Mechanics

Contents
• Measurement and Units
• Vectors and Scalars
• Motion in One Dimension
• Laws of Motion
• Work, Energy, and power
• Static Equilibrium
• Elasticity
• Fluid Mechanics
 Measurement and Units
Physics is an experimental
science. Theories are useful only
if their prediction agree with the
results of experiments. So
measurement plays an important
part in physics.
Fundamental Quantities
In mechanics ,the three
fundamental quantities are
length(L),time(T) and Mass(M).
The units used to
express fundamental
quantities are called
base units such as
meters, seconds and
kilograms .
 The units used to express
all other quantities are
called derived units such as
meter per second and
kilogram per meter cube
Base units are further
characterized as being
either primary or
secondary.
SI System of Units
An international committee
established a set of standards for the
fundamental quantities of science. It
is called the SI (Système International)
, and its units of length , mass, and
time are the meter, kilogram, and
second, respectively.
Definition of the Meter

The meter (m) was defined as the

distance traveled by light in
vacuum during a time of 1/299
792 458 second.
Definition of the Kilogram
● The kilogram (kg), is defined as the
mass of a specific platinum–iridium
alloy cylinder kept at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures at
Sèvres, France.
● The Sèvres cylinder is 3.9
centimeters in diameter and 3.9
centimeters in height.
Definition of the Second

The second (s) is now defined

as 9 192 631 770 times the
period of vibration of radiation
from the cesium atom.
Names of Units
● Some derived units in the SI system
are given no special name, for
example the unit of speed in the SI
unit is, m/s.
● Other derived units are given special
names, for example the SI unit of
force is newton (N), defined as 1 Kg.
m/s2.
 Other Systems of Units
cgs system
Another decimal system still in use but
gradually being replaced by SI units is the cgs
system, based on the centimeter, gram and
second. The centimeter is defined as 0.01m. The
gram is now defined as 0.001Kg.Originally the
gram was defined as the mass of one cubic
centimeter (cm3 ) of water at 4 0C. The kilogram
is then the mass of one liter (1000 cm3 ) of
water.
 customary system

Another system of units, the

customary system (U.S) is still
used in the United States. In
this system, the units of length,
mass, and time are the foot,
slug, and second respectively.
1ft= 0.3048m
1slug= 14.59Kg
Conversion of Units
● All physical quantities contain both a number
and a unit. When such quantities are added,
subtracted, multiplied, or divided in algebraic
equation the unit can be treated like any other
algebraic quantity.
● For example the distance traveled in 3 h by a car
moving at a constant rate 80 Km/h is 240 Km.
To convert 240 Km to miles, we use the fact
that
1 mi = 1.61 Km, thus The factor (1 mi) / (1.61
Km) called a conversion factor.
Example 1:
Express a speed of 60 miles per hours
(mi/h) in meters per second.
Given:
1 mi =1609 m, 1 h= 3600 s
Solution:
Speed = (60 mi/
h)(1609m/1mi)(1h/3600s)
= 27 m/s
Example 2:
Calculate the number of seconds in seven
years. (The unit for year is a)
Given:
1 a= 365 d, 1 d= 24 h, 1 h= 60 min, 1min= 60
s.
Solution:
From each relation make a conversion
factor. Then multiply 7 a by the sequence of
factors.
7a=7a(365d/1a)(24h/1d)(60min/1h)(60s/1
min)
= 2.2075×108 s
Example 3:
A picture has dimensions of 20 cm by
30 cm. Find the area in m2.
Solution:
Area = 20 × 30 = 600 cm 2

= (600 cm2 ) (1 m2
/10000 cm2 )
= 0.06 m2
Vectors and Scalars
A scalars Quantity
● A scalars Quantity is one that has
nothing to do with spatial direction.
Many physical concepts such as length,
time, temperature, mass, density, charge,
and volume are scalars.
● Scalars are specified by ordinary
numbers and add and subtract in the
usual way.
A vector Quantity
● A vector Quantity is one that can be specified
completely only if we provide both its magnitude
and direction. Many physical concepts such as
displacement, velocity, acceleration, force and
momentum are vectors quantities.
●A vector quantity can be represented by an arrow
drawn to scale. The length of the arrow is
proportional to the magnitude of the vector
quantity. The direction of the arrow represents
the direction of the vector quantity.
●In printed materials, vectors are often
represented by boldface type, such as F.
The Resultant

The Resultant of a number of

vectors of a particular type is
that single vector that would
have the same effect as all the
original vectors taken together.
 Graphical Addition of Vectors
Polygon Method
This method for finding the resultant of
several vectors consists in beginning at any
convenient point and drawing each vector
arrow in turn. They may be taken in any order
of succession. The tail end of each arrow is
attached to the tip end of the preceding one
as shown in figure 1-1.
The resultant is represented by an arrow
with its tail end at the starting point and its tip
end at the tip of the last vector added.
R= A+ B + C or R=
C+ A+ B
Fig.1-1
 Parallelogram Method

