops (d) multi hop multi layer systems.
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 73
 Single Hop vs Multi-hop
 When the distance between the transmitter and receiver is larger than the skip-distance, the wave may
follow different single-hop paths. The largest possible single-hop distance corresponds to the ray that
leaves the transmitter tangentially to the earth surface.
 The maximum one-hop distance for E layer is about 2000 km, and for F2 layer it is about 4000 km. Larger
distance is possible only by means of two or more hops transmission.
 FIG. shows single and two-hop transmission paths.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 74

Fading
• Fading is the fluctuation of received signal strength, and this
fluctuation may be rapid or slow, may be general or frequency-
selective.
• This is due to the fact that signal may arrive the receiver from the
transmitter by different paths.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 75

Fading (Cont’d)

 The signal received at any instant is the vector sum of all the waves
received, and there will be variation of the resultant due to the variations of
the waves of different path because of fluctuations in the layer.
 So fading is occurred due to interference between different rays. Fading
may also occur due to in a single ray due to fluctuation of density and
height of the layer reflecting the ray.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 76

Wave Characteristics

• Different modes of propagation and Frequency ranges

• ITU – 12 Radio Frequency bands
• Wavelengths of RF bands
• Applications

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 77

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 78
Radio Frequency Spectrums
• Radio wave frequencies range from Extremely Low Frequencies (ELF) 3 kilohertz
(kHz) to Extremely High Frequencies (EHF) 300 gigahertz (GHz).
• EHF are often called the millimeter band because its wavelengths range from 1 to
10 mm.
• Wavelengths in and around this band are called millimeter waves (mmW).
• Worldwide, 5G will use spectrum in the existing 4G LTE frequency range 600 MHz
to 3 GHz (Ultra High Frequency, UHF) and even up to 6 GHz, as well as millimeter
wave bands 24 to 86 GHz (Super High Frequency to Extremely High Frequency).
• Ultra High Frequency (UHF) spectrum is also being used by some Carriers for 5G.
• UHF band has a frequency range of 300 MHz to 3 GHz. It is already being used
since years in many other applications such as TV broadcasting, cordless phones,
Wi-Fi, GPS, and Bluetooth.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 79

Radio Frequency Bands
• To prevent interference between different users, the generation and transmission of
radio frequency bands is strictly regulated by national laws, coordinated by an
international body, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).

• The ITU is a member of UN development group, coordinates the shared global use of the radio
spectrum, promotes international cooperation in assigning satellite orbits, works to improve
telecommunication infrastructure in the developing world, and assists in the development and
coordination of worldwide technical standards.
• A radio frequency band is a small contiguous section of the radio spectrum frequencies,
in which channels are usually used or set aside for use.
• For example, broadcasting, mobile radio, or navigation devices, will be allocated in non-
overlapping ranges of frequencies. For each of these bands the ITU has a band plan
which dictates how it is to be used and shared, to avoid interference and to set protocol
for the compatibility of transmitters and receivers.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 80

RF Bands

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 81

RF Bands (Cont’d)

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 82

RF Bands (Cont’d)

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 83

VLF/ ELF Wave Propagation
• Range of VLF spreads over 3 kHz – 30 kHz.
• limits the bandwidth and hence the information contents and thus
cannot be used for conventional communication.
• Applications :
Submarine and mine communication
These waves can penetrate deeper into sea as well as the earth, and
therefore can be used for submarine and mine communication.
• Waves can travel thousands of kilometres along the earth’s surface
and have a very steady phase. Therefore, a VLF wave can be used for
navigation and for time and frequency standards.
• In general, VLF has attenuation of about 3 dB/1000 km for
propagation over seawater and about 6 dB/1000 km over land.
Frequencies around 20 kHz show the least attenuation.
LF Wave Propagation
30KHz-300KHz
In this range, ground waves have relatively low attenuation.
Received ground wave signals show little diurnal, seasonal and yearly
variation.
Ground-wave mode is mostly used up to 1000 km.
 Sky waves are reflected back to the earth only after little absorption and
slight penetration in the ionosphere.
 Received signal shows diurnal and seasonal variations.
Signals are stronger at night than in day. Signals are stronger in winter
than in summer.
For distances greater than 1000 km, mostly the sky wave mode is used.
 Fading in the normal sense does not occur.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 85

