Introduction

✤ What is Material Science and Material Engineering?

• MATERIALS SCIENCE involves investigating the relationships that exist

between the structures and properties of materials.

• MATERIALS ENGINEERING involves, on the basis of these structure–

property correlations, designing or engineering the structure of a material to
produce a predetermined set of properties.

The role of a materials scientist is to develop or synthesize new materials,

whereas a materials engineer is called upon to create new products or
systems using existing materials and/or to develop techniques for processing
materials.

✤ Why is it important for Engineers to understand Material

Science?

THINGS TO CONSIDER IN MATERIAL SELECTION:

1. In-service conditions must be characterized.
2. Selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties
that may occur during service operation.
3. The cost of a finished piece

•Processing refers to the steps needed to create a material. This often

means the final steps to create a material–for example, heat treating and
quenching to influence grain size–but it can even include mining raw ore and
converting it into a more useful state.

•Structure is the feature of a material operating on different length scales.

Structures can be large enough to see with the naked eye, or as small as
atomic spacing. Some examples of structures include pores, precipitates,
grain boundaries, grain orientation, and crystal structure.
Structure is often influenced by processing.

•Properties are macroscopic things about a material that you can measure–
hardness, elasticity, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, density,
coefficient of friction, etc. Properties are determined by a material’s structure.

•Performance is how good a material is.

✤ Classification of Materials

1. METALS/METALLIC MATERIALS
- Good conductors of electricity and heat
- Lustrous appearance
- Susceptible to corrosion
- Strong but deformable

2. COMPOSITES
- Consist of more than one material type
- Designed to display a combination of properties of each component

3. POLYMERS
- Very large molecules
- Low density, low weight
- Maybe extremely flexible

4. CERAMICS & GLASSES

- Thermally and electrically insulating
- Resistance to high temperatures and harsh environments
- Hard but brittle

✔ METALS

Metals are composed of one or more metallic elements (e.g., iron, aluminum,
copper, titanium, gold, nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements (e.g.,
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen) in relatively small amounts. METAL is usually shiny,
hard, malleable, fusible ductile.

FERROUS NON-FERROUS
• Steel • Copper Alloys
Plain Carbon Steels • Nickel Alloys
Alloy Steel • Aluminum Alloys
• Cast Iron • Titanium Alloys
White Cast Iron • iron
Grey Cast Iron
Malleable Cast Iron

PROPERTIES OF METALS
• Hardness refers to the ability of a metal to resist abrasion, plastic
deformation, penetration, cutting action, indentation, scratching or permanent
distortion. Hardness may be increased by working the metal and, in the case
of steel and certain titanium and aluminum alloys, by heat treatment and cold-
working. It is important from an engineering standpoint because resistance to
wear by either friction or erosion by steam, oil, and water generally increases
with hardness.

• Brittleness is the property of a metal that allows little bending or deformation

without shattering. In other words, a brittle metal is apt to break or crack
without change of shape. Because structural metals are often subjected to
shock loads, brittleness is not a very desirable property. Cast iron, cast
aluminum, and very hard steel are brittle metals.

• Malleability a metal that can be hammered, rolled, or pressed into various

shapes without cracking or breaking or other detrimental effects is said to be
malleable. This property is necessary in sheet metal that is to be worked into
curved shapes such as cowlings, fairings, and wing tips. Copper is one
example of a malleable metal.

• Toughness a material that possesses toughness will withstand tearing or

shearing and may be stretched or otherwise deformed without breaking.
Toughness is a desirable property in aircraft metals. Density is the weight of
a unit volume of a material.

• Fusibility is defined as the ability of a metal to become liquid by the

application of heat. Metals are fused in welding. Steels fuse at approximately
2,500ºF, and aluminum alloys at approximately 1,110ºF.

• Ductility is the property of a metal that permits it to be permanently drawn,

bent, or twisted into various shapes without breaking. This property is
essential for metals used in making wire and tubing. Ductile metals are greatly
preferred for aircraft use because of their ease of forming and resistance to
failure under shock loads.

• Elasticity is that property that enables a metal to return to its original shape
when the force that causes the change of shape is removed.

• Conductivity is the property that enables a metal to carry heat or electricity.