This method is suitable for adding tow

vectors. The tow vectors are drawn as the
sides of the parallelogram and the resultant
is its diagonal, as shown in figure 1-2. The
direction of the resultant is away from the
origin of the tow vectors.
The order of vector addition is unimportant.
Thus,
A+ B= B+A
Fig.1-2
 Subtraction of Vectors
To subtract a vector B from a
vector A, reverse the direction of
B and add individually to vector A,
that is,
A - B= A+ (-B)
 Component Method for Adding
Vectors
This method makes use of
projections of a vector along the axes
of a rectangular coordinate system.
These projections are called the
components of the vector. Any vector
can be completely described by its
components.
 Fig. 1-3
From figure 1-3, the vector A can be expressed as
the sum of two other vectors A and A, called the
x y

vector components of A.
A= A + A
x y

The components of a vector can be positive or

negative The magnitude of A and A are always
x y

positive. , the rectangular components of A are

given by:

A = A cos θ
x and A= A sin θ
y
The magnitude of A and its direction
are related to its rectangular
components through the expressions:
Example 1
Using the graphical method,
find the resultant of the following
two displacements: 2 m at 40 ̊
and 4 m at 127 ̊, the angles being
taken relative to the + x-axis.
 Fig.1-4
Choose x- and y-axes as shown in figure 1-4 and lay out the
displacements to scale, tip to tail from the origin. Notice that
all angles are measured from the + x-axis. The resultant
vector R points from starting point to end point as shown. We
measure its length on the scale diagram to find its magnitude,
4.6 m. Using a protractor, we measure its angle to be 101 ̊.
The resultant displacement is therefore 4.6 m at 101 ̊.
Example 2
Solve example 1 using the component method.
  We resolve each vector into rectangular
components as shown in figure 1-5(a) and (b).

Fig.1-5
The resultant has the components:
Rx = 1.53 - 2.41 = - 0.88 m
Ry = 1.29 + 3.19 = 4.48 m
The resultant is shown in figure 1-5 (c), there,
we see that
= 4.57 m

tan ф =

Hence, ф =79 ̊, from which θ = 180 ̊ - ф = 101 ̊.

Example 3
The five forces shown in figure 1.6(a) act on an object. Find
there resultant.

a b
Fig.1-6
Finally, we sketch the resultant as shown in figure 1.6 (b)
and find its angle. We see that
tan ф =
= 0.56
from which ф = 29 ̊. Then θ = 360 ̊– 29 ̊ = 331 ̊.The
resultant is 6.5 N at 331 ̊ (or -29 ̊).
Motion in One
Dimension
Path Length
Path Length is the distance traveled along
a trajectory in time t, measured from the
starting point of the motion at t = 0, it is
always positive quantity.
Displacement

Displacement is the change in position of the

particle from one point to another.
Speed
Speed is a scalar quantity measuring
the rate of motion. If an object takes a
time interval t to travel a certain
distance d, then

or
Velocity is a vector quantity that gives the
direction of motion as well as its rate.
Average Velocity
If an object undergoes a vector
displacement s in time interval t, then
Instantaneous Velocity
The instantaneous
velocity, ,equals the
value of the ratio as limiting
approaches
zero,

In the calculus notation, this limit is called

the derivative of s with respect to t, written
as ds/dt,
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change
of velocity.
Average Acceleration
We defined the average ,during a
acceleration,
time interval as the velocity
divided change
by
Instantaneous Acceleration:
The instantaneous acceleration equals
the derivative of the velocity with respect
to time,
The five motion equations for uniformly
accelerated motion in straight line are:
• A freely falling object is any object moving
freely under the influence of gravity alone,
regardless of its initial motion. Any freely
falling object experiences an acceleration
directed downward, regardless of its initial
motion.
• The free-fall acceleration is 9.8 m/s2.
For free fall in the absence of air resistance, taking
the y-axis as positive upward:
Example1
A truck’s speed increases
uniformly from 15 Km/h to 60Km/
h in 20 s, determine the average
speed, the acceleration, and the
distance traveled, all in units of
meters and seconds.
For the 20 s trip under discussion, we
have,
Example 2

The only force acting in a 5.0 Kg

object has components Fx = 20 N and
Fy = 30 N. Find the acceleration of the
object.
F=ma
Example 3
A stone is thrown straight upward with a
speed of 20 m/s. It is caught on its way
down at a point 5.0 m above where it was
thrown.
(a)How fast was it going when it was caught?
(b)How long did the trip take?
Laws of Motion
 Forces
A Force is a push or pull exerted on a
body. It is a vector quantity, having
magnitude and direction.
The Newton is the SI unit of force. One
newton (1 N) is that resultant force
which will give a 1 Kg mass an
acceleration of 1 m/s2. The dyne force
unit is 10-5 N. The pound force unit is
4.45 N.
Type of Forces
There are tow types of forces:
1/ Fundamental forces
2/ Derived forces
Fundamental Forces
There are only four fundamental kinds of
force.
Gravitational Force
The gravitational force of the
earth on a body of mass m near
the surface of the earth is its
weight w, where
 Derived Forces
Tension
The tension in a flexible body,
such as a rope or string, is an
attractive force between adjacent
sections of the rope or string, and
tangent to it.
Spring Force
The magnitude of the force
exerted by a spring on an object is
related to the change in length x of
the spring by the equation:
Newton’s Laws of Motion
Newton’s Laws of Motion
First law
If no forces act on a body,
the body continues in its
state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line.
Second Law
The resultant force on a body
equals the product of the
body’s mass and acceleration.