MF Wave Propagation
• 300KHz -3000KHz
• This range encompasses frequencies primarily used for broadcast
purposes.
• Daytime broadcast depends entirely on ground wave propagation.
• Daytime signal strength decreases more rapidly with distance for
ground waves.
• Lower the earth’s conductivity, the higher is the frequency of the
signal.
• Sky waves in this range are completely absorbed in day.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 86

HF wave propagation
• Rarely reflected back to earth by ionosphere except occasionally from
sporadic E in the 30 to 60 MHz range.
• Usefulness above 30 MHz depends mainly upon space-wave
propagation.
• Communication even with reasonable transmitted power is normally
not appreciably possible beyond line-of-sight distance.
• Heights of transmitting and receiving antennas determine the
distance.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 87

VHF (metric) Waves

• All modes of propagation possible, i.e., as ground and tropospheric

waves along the earth surface and also between 4 m to 10 m
wavelength as ionospheric wave.
• Capable of passing through ionosphere as direct wave.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 88

UHF (decimetric) and SHF (centimetric) Waves

• Can propagate as ground wave over short (LOS) distance.

• Diffraction in this range is negligible.
• Practically, no molecular absorption or absorption in precipitation
particles.
• Absorption due to rain, hail, snow at 3–5 cm and due to water
vapours at 1.35 cm are significant.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 89

EHF (millimetric) Waves & Sub-millimetric and Optical
Waves
 EHF (millimetric) Waves
• No effect of ionosphere, troposphere causes bending due to atmospheric refraction.
• Rain, fog, hail, snow and other forms of precipitation particles responsible for marked
absorption.
• Heavy rain and dense fog will completely stop propagation.
• Strong molecular absorption by tropospheric gases, especially water vapor and oxygen.

Sub-millimetric and Optical Waves

• Can propagate only as ground and direct wave.
• Atmospheric refraction causes bending of path.
• Heavy rain and dense fog will completely stop propagation.
• Well suited for space communication outside the troposphere.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 90

Conclusions
Basics of propagation & Different Modes of propagation
Structure of ionosphere, Refraction and Reflection of sky wave by
ionosphere.
Ray path, Critical frequency, MUF, LUF , OF, Virtual Height and skip
distance
Relation between MUF & Skip distance for Flat Earth’s Surface
Relation between MUF & Skip distance for Curved Earth’s Surface
Ionospheric Abnormalities, Impact of solar activity
Multi-Hop propagation Wave characteristics

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 91

Conclusions (Cont’d)
• Radio wave signals are mainly used for communication purpose.
• Transmission of broadcast signals to the communication with
aircrafts, every mode of communication and transportation is
dependent on signals transmitted in radio wave frequency.
• The main objective of radio wave propagation is to transmit signals
securely without any error.
• It is concluded that Radio wave propagation is an important branch of
communication studies.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 92

Conclusions(Cont’d)
Long distance communication between two points on the earth is
achieved through reflection of electromagnetic waves by ionosphere.
Sky wave propagation takes place up to frequency of about 30 MHz. Above
this frequency, EM waves essentially propagate as space waves.
The reflections from the ionosphere are actually produced by refraction as
the wave propagates through the ionosphere.
The ionosphere is a concentrated region highly charged ions and electrons
that collective form an ionized gas or plasma.
The amount of refraction that occurs depends on three main factors:
• the density of ionization of the layer
• the frequency of the radio wave
• the angle at which the wave enters the layer

