| Mathematics Major [1]

Philippine Normal University

LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET)
Refresher Course for Year 2015

WHAT TO EXPECT

MAJORSHIP

Area: Mathematics

Focus: ARITHMETIC AND BUSINESS MATH

LET Competencies:
1. Simplifying expressions involving series of operations
2. Solve problems involving
a. GFC and LCMF
b. prime and composite
c. divisibility
d. inverse and partitive proportions
e. compound interest

PART I – CONTENT UPDATE

INTEGERS
The set of integers (also called the signed numbers) is the union of the set of counting numbers { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5…},
the set of their opposites {–1, –2, –3, –4, –5…} and zero {0}. It is usually denoted by Z. Thus,
Z = {…–5, –4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5…}
The set of positive integers is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5…}.
The set of negative integers is {…–5, –4, –3, –2, –1}.
The integer zero (0) is neither positive nor negative.

OPERATIONS ON SIGNED INTEGERS

Addition.
1. To add two integers with like signs, add their absolute values and affix
their common sign.
(+5) + (+9) = │+5│ + │+9│ (–3) + (–7) = │–3│ + │–7│
=5+9 =3+7
= +14 = –10
2. To add two integers with unlike signs, find the difference of their
absolute values and use the sign of the number with the larger
absolute value.
(+15) + (–9) = │+15│ – │–9│ (–21) + (+9) = │–21│ – │+9│
= 15 – 9 = 21 – 9
= +6 = –12
Subtraction.
To subtract two integers, change the sign of the subtrahend and then
proceed to the rules for addition.
(+15) – (–9) = │+15│ + │+9│ (–28) – (+23) = │–28│ + │–23│
= 15 + 9 = 28 + 23
+
= 34 = –51

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| Mathematics Major [1]
Multiplication and Division
1. To multiply/divide two integers with like signs, multiply/divide the
absolute values of the given integers and affix positive sign.
(+5) x (+29) = │+5│ x │+29│ (–28) x (–21) = │–28│ x │–21│
= 5 x 29 = 28 x 21
= +145 = +588
( 125) ÷ ( 5) = │ 125│ ÷ │ 5│ ( 861) ÷ (–123) = │–861│ ÷ │–123│
+ + + + –

= 125 ÷ 5 = 861 ÷ 123

= +25 = +7
2. To multiply/divide two integers with unlike signs, multiply/divide the
absolute values of the given integers and affix the negative sign.
(–32) x (+14) = │–32│ x │+14│ (+15) x (–31) = │+15│ x │–31│
= 32 x 14 = 15 x 31
– –
= 448 = 465
(–2706)  (+11) = │–2706│  │+11│ (+2184)  (–12) = /+2184/  /–12/
= 2706 ÷ 11 = 2184 ÷ 12
= –246 = –182

Odd and Even Numbers

Any integer that ends with 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8 is called an even number, and any integer that ends with 1, 3, 5, 7 or 9
is called an odd number.
Example:
4, 20, 36, 772, 1958 are even numbers.
11, 223, 805, 907, 8009 are odd numbers.
Three important facts about even and odd numbers
a) If two integers are both even or both odd, their sum or difference is even.
b) If one integer is even and the other is odd, their sum or difference is odd.
c) The product of two integers is even unless both of them are odd.

+/ – Even Odd x Even Odd

Even Even Odd Even Even Even
Odd Odd Even Odd Even Odd

PRIME AND COMPOSITE NUMBERS

Any positive integer with exactly two distinct positive factors in the set of integers is called a prime number. Any
positive integer that has more than two distinct positive factors in the set of integers is called composite number.

Example:
Which of the following numbers are prime, composite, or neither?
a) 53 prime
b) 421 prime
c) 24,638 composite
d) 43,101 composite
e) 1 neither

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

Every composite whole numbers can be expressed as the product of primes in exactly one way (the order of the
factors is disregarded).

Example:
Find the prime factorization of 300.
300

5 60

10 6

5 2 2 3

the prime factors of 300: 5 x 5 x 2 x 2 x 3 = 5 2 x 22 x 3

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Factors and Multiples
If a and b are whole numbers and a  0, then a is a factor of b if and only if there is a whole number c such that ac = b.
If a is a factor of b, we can also say that a divides b (ab), or b is a multiple of a. Every number has a finite set of factors
(or divisors) and an infinite set of multiples.