F=ma
Third law
For every force exerted on one
body, there is equal, but
oppositely directed, force
acting on some other body.
This is often called the law of
action and reaction.
 Friction
The friction force (Ff) is a tangential force
acting on an object that opposes the
sliding of that object on an adjacent
surface with which it is in contact. The
friction force is parallel to the surface and
opposite to the direction of motion. Only
when the applied force exceeds the
maximum static friction force will an
object being to slide.
The Normal Force
The normal force (FN ) on an object
that is being supported by a surface
is the component of the supporting
force that is perpendicular to the
surface.
The Coefficient of Kinetic Friction

The coefficient of kinetic friction

(μk) is defined for the case in which
one surface is sliding across another
at constant speed. It is
The Coefficient of static Friction
The coefficient of static friction (μs) is defined
for the case in which one surface is just on
the verge of sliding across another. It is

Where the maximum friction force occurs

when the object is just on the verge of
slipping but nonetheless at rest.
Example 1:
Find the weight on earth of a body
whose mass is 3.00 Kg
Example 2:
A rope extends between two
poles. A 90 N boy hangs from it
as shown in figure 1-7(a). Find
the tensions in the two parts of
the rope.
We label the two tensions FT1 and FT2, and isolate
the rope at the boy’s hands as the object. The free
body diagram for the object is shown in figure
1-7(b).

Fig.1-
7
After resolving the forces into their components as
shown, we can write the first condition for
equilibrium:

When we evaluate the sines and cosines, these

equations become

Solving the first for FT2 gives FT2 = 0.99 FT1.

Substituting this in the second equation gives

From which FT1 = 0.35 kN. Then, because FT2 = 0.99

FT1, we have FT2 = 0.34 kN.
Example 3:
A 70.0 Kg box is slide along the floor
by a 400 N force. The coefficient of
friction between the box and the floor
is 0.5 when the box is sliding. Find
the acceleration of the box.
Since the y-directed forces must balanced,

But the friction force is given by

Static Equilibrium
The Torque
The torque (or moment) about an axis,
due to a force, is a measure of the
effectiveness of the force in producing
rotation about that axis. It is defined in the
following way:

The lever arm is the perpendicular distance from

the axis to the line of the force.
The unit of the torque is newton-meter ( N.
m).

A torque that tends to cause

counterclockwise rotation about the axis
is positive, whereas one causing
clockwise rotation is negative.
 A rigid object is in equilibrium if and only
if the resultant external force acting on it
is zero and the resultant external torque
on it is zero about any axis:
Example 1
A seesaw consisting of a uniform board of
mass M and length L supports a father and
daughter with masses mf and md respectively, as
shown in the figure. The support is under the
center of gravity of the board, the father is a
distance d from the center and the daughter is a
distance L/2 from the center.
a/ determine the magnitude of the upward force n
exerted by the support on the board.
b/ determine where the father should sit to
balance the system.
a/ n - mf g - md g - Mg = 0

n = mf g + md g + Mg

b/ (mf g)(d) – (md g)(L/2) = 0

d = (md / mf )(L/2)
Example 2
A person holds a 50.0 N sphere in his
hand. The forearm is horizontal as shown
in the figure. The biceps muscles is
attached 3.0 cm from the joint and the
sphere is 35.0 cm from the joint. Find the
upward force exerted by the biceps on the
forearm and the downward force exerted by
the upper arm on the forearm and acting at
the joint. Neglect the weight of the forearm.
Elasticity is the property by which a
body returns to its original size and
shape when the forces that
deformed it are removed.
Stress is a measure of the strength of the
agent that is causing a deformation.
Precisely, if a force F is applied to a surface
of area A, then

Its SI unit is the pascal (Pa), where 1 Pa = 1

N/m2.
Strain is the fractional deformation
resulting from a stress. It is measured as the
ratio of the change in some dimension of a
body to the original dimension in which the
change occurred.

Strain has no units because it is a ratio of like

quantities.
The Elastic Limit of a body is the
smallest stress that will produce a
permanent distortion in the body.
When a stress in excess of this
limit is applied, the body will not
return exactly to its original state
after the stress is removed.
Elastic Modulus

The elastic modulus is defined as the

ratio of the stress to the resulting
strain:
The Young’s Modulus (Y) describes the
length elasticity of a material.
Suppose a wire or rod of original length L and
cross-sectional area A elongates an amount
ΔL under a stretching force F applied to its
end. Then

Its SI unit is Pa. The value of Y depends only

on the material of the wire or rod, and not on
its dimensions.
Spring Force: The magnitude of the force
exerted on a spring by an object is related to
the changeofinthe
length
spring by the equation:

This law called Hook’s Law and the minus

sign indicates that the restoring force is
always opposite in direction to the distortion.
The force constant or (spring constant) has
the units of N/m and is a measure of the
stiffness of the spring.
It is sometimes useful to express
Hook’s Law in terms of Fext, the external
force needed to stretch the spring a
given amount x. This force is the
negative of the restoring force, and so
Hook’s Law can be stated in terms of
stress and strain. If the system obeys Hook’s
Law, then

We then define a constant, called the

modulus of elasticity, by the relation

The modulus has the same units as stress.