The heat conductivity of a metal is especially important in welding, because it
governs the amount of heat that will be required for proper fusion.
Conductivity of the metal, to a certain extent, determines the type of jig to be
used to control expansion and contraction.
FERROUS METAL

☆ PLAIN CARBON STEEL:

Iron + Carbon and Small amount of Phosphorous, sulfur, magnesium,
manganese and Silicon.
- Low Carbon Steel < 0.3% carbon
- medium carbon Steel 0.3% - 0.8% Carbon
- High Carbon Steel > 0.8% Carbon
Note:
Strength increases as the Carbon Content Increases.
Ductility and Toughness decreases with the increasing carbon content.

☆ ALLOY STEEL:
An alloying element is added to steel in small quantity (usually less than 5%)
to improve strength or hardenability. Alloying elements is added to much
quantity (up to 20%) to produce special properties (such as corrosion
resistance).

HSLA STEEL – usually use in structural application (bridges and building)

MICROALLOYED STEEL – Substitute for the heat-treated steel
MARAGING STEEL - Super high strength and toughness
STAINLESS STEEL – Corrosion Resistance
TOOL STEEL – wear resistance, toughness and high strength
SILICON STEEL – electric and magnetic application

☆ CAST IRON
Alloy more than 2% Carbon - Molybdenum and Nickel are frequently added
to improve the hardenability.

☆ GRAY CAST IRON

Low ductility, excellent compressive strength, machinability, wear resistance,
sound and damping characteristics - Carbon in the form of graphite flakes
 ☆ WHITE CAST IRON
Carbon in the form of carbide - Very hard and brittle - Applied where abrasion
resistance is required

☆ MALLEABLE CASST IRON

Controlled heat treatment of white cast iron - greater ductility than gray cast
iron.

CU Alloy: pure copper – useful in electrical industry

AL Alloy: Commonly used in automotive frame
NI Alloy: Outstanding when its terms of strength and corrosion resistance
TI Alloy: High Temperature Engineering Material
Superalloys: High strength, creep resistance, oxidation and corrosion
resistance, fatigue resistance, even at high temperature. Usually for jet
engine, rocket and nuclear application.

✔ CERAMICS

Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they

are most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, common
ceramic materials include aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide
(or silica, SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4), and, in addition,
what some refer to as the traditional ceramics— those composed of clay
minerals (e.g., porcelain), as well as cement and glass.

✔ POLYMERS
Mostly organic substances containing carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. - Low
density, corrosion resistances, design versatility.

THERMOSETTING – at elevated temperature it is soften with increasing

temperature. When it cooled, becomes harder and stronger. No chemical
change is involved. Thermosetting polymer is significantly stronger and more
rigid than thermoplastic.
THERMOPLASTIC – soften over a range of temperature. It is formed by
injection molding. Large amount of permanent deformation is available.
ELASTOMER – elastic polymer, special class of linear polymer that display
large amount of elastic deformation.

✔ COMPOSITE

A composite is composed of two (or more)

individual materials that come from the
categories previously discussed—metals,
ceramics, and polymers. The design goal of
a composite is to achieve a combination of
properties that is not displayed by any single
material and also to incorporate the best
characteristics of each of the component
materials. A large number of composite types are represented by different
combinations of metals, ceramics, and polymers.
✤ Advanced Materials

Materials utilized in high technology (or high-tech) applications are sometimes

termed advanced materials. By high technology, we mean a device or product
that operates or functions using relatively intricate and sophisticated
principles, including electronic equipment (camcorders, CD/DVD players),
computers, fiber-optic systems, spacecraft, aircraft, and military rocketry.

SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between
those of electrical conductors and insulators.

SMART MATERIALS
The adjective smart implies that these materials are able to sense changes
in their environment and then respond to these changes in predetermined
manners—traits that are also found in living organisms.

BIOMATERIALS
Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body to
replace diseased or damaged body parts.

NANOMATERIALS
Materials possessing, at minimum, one external dimension measuring 1-
100nm.

✤ Modern Materials’ Needs

A modern material is a material that has been engineered to have improved

properties. Concrete, aluminum and steel are all commonly used modern
materials, but more recent additions include materials that have changed the
way we manufacture and use products.

✤ Why do we need Modern Materials?