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 93

Conclusion(Cont’d)
• Frequencies including the CF,MUF,LUF,OWF are all of great importance when
determining which frequencies will provide the best performance for a short
wave radio, HF radio communications link.
• The highest frequency, which is reflected from the ionosphere to the receiver is
called as critical frequency, fc.
• In radio transmission maximum usable frequency,MUF is the highest
radio frequency that can be used for transmission between two points
via reflection from the ionosphere (sky wave or "skip" propagation) at a
specified time, independent of transmitter power.
• The lowest usable frequency , LUF is defined as the frequency at below which
the signal falls below the minimum strength required for satisfactory reception.
• The frequency, which is being used mostly for a particular transmission and which
has been predicted to be used over a particular period of time, over a path, is
termed as optimum working frequency ,OWF.
• MUF is a median frequency, defined as the highest frequency at which skywave
communication is possible 50% of the days in a month, as opposed to the LUF
which is the frequency at which communication is possible 90% of the days, and
the Frequency of optimum transmission (FOT).
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 94
Conclusion(Cont’d)
For shorter distances, the earth can be assumed to be flat. In the figure, h is the height of the ionospheric layer, d is the
skip distance, θi is the angle of incidence and θr is the angle of reflection.

• Critical Frequency and Maximum Usable Frequency

f C  9 N max f MUF  f C sec  i

• The relationship between the skip distance and MUF,

d2
f MUF  f C 2
1 (13)
4h

1/ 2
 f 
2
 (15)
d skip  2h  MUF   1
 f C   Fig. illustrates the ionized layer which is assumed to be thin
with sharp ionization density gradient so as to obtain mirror like
reflections.
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 95
Conclusion(Cont’d)
The Relationship between MUF and skip distance
(a) Flat Earth case

1/ 2
2  f 
2

d  2h  MUF   1
f MUF  f C 1 d skip
4h 2  f C  

(b) Curved Earth case

1/ 2
 '2  1/ 2
d   f MUF 
 d 
2
4  '2

 f C 1 

  

f MUF 2 d  2 h 
'
 1
 hd
'2
  8 R   f C  
 8R  

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 96

Conclusions (Cont’d)

• Ionospheric variations :
Normal
Abnormal
• To elaborate, the influence of solar activity can be summarized under
different captions as given below.
Ionospheric Stroms
Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances (SID)
Sunspot cycle
Fading
Whistlers
Tides and winds

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 97

Conclusions (Cont’d)

 Single Hop vs Multi-Hop

Propagation
 Need of Multi-Hop Propagation
 Fading

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 98

 Recorded Video Lectures
LESSON1 Basics of propagation: Definition and General Different Modes of propagation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wCS2O08ObQg&t=409s
LESSON 2 Structure of ionosphere & Refraction and Reflection of sky wave by ionosphere.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8viNeTGoTd0&t=10s
LESSON 3 Ray path, Critical frequency, MUF, LUF , OF, Virtual Height and skip distance
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9BZuneS-OmE&t=29s
LESSON 4 Relation between MUF & Skip distance for flat Earth
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HBxWVkkh7eI&t=696s
LESSON 5 Ionospheric abnormalities, Impact of solar activity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2MwVHhCW4JY&t=10s
LESSON 6 Multi-Hop propagation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJrT08dtYzo
LESSON 7 wave characteristics https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-i5aUdEM3J0&t=383s
LESSON 8 Relationship between MUF & skip distance for curved Earth
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CJNVUk7mOvg
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 99
References

• C. Jordan E and Balmain, “Electromagnetic waves and Radiating Systems”,

2nd Pearson Education/ PHI, 2006.
• John D Kraus , Ronald J Marhefka, Ahmed S Khan “Antenna and wave
propagation” 4th Edition 2010.
• https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/antennas-
propagation/ionospheric/skywaves-skip-distance-zone.php.
• https://byjus.com/physics/sky-wave-propagation/
• http://www.tpub.com/neets/book10/40i.htm
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_usable_frequency
• https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/solar-activity/en/
• http://solar-center.stanford.edu/SID/activities/ionosphere.html

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 100

References (Cont’d)

• https://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosphere/ion_solar_eff
ect.html
• http://un.uobasrah.edu.iq/lectures/11843.pdf
• https://www.signalbooster.com/blogs/news/types-of-frequencies-
and-wavelengths-in-the-radio-frequency-spectrum
• https://terasense.com/terahertz-technology/radio-frequency-bands/
• https://byjus.com/physics/sky-wave-propagation/
• http://www.tpub.com/neets/book10/40i.htm
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_usable_frequency
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 101
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