Example 1:
Find the instantaneous acceleration
of a 1.00 kg mass suspended from a
spring of force constant 5.00 N/cm,
when the spring is stretched 10.0 cm.
The mass is initially at rest.
First, we obtain the force F exerted on the mass by
the spring

The other force acting on the mass is its weight w,

which acts along the negative y-axis and has
magnitude, given by:

The spring force exceeds the weight. Therefore the

second law predicts an upward acceleration:
Example 2:
A metal wire 75 cm long and
0.13 cm in diameter stretches
0.035 cm when a load of 8.0 kg
is hung on its end. Find the
stress, the strain, and the
Young’s modulus for the
material of the wire.
Work and Energy
Work
• The work done by a force is defined as the
product of that force times the parallel
distance over which it acts.

• Or
• The unit of the work is N.m which is called
joule (J)
 Important Notes
The object must undergo a displacement s.
F must have a non-zero component in the
direction of s.
Work is zero when there is no displacement.
Work is zero when the force is perpendicular
to the displacement.
• Work is positive when F is indirection
of displacement or when 0≤θ˂90 .
• Work is negative when F is in opposite direction
of displacement or when 90 ˂ θ ≤180.
Energy
Energy is a measure of the
change imparted to the system. It is
given to an object when a force dose
work on the object. The amount of
energy transferred to an object is
equal to work done. Energy and work
have the same unit.
Gravitational Potential Energy
Gravitational potential energy is the energy
possessed by an object because of the
gravitational interaction. In falling through
a vertical distance h, a mass m can do
work in the amount :

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by
an object because it is in motion. If an
object of mass moving with a speed , it
has kinetic energy given by
Conservation of Energy

Energy can neither be created nor

destroyed, but only transformed
from one kind to another.
Work-Energy Theorem
The work-kinetic energy theorem states
that if work is done on a system by
external forces and the only changed in
the system in its speed, then
Power
Power is the time rate of doing work

Also the power is the rate of transfer of

energy.
The SI unit of the power is watt

Another unit of power often used is the

horsepower
Machines and Efficiency
Usually the efficiency of a machine is
calculated as a percentage:

or
Example 1
A man cleaning a floor pulls a vacuum
cleaner with a force of magnitude 50.0 N
at an angle of 30°with the horizontal.
Calculate the work done by the force on
the vacuum cleaner as the vacuum
cleaner displaced 3.00 m to the right.
Example 2
An advertisement claim that a certain
1200 Kg car can accelerate from rest to a
speed of 25 m/s in a time of 8.0 s. What
average power dose the motor produce to
cause this acceleration? Ignore friction
The work done in accelerating the car is
given by

Therefore,
FLUIDS
Density
The density of a body is denoted by ρ and
is defined as the ratio of the body’s mass
m to its volume V,

Density is a characteristic property of a

substance and it is measured in units of
kg/m3.
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of a
material is defined to be the
ratio of its density to the
density of water.
Pressure
The pressure is defined to be the magnitude
of the force F exerted by the fluid on the
surface, divided by the surface area A,

A fluid exerts pressure on any surface with

which it is in contact. This pressure is a
function of position in the fluid.
From the last lecture we know that the
SI unit of pressure is the N/m2, which
is called a pascal. Other commonly
used units are torr and atmospheres,

1Pa = 1 N/m2
1 atm = 1.01×105 Pa
1 torr = 1 mm of mercury (mmHg)
= 133 Pa
In an Incompressible liquid at rest (figure 1-8)
, the pressure P a distance h below a point
where the pressure is Pₒ is

So that the pressure due to a column of fluid

of height h and mass density is,
Fig.1-8
Pascal’s Principle
Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid (liquid or gas)is
transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid
and to the walls of the containing vessel.

In other words, when the pressure on any part of a

confined fluid is changed, the pressure on every other
part of the fluid is also changed by the same amount.

The arrangement of interconnected tubes (figure 1.9),

demonstrates that the pressure in a liquid is the same
at all points having the same elevation. For example,
the pressure is the same at point A, B, C and D.
figure 1.9
Archimedes’ Principle
Archimedes’ principle states that if an
object is either partially or totally
submerged in a fluid the fluid exerts on
the object an upward force, called the
“buoyant force”, which is equal in
magnitude to the weight of the fluid
displaced and act effectively at the center
of gravity of the displaced fluid.
The buoyant force may be expressed as the
product of the displaced fluid’s weight density
and volume,

The buoyant force on an object of volume V

is
that is totally immersed in a fluid of density
,and the weight of the object
where
,
is
is the density of the object. Therefore, the net
upward force on the submerged object is,
Example
1 the pressure due to the fluid at a depth
Find
of 76 cm in still,
(a)water (ρ = 1.00 g/cm3).
(b) mercury (ρ = 13.6 g/cm3)
.
For water:
= 0.76 × 1000 × 9.8 = 7450 N/m2 = 7.45
kPa
For mercury:
= 0.76 × 13600 × 9.8 = 1.01 × 105 N/m2 ≈ 1
atm
Example 2
The mass of a block of aluminum is 25
g.
•What is its volume?