Scientists and engineers invent new materials This might include lower
weight, lower cost, higher strength, increased safety, lower impact on the
environment, and other desirable aims. The search for, and application of,
new materials is a joint scientific and engineering endeavor
 Material Manufacturing Process
➱ DIFFERENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS

• Casting
• Welding
• Forging
• Extruding
• Machining
• Joining
➱ DEFECTS AND DISCONTINUTIES

DISCONTINUTY = is defined as an imperfection or interruption in the normal

physical characteristics or structure of an object.

DEFECT = is defined as a flaw or flaws that by nature or accumulated effect

render a part or product unable to meet minimum applicable acceptance
standards or specifications.

➱ TYPES OF DISCONTINUTIES

Discontinuities are generally categorized according to the stage of the

manufacturing or use in which they initiate. Therefore, discontinuities are
categorized in four groups which are:

1. Inherent Discontinuities
2. Primary Processing Discontinuities
3. Secondary Processing Discontinuities
4. Service Discontinuities

INHERENT DISCONTINUTIES
This group refers to the discontinuities that originate during the initial casting
process (when the metal is casted into ingots for further processing) and also
it includes the discontinuities that are produced when metal is casted as parts
of any given shape. The initial casting discontinuities are usually removed by
chopping the ingots but some of them remain and further change their shape
and nature during the subsequent manufacturing operations.

PRIMARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUTIES

This group refers to the discontinuities that originate during hot or cold forming
process (extrusion, forging, rolling, drawing, welding, etc.) Also, some of the
inherent discontinuities in the material could propagate and become
significant.
 SECONDARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUTIES
This group refers to the discontinuities that originate during machining,
grinding, heat treating, plating, and related finishing operations.

SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES
This group refers to the discontinuities that originate or develop while the
component is in service. The service conditions (loading, mechanical and
chemical environment, maintenance) of a component affect its expected life.
Although most of service discontinuities might look somehow similar but they
are caused by different failure mechanisms.

✧ CASTING
Casting processes involve the use of molten material, usually metal. This
molten material is then poured into a mold cavity that takes the form of the
finished part. The molten material then cools, with heat generally being
extracted via the mold, until it solidifies into the desired shape.

Casting processes can be broken down into two broad categories:

• expendable mold processes
• permanent mold processes

With expendable mold processes, the molds are destroyed in order to

remove the casting. Typical mold materials include sand, plaster and
ceramics mixed with a bonding agent. However, with permanent mold
processes, the mold itself is reused and must therefore be designed to allow
the easy removal of the casting. Typically, permanent molds are made from
metals that retain their strength at high temperatures.
✧ WELDING
Welding is a fabrication process whereby two or more parts are fused together
by means of heat, pressure or both forming a join as the parts cool. Welding
is usually used on metals and thermoplastics but can also be used on wood.
The completed welded joint may be referred to as a weldment.
✧ FORGING
is one of the best manufacturing processes that give better mechanical
properties among all. Just as other manufacturing process forging also have
some common defects that need to be examined and prevent. Forging
defects can be controlled by careful consideration of work material volume,
good designing of the forging die and the process. To avoid forging defects,
care should be taken during the forging process and the smith must have
experience on forging. Types of forging defects include unfilled section, cold
shut, scale pits, die shaft, flakes, improper grain growth, incomplete forging
penetration, surface cleaning, and residual stresses in forging.

✧ EXTRUDING
Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional
profile. A material is pushed through a die of the desired cross-section. The
two main advantages of this process over other manufacturing processes are
its ability to create very complex cross-sections, and to work materials that
are brittle, because the material only encounters compressive and shear
stresses. It also forms parts with an excellent surface finish.

✧ METAL FORMING
is the metalworking process of fashioning metal parts and objects through
mechanical deformation; the workpiece is reshaped without adding or
removing material, and its mass remains unchanged. Forming operates on
the materials science principle of plastic deformation, where the physical
shape of a material is permanently deformed.

✧ MACHINING
is a manufacturing term encompassing a broad range of technologies and
techniques. It can be roughly defined as the process of removing material
from a workpiece using power-driven machine tools to shape it into an
intended design.

✧ JOINING
Joining comprises a large number of processes used to assemble individual
parts into a larger, more complex component or assembly. The individual
parts of a component meet at the joints. Joints transmit or distribute forces
generated during service from one part to the other parts of the assembly.