CHAPTER-03 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
What are Semiconductors :-Semiconductors are the materials which have
a conductivity between conductors (generally metals) and non-conductors
or insulators (such as ceramics). Semiconductors can be compounds such as gallium
arsenide or pure elements, such as germanium or silicon. Physics explains the theories,
properties and mathematical approach governing semiconductors.
Examples :- Gallium arsenide, germanium, and silicon are some of the most commonly
used semiconductors. Silicon is used in electronic circuit fabrication and gallium
arsenide is used in solar cells, laser diode, etc.
Properties of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can conduct electricity under preferable conditions or circumstances.
This unique property makes it an excellent material to conduct electricity in a controlled
manner as required.
Unlike conductors, the charge carriers in semiconductors arise only because of external
energy (thermal agitation). It causes a certain number of valence electrons to cross the
energy gap and jump into the conduction band, leaving an equal amount of unoccupied
energy states, i.e. holes. Conduction due to electrons and holes are equally important.
Resistivity: 10-5 to 106 Ωm
Conductivity: 105 to 10-6 mho/m
Temperature coefficient of resistance: Negative
Current Flow: Due to electrons and holes
What is meant by energy level and energy band?
Energy state, also called Energy Level, in physics, any discrete value from a set of
values of total energy for a subatomic particle confined by a force to a limited space or
for a system of such particles, such as an atom or a nucleus.
Energy bands consisting of a large number of closely spaced energy levels exist in
crystalline materials. The bands can be thought of as the collection of the
individual energy levels of electrons surrounding each atom.
Conduction Band and Valence Band in Semiconductors
Valence Band: The energy band involving the energy levels of valence electrons is
known as the valence band. It is the highest occupied energy band. When compared
with insulators, the bandgap in semiconductors is smaller. It allows the electrons in the
valence band to jump into the conduction band on receiving any external energy.
Conduction Band: It is the lowest unoccupied band that includes the energy levels of
positive (holes) or negative (free electrons) charge carriers. It has conducting electrons
resulting in the flow of current. The conduction band possess high energy level and are
generally empty. The conduction band in semiconductors accepts the electrons from
the valence band.
Holes and Electrons in Semiconductors
Holes and electrons are the types of charge carriers accountable for the flow of
current in semiconductors. Holes (valence electrons) are the positively charged electric
charge carrier whereas electrons are the negatively charged particles. Both electrons
and holes are equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity.
Mobility of Electrons and Holes
In a semiconductor, the mobility of electrons is higher than that of the holes. It is
mainly because of their different band structures and scattering mechanisms.
Electrons travel in the conduction band whereas holes travel in the valence band. When
an electric field is applied, holes cannot move as freely as electrons due to their
restricted movent. The elevation of electrons from their inner shells to higher shells
results in the creation of holes in semiconductors. Since the holes experience stronger
atomic force by the nucleus than electrons, holes have lower mobility.
Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can be classified as: (1) Intrinsic Semiconductor (2) Extrinsic
Semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor :-
An extremely pure semiconductor is called Intrinsic Semiconductor. On the basis of the
energy band phenomenon, an intrinsic semiconductor at absolute zero temperature is
shown below:
Its valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is completely empty.
When the temperature is raised and some heat energy is supplied to it, some of the
valence electrons are lifted to conduction band leaving behind holes in the valence band
as shown below:
The electrons reaching at the conduction band move randomly. The holes created in the
crystal also free to move anywhere. This behaviour of the semiconductor shows that
they have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
This means that with the increase in temperature, the resistivity of the material
decreases and the conductivity increases.
Extrinsic Semiconductor :- A semiconductor to which an impurity at a controlled rate
is added to make it conductive is known as an extrinsic semiconductor.
An intrinsic semiconductor is capable to conduct a little current even at room
temperature, but it is not useful for the preparation of various electronic devices. Thus,
to make it conducive a small amount of suitable impurity is added to the material.
Depending upon the type of impurity added the extrinsic semiconductor may be
classified as n -type semiconductor and p -type semiconductor.
When a small amount of Pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor
providing a large number of free electrons in it, the extrinsic semiconductor thus formed
is known as n-Type Semiconductor. The conduction in the n-type semiconductor is
because of the free electrons denoted by the pentavalent impurity atoms.
The addition of Pentavalent impurities such as arsenic and antimony provides a large
number of free electrons in the semiconductor crystal. Such impurities which produce n-
type semiconductors are known as Donor Impurities.
They are called a donor impurity because each atom of them donates one free electron
crystal.
When a few Pentavalent impurities such as Arsenic whose atomic number is 33, which
is categorised as 2, 8, 15 and 5. It has five valence electrons, which is added to
germanium crystal. Each atom of the impurity fits in four germanium atoms as shown in
the figure above.
Hence, each Arsenic atom provides one free electron in the Germanium crystal. Since
an extremely small amount of arsenic, impurity has a large number of atoms; it provides
millions of free electrons for conduction.
The Energy level diagram of the n-type semiconductor is shown in the figure below:
A large number of free electrons are available in the conduction
band because of the addition of the Pentavalent impurity. These electrons are free
electrons which did not fit in the covalent bonds of the crystal. However, a minute
quantity of free electrons is available in the conduction band forming hole-electron pairs.
The Extrinsic p-Type Semiconductor is formed when a trivalent impurity is added to
a pure semiconductor in a small amount, and as a result, a large number of holes are
created in it. A large number of holes are provided in the semiconductor material by the
addition of trivalent impurities like Gallium and Indium.
Such types of impurities which produce p-type semiconductor are known as
an Acceptor Impurities because each atom of them create one hole which can accept
one electron.
A trivalent impurity like gallium, having three valence electrons is added to germanium
crystal in a small amount. Each atom of the impurity fits in the germanium crystal in
such a way that its three valence electrons form covalent bonds with the three
surrounding germanium atoms as shown in the figure below:
In the fourth covalent bonds, only the germanium atom contributes one valence
electron, while gallium atom has no valence bonds.
Hence, the fourth covalent bond is incomplete, having one electron short. This missing
electron is known as a Hole. Thus, each gallium atom provides one hole in the
germanium crystal.
As an extremely small amount of Gallium impurity has a large number of atoms,
therefore, it provides millions of holes in the semiconductor.
Energy Band Diagram of p-Type Semiconductor :-The energy band diagram of a p-
type Semiconductor is shown below:
A large number of holes or vacant space in the covalent bond is created in the crystal
with the addition of the trivalent impurity. A small or minute quantity of free electrons is
also available in the conduction band.
They are produced when thermal energy at room temperature is imparted to the
germanium crystal-forming electron-hole pairs. But the holes are more in number as
compared to the electrons in the conduction band. It is because of the predominance of
holes over electrons that the material is called as a p-type semiconductor.The word “p”
stands for positive material.
Doping:-
The process by which an impurity is added to a semiconductor is known as Doping.
The amount and type of impurity which is to be added to the material have to be closely
controlled during the preparation of extrinsic semiconductor.
The purpose of adding impurity in the semiconductor crystal is to increase the number
of free electrons or holes to make it conductive.
If a Pentavalent impurity, having five valence electrons is added to a pure
semiconductor a large number of free electrons will exist.
If a trivalent impurity having three valence electrons is added, a large number of holes
will exist in the semiconductor.