•What will be the tension in a string that

suspends the block when the block is totally
submerged in water?
The density of aluminum is 2700 kg/m3.
Because ρ = m/V, we have

The block displaces 9.26 10-6 m3 of water when submerged,

so the buoyant force on it is
BF = weight of displaced water = (volume) (ρ of water)
(g)
= 9.26 × 10-6 × 1000 × 9.8 = 0.091 N
The tension in the supporting cord plus the buoyant force
must equal the weight of the block if it is to be in
equilibrium. That is, T + BF = mg, from which
T = m g ̶ BF = (0.025 × 9.8) ̶ 0.091 = 0.154 N.
Flaw rate
The flaw rate Q is the rate at which fluid
flows through the surface-the volume per
unit time passing the surface:

Flaw rate is measured in m3/s.

Equation of Continuity
The flaw rate through the pipe is constant;
this is equivalent to stating that the
product of the cross-sectional area A and
the speed v at any point is a constant.
Viscosity
The magnitude of the force F required to move
a fluid layer at a constant speed v, when the layer
has an area A and is located a perpendicular
distance y from an immobile surface, is given by:

Where η is the coefficient of viscosity.

SI unit of viscosity is Pa.s
Other commonly used units poise (P)
1P= 0.1 Pa.s
Poiseuille’s Law
A fluid whose viscosity is η, following
through a pipe of radius R and length L,
has a volume flaw rate given by

Where P1 and P2 are the pressures at the

ends of the pipe.
Example 1
Oil flaws through a pipe 8.0 cm in
diameter at an average speed of 4.0 m/s.
3 3
What is the flaw in m /s and m /h?
Example 2
A hypodermic syringe is filled with a
solution whose viscosity is 1.5×10-3 Pa.s.
The plunger area of the syringe is 8.0×10-5
m2, and the length of the needle is 0.025 m.
The internal radius of the needle is 4.0×10-4
m. The gauge pressure in a vein is 1900 Pa.
What force must be applied to the plunger,
so that 1.0×10-6 m3 of solution can be
injected in 3.0 s?
The volume flaw rate
is

According to Poiseuille’s law, the required pressure

difference is

The force that must be applied to the plunger is this

pressure times the plunger area
 HEAT
Thermal Expansion
Transfer of Heat Energy
Heat Quantities
 Thermal Expansion
Temperature may be measured on the
Celsius scale, on which the freezing point
of water is at 0 ̊C, and the boiling point (
under standard conditions) at 100 ̊C. The
Kelvin (or absolute) scale is displaced
273.15 Celsius-size degrees from the
Celsius scale, so that the freezing point of
water is 273.15 K and the boiling point is
373.15 K.
Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature
scales are defined relative to the Kelvin
scale as follows:
Linear Thermal Expansion of Solids

When a solid is subjected to a rise in

temperature
,its increase in length is very nearly
proportional to its initial length multiplied
by
That is,
where the proportionality constant
is called the coefficient of linear expansion.
The value of depends on the nature of the
substance.
 Area Expansion
If an area expands to when
subjected to a temperature rise then

where is the coefficient of area

expansion.
For isotropic solids (those expands in the
same way in all directions), approximately.
 Volume Expansion
If a volume expands
when subjectedtoto a temperature
rise,then

where
is the coefficient of volume expansion.
For isotropic
is approximately,
solids
Example 1
Normal internal body temperature is 98.60 F. A
temperature of 1060 F is considered a high
fever. Find the corresponding temperatures on
the Celsius scale.
A temperature of 98.60 F corresponds
to

And a temperature of 1060 F corresponds to

Example 2
A copper bar is 80 cm long at 150 C.
What is the increase in length when it is
heated to 350 C?
The linear expansion coefficient for
copper is 1.7 × 10-5 0C-1.
Example 3
A glass flask is filled to the mark
3
with 50.00 cm of mercury at 18 C. 0
If the flask and its contents are
0
heated to 38 C, how much mercury
will be above the mark?
αglass = 9 × 10-6 and βmercury = 182 × 10-6
0C-1 0C-1
 We shall takeβ
glass = 3 as a good
α approximation.
The flask interior will expand just as though it were
glass
a solid piece of glass. Thus,
Volume of Hg above mark = (ΔV for mercury) ̶ (ΔV for glass)
= βm V0 ΔT ̶ βg V0 ΔT = ( βm ̶ βg)
V0 ΔT

= ((182 ̶ 27) × 10-6) × 50 × (38 ̶ 18)

= 0.15 cm3
 Transfer of Heat Energy
Heat Energy (Q) is the energy that flows from one
body to another body because of their temperature
difference. Heat always flows from hot to cold. For
two objects in contact to be in thermal equilibrium
with each other, their temperatures must be the
same. If each of two objects is in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, then the two are in
thermal equilibrium with each other. (This fact is
often referred to as the zeroth law of
thermodynamics).
Its SI unit is the joule. Other unit used for heat is the
calorie,
Transfer of Heat Energy
Heat Q is energy being transferred
between systems by conduction,
convection or radiation. The rate of heat
transfer H is defined by,
Conduction occurs when heat energy moves
through a material as a result of collisions
between the molecules of the material.
When a temperature difference exists
between materials in contact, the higher
energy molecules in the warmer substance
transfer energy to the lower energy
molecules in the cooler substance when
molecular collisions occur between the two.
Heat energy thus flows from hot to cold.
For conduction, H is proportional to
the cross-sectional area A of the
conducting body and to the rate of
change of temperature with distance,

The constant k is the thermal conductivity.

Convection of thermal energy occurs in fluid when
warm materials flows so as to displace cooler
materials.
For convection, H is approximately proportional to
the surface area A of the body and to the
between the body and the fluid.
temperature difference

The convection coefficient h is not a constant. It is

determined experimentally for various fluids as a
function of fluid velocity.
Radiation is the mode of transport of
heat energy through vacuum and the
empty space between molecules.
A blackbody is a body that absorbs all
the radiant energy falling on it. At
thermal equilibrium, a body emits as
much energy as it absorbs. Hence, a
good absorber of radiation is also a
good emitter of radiation.
. For radiation, H is proportional to the surface area A of
the radiating body, to the emissivity e of the surface,
and to the absolute temperature T raised to the fourth
power.

The Stefan-Boltzmann
constant
If a body at temperature T is in surroundings at a
uniform temperature Ts, the net radiative heat loss is
Example 1
A metal plate 4 mm thick has a
temperature difference of 32 0C
between its faces. It transmits 200
Kcal/h through an area of 5 cm .2
Calculate the thermal conductivity of
this metal in W/m K.
Solution

= 58.5 W/m K
Example 2
A spherical body of 2 cm diameter is
maintained at 600 0C. Assuming that it
radiates as if it were a black body, at what
rate (in watts) is energy radiated from the
sphere?
Solution
Heat Quantities
Heat Gained (or Lost)
Hea that causes a temperature
of at substance
change
of mass m is
given by,

Since energy must be conserved, one can always write

the following equation:
Sum of heat changes for all objects = 0
This assumes that no heat energy is lost from the
system.
A positive value of Q means heat is absorbed by the
system, and a negative value means heat is released by
the system.
The Heat Capacity of a body is
the quantity of heat required to
raise the temperature of the
whole body by one degree. From
its definition, the heat capacity
of an object of mass m and a
specific heat c is mc.
The Specific Heat Capacity of substance is
the quantity of heat required to change the
temperature of unit mass of the substance
by one degree.
If a quantity of
is required to produce
heat
a temperature change in a mass mof
substance,
then
Specific heat
In the SI, the specific heat of the substance
has the unit , which is equivalent to
Also widely used is the
, where
unit

= 4184

Each substance has its own specific heat,

which varies slightly with temperature.
The Latent Heat
The heat required to change the phase of
a pure substance of mass m is,

Where L is the latent heat of the

substance and depends on the nature
of the phase change and the properties
of the substance.
The Heat of Fusion (Hf) of a solid is the quantity of
heat required to melt a unit mass of the solid at
constant temperature.

The Heat of Vaporization (Hv) of a liquid is the

quantity of heat required to vaporize a unit mass of
the liquid at constant temperature.

The Heat of Sublimation of a solid substance

is the quantity of heat required to convert a
unit mass of the substance from the solid to
the gaseous state at constant temperature.
Example 1
•How much heat is required to heat 250 mL of
water from 20 0C to 35 0C?
•How much heat is lost by the water as it cools
back down to 20 0C?
Solution
Since 250 mL of water has a mass of 250 g,
and since c = 1.00 cal/g 0C for water, we
have
•Q = m c ΔT = 250 × 1 × 15 = 3750 cal = 15.7 kJ
•Q = m c ΔT =250 × 1 ×( -15) = 3750 cal = ̶
15.7 kJ
Example 2

A certain amount of heat is added to a

mass of aluminum (c = 0.21 cal/g 0C), and
its temperature is raised 57 0C. Suppose
that the same amount of heat is added to
the same mass of copper (c = 0.093 cal/g
0C). How much does the temperature of
copper rise?
Solution
Because Q is the same for both, we
have
Example 3

Determine the temperature t

that results when 150 g of ice at 0
0C is mixed with 300 g of water at
0
50 C.
 Solution
From energy conservation,

(heat change of ice) + (heat change of water) = 0

(heat to melt ice) + (heat to warm ice water) + (heat change of

water) = 0

From which t = 6.7 0C.

 OPTICS
Reflection and Refraction
Thin Lenses
Color Physics
Reflection and
Refraction
 Reflection of Light
Law of Reflection
The angle of incidence equals the
angle of reflection figure 3.1 .
The incident ray, reflected ray, and
normal to the surface all lie in the
same plane.
Fig.3-1
Plane Mirrors form images that are
erect, and has the same size as the
object, and as far behind the
reflecting surface as the object is
in front of it. Such an image is
virtual, i.e, the image will not
appear on a screen located at the
position of the image because the
light does not converge there.
Spherical Mirrors
The principal focus of a spherical mirror,
such as the ones shown in figure 3-2, is
the point F where rays parallel to and very
close the principal axis of the mirror are
focused. This focus is real for a concave
mirror and virtual for a convex mirror. It is
located on the principal axis and midway
between the center of curvature C and the
mirror.
Fig.3-2
Concave mirrors forms inverted real
images of objects placed beyond the
principal focus. If the object is between the
principal focus and the mirror, the image is
virtual, erect, and enlarged.

Convex mirrors produced only erect virtual

images of objects placed in front of them.
The images are smaller than the objects.
Mirror equation for both concave and convex spherical
mirrors is

Where

So ≡ object distance from the mirror

Si ≡ image distance from the mirror
R ≡ radius of curvature of the mirror
focal length of the
≡mirror
In addition,
so positive when the object is in front of the mirror.
si positive when the image is real, i.e., in front of
the mirror.
si negative when the image is virtual, i.e., behind
the mirror.
R and is positive for a concave mirror and
negative for a convex mirror.
The size of the image formed by a spherical
mirror is given by,
Refraction of light
Refraction
When a ray of light passes through the boundary
between two materials of unlike index of
refraction, the ray bends. This phenomenon,
called refraction, is shown in figure 3-3. If n ˃ n ,
2 1

the ray refracts as shown in the figure, it bends

toward the normal as it enters material 2. If n < n ,
2 1

however, the ray refracts away from the normal.

In either case, the incident and refracted rays
and the normal all lie in the same plane. The
angles θ and θ are called the angle of incidence
1 2

and angle of refraction respectively, and are

often represented by i and r.
Fig.3-3
Snell’s Law
The way in which a ray refracts at an
interface between materials with indices
of refraction n1 and n2 is given by:

Because this equation applies to light

moving in either direction along the ray, a
ray of light follows the same path when its
direction is reversed.
Critical Angle for Total Internal Reflection

Suppose that a ray of light passes from a

material of higher index of refraction to one
of lower index, as shown in figure 3-4. Part
of the incident ray is refracted and part is
reflected at the interface. Because θ2 must
be larger than θ1, it is possible to make θ1
large enough so that θ2 = 900. This value for
θ1 is called the critical angle. For θ1 larger
than this, no refracted ray can exist, all the
light is reflected.
The condition of total internal reflection is
that θ1 exceed the critical angle θc given by,

Or

Because the sine of an angle can never be

larger than unity, this relation confirms that
total internal reflection can occur only if n1˃
n2.
Fig.3-4
A prism can be used to disperse light into its
various colors, as shown in figure 3-5. Because
the index of refraction of a material varies with
wavelength, different colors of light refract
differently. In nearly all materials, red is refracted
least and the blue is refracted most.

Fig.3-5
Example 1
Calculate the index of refraction
for a substance where the angle of
incidence is 300, the angle of
refraction is 500, and the index of
refraction of the second substance is
1.50
Solution

Rearrange for n1

And substituting values

Example 2
The refractive index of
diamond is 2.42. What is the
critical angle for light passing
from diamond to air?
Solution

From which , and

Thin
Lenses
Types of Lenses
As indicated in figure 3-6, converging lenses
are thicker at the center than at the rim and were
converged a beam of parallel light to a real focus.
Diverging lenses are thinner at the center than at
the rim and were diverged a beam of parallel
light from a virtual focus.
The focal point of a thin lens with spherical
surfaces is the point F where rays parallel to and
near the principle axis are brought to a focus;
this focus is real for a converging lens and virtual
for a diverging lens. The focal length f is the
distance of the principle focus from the lens.
Fig.3-6
Because each lens in figure 3-7 can be reversed without
altering the rays, two symmetric focal points exist for each
lens.

Fig.3-7(a)

Fig.3-7(b)
Various lens shapes are shown in figure 3-8.

Fig.3-8
The object and image relation for converging and diverging
lenses is

Where so is the object distance from the lens, si is the image

distance from the lens, and f is the focal length of the lens.
The lens is assumed to be thin, and the light rays close to the
principal axis. for
•s is positive Then,
a real object, and negative for a virtual
o
object.
•si is positive for a real image, and negative for a virtual image.
•f is positive for a converging lens, and negative for a
diverging lens.
Also,

Linear
Converging lenses form inverted real images
of objects located outside the principal focus.
When the object is between the principal focus
and the lens, the image will be virtual (on the
same side of the lens as the object), erect, and
enlarged.

Diverging lenses produce only virtual, erect,

and smaller images of real objects.
Lens maker’s Equation

Where n is the refractive index of the lens material, and r1 and

r2 are the radii of curvature of the two lens surfaces. This
equation holds for all types of thin lenses. The radii of
curvature are considered to be positive for convex surfaces
and negative for concave surfaces.
If a lens with refractive index n1 is immersed in a material
with index n2, then n in the lens maker’s equation is to be
replaced by n1/n2.
The lens power is equal to 1/f, where f is the focal length
expressed in meters and its unit is diopters (m-1).
Lenses in Contact
When two lenses having focal lengths f1 and f2 are in close
contact figure 3-9, the focal length f of the combination is
given by,

Fig.3-9
For lenses in close contact, the power of the combination
is equal to the sum of their individual powers.
Example 1
Example 2
Light
Visible light is that part of the electromagnetic spectrum
to which the eye is sensitive. It consist of wavelengths (in
a vacuum) ranging from 400 nm to 700 nm, with
corresponding colors from violet to red.
Light travels through a vacuum at a speed c =
3.00 × 108 m/s. Light travels through a
material medium at a speed v < c. A material’s
index of refraction n is determined by the
speed of light in the medium:

Although all frequencies of electromagnetic

radiation travel at the same speed c in a
vacuum, in matter v and n vary with frequency.
This phenomenon is called dispersion.
 The wavelength of light is related to its
speed and frequency by the usual wave
relationship,

Rays are arrows pointing in the direction in

which light travels. Rays are perpendicular to
wave fronts. In the approximation known as
geometrical optics, rays travels in a straight
line through any homogeneous medium.
Geometrical optics is valid and the wave
nature of light can be ignored so long as any
opening through which light passes has
dimensions that are much greater than the
wavelength of light.
Color Physics
In 1676, Newton perform an experiment to
analyzed white sunlight into a spectrum of
colors figure 3-10, sunlight entering through a
slight falls upon the prism and the ray of
white light is dispersed into the spectral
colors. The dispersed ray of light can be
projected on a screen to display the spectrum.
A continuous band of color ranges from red
through orange, yellow, green, blue, to violet.
If this image is collected by means of a
converging lens, addition of the colors will
yield white light once again.
Newton summarized the results as:
•Sunlight consists of a mixture of all the
colors observed in the prismatic spectrum.
•The prism is capable of dispersing the
white light into its constituent colors.
(Therefore, color was a property of light
not of the prism).
These colors are produced by refraction.
There are other physical ways of
generating colors, such as interference,
diffraction, polarization, and fluorescence.
If we divided the spectrum into two parts, for example
red-orange-yellow and green-blue-violet, and collects each
of these two groups with a converging lens, the result will
be two mixed colors, whose mixture with each other in
turn yields white.

Fig.3-10
Colors of objects
If we hold a red and a green color filter, for
example, in front of an arc lamp, the two together
will give black. The red filter absorbs all the rays
in the spectrum except for the red interval, and
the green filter absorbs all but the green. So no
color is left over, and the effect is black. Colors
resulting from absorption are known as
subtractive colors.
A red vessel looks red because it absorbs all
other colors of light and reflects only red. If red
paper is illuminated with green light, the paper
will appear black, because the green light
contains no red to be reflected.
Primary colors
The human eye has three types of receptor cones, a long
wavelength red, a medium wavelength green, and a short
wavelength blue. Because of the sensitivity of these
cones over a broad wavelength range, most of the other
colors perceived can be created by adding the
wavelengths of these three colors. These three colors
are called the additive primary colors. They are not
mixtures of any other colors. Yellow, however, is a
mixture of red and green lights; cyan is a mixture of blue
and green lights; magenta is a mixture of red and blue
lights. The three mixed colors, yellow, magenta, and cyan
are called the subtractive primary colors and are mainly
useful when dealing with opaque substances such as
pigments that selectively absorb broad bands of visible
light.
Fig.3-11 : Color circles of the subtractive primaries (a) and the additive
primaries (b)
The circles of figure 3-11(a) apply to the mixing of
opaque colors such as paints. If yellow and cyan are
mixed together, the yellow subtracts out the blue region
of the spectrum, reflecting only red and green; the cyan
subtracts out the red region of the spectrum, reflecting
only
Sinceblue
the and
onlygreen.
color that is reflected by both pigments is
green, then the eye perceives the mixed color as green.
Mixing the three subtractive primaries together
produces black or a muddy brown. The color directly
across from each primary is its complement. Thus
adding together yellow and blue pigments completes
the subtractive process –all regions of the spectrum are
absorbed.
The circles of figure 3-11(b) apply to the
mixing of colored lights, such as one sees
in stage settings- producing lights of
different colors by using different filters.
Mixing together red and blue lights
produces magenta. Magenta is the
complement to green. By adding green to
magenta completes the spectrum and one
sees white light. So whenever primary
colors are discussed, it must be made clear
which ones: additive or subtractive?
Red+ Blue+ Green= White
Blue+ Green= Cyan
Red+ Blue= Magenta
Red+ Blue+ White= Pink
Red+ Green= Yellow
The complementary color is the color
you would add to get white.
If Red+ Green+ Blue= White, then the
complement of Red= Green+ Blue=
Cyan, so
Red+ Cyan= White