Examples:
Classify each of the following as true or false.
a) –3 is a factor of 12. true
b) 03 false
c) 30 true
d) 2 is a multiple of 8. false
e) for all integers a, 1a. true

GREATEST COMMON FACTOR

Let a and b be natural numbers. The greatest natural number d that divides both a and b is called their greatest
common factor (divisor), and we write d = (a, b).
Example:
Find the greatest common factor.
(180, 220)
180 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5
220 = 2 x 2 x 5 x 11

2x2 x5 So, (180, 220) = 2 x 2 x 5 = 20

LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE

Let a and b be natural numbers. The least natural number m that is a multiple of both a and b is called their
least common multiple and we write m = [a, b].
Example:
Find the least common multiple.
[28, 44]
28 = 2 x 2 x 7
44 = 2 x 2 x 11

2 x 2 x 7 x 11 So, [28, 44] = 2 x 2 x 7 x 11 = 308

Remember:
For positive integers a and b,

ab
[a, b] = and when (a, b) = 1, then [a, b] = a x b
(a, b)
DIVISIBILITY RULES
Divisibility Properties
a) If a number divides each of two other numbers, then it divides their sum.
If ab and ac, then a(b + c).
b) If a number divides one of two numbers but not the other, then it will not divide their sum.
If ab and a ł c, then a ł (b + c).
c) If one number divides another number, then it will divide the product of that number with any other
whole number.
If ab, then abk.

Divisibility
A number is divisible by 2 if the number ends with an even number (0,2,4,6,8).
Example: 158 and 5792 are divisible by 2 since the numbers end with 8 and 2
respectively which are both even numbers.
A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
Example: 2301 is divisible by 3 since the sum of its digits 2+3+0+1 = 6 is
divisible by 3.
A number is divisible by 4 if the last two digits of the number form a number
which is divisible by 4.
Example: 2900, 3136, and 745084 are divisible by 4.
A number is divisible by 5 if the number ends with 0 or 5.
Example: 1015, 2890, and 802525 are divisible by 5.

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A number is divisible by 6 if the number is divisible by both 2 and 3.
Example: 1350 and 201564 are divisible by 6 because they are both divisible by
2 and by 3.
A number is divisible by 7 if the difference between twice the unit digit and the
number formed by the remaining digits is divisible by 7.
Example: 2191 is divisible by 7, since
2191  219
– 2 (twice 1)

217  21
– 14 (twice 7)

7  divisible by 7

A number is divisible by 8 if the last three digits of the number form a number
which is divisible by 8.
Example: 413000, 6739048, and 9013816 are divisible by 8.

A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.

Example: 19008 and 324594 are divisible by 9, since 1+9+0+0+8 = 18 and
3+2+4+5+9+4 = 27 are divisible by 9

A number is divisible by 10 if the number ends with 0.

Example: 47020 and 390580 are both divisible by 10.

A number is divisible by 11 if the difference between the sum of the digits in

the even position and the sum of the digits in the odd position is divisible
by 11.
Example: 7654235050 is divisible by 11 since,
(7+5+2+5+5) – (6+4+3+0+0) = 24 – 13 = 11 is divisible by 11
even position odd position
A number is divisible by 12 if the number is divisible by both 3 and 4.
Example: 16178904 is divisible by 12 because it is divisible by 3 (since
1+6+1+7+8+9+0+4 = 36 is divisible by 3) and by 4 (since the last 2 digits
04 form a number which is divisible by 3).

A number is divisible by 13 if the sum of four times the unit digits and the number
formed by the remaining digits is divisible be 13.
Example: 195 is divisible by 13, since
195  19
+ 20 (four times 5)

39  is divisible by 13.

RATIO AND PROPORTION

A ratio is a comparison of 2 numbers a and b, with b ≠ 0, and may be expressed in the form “a to b”, “a : b” or
“a/b”.
Ratio compares two quantities with same units.
“12 Math books to 15 English books” is a ratio
“10 kilometers per liter” is a rate.
Example:
In 1993, for every woman arrested in the United States, 4 men were arrested.
1. What is the ratio of the number of men arrested to the number of women arrested?
4
Ans. or 4:1
1
2. What is the ratio of the number of women arrested to the number of men arrested?
1
Ans. or 1:4
4

For any two equal ratios a/b and c/d, a/b = c/d is called a proportion. This is also written as a:b = c:d. In this
form, a and d are called extremes and b and c are called the means, and the rule states that “the product of the means
equals the product of the extremes.” This can also be written as; if a : b = c : d, then ad = bc.

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Example:
If the ratio of teachers to students in a school is 1 to 18 and there are 360
students, how many teachers are there?
Let x be the number of teachers,
1 x
 or 1 : 18 = x : 360
18 360
18x = 360
x = 20 teachers
PARTITIVE PROPORTION

If a quantity q is to be partitioned into p1, p2, p3, . . . pn, so that the partitions are in the ratio a1 : a2 : a3 : . . . : an,
then the size of the kth partition may be computed as follows:
q
Pk =  ak
a1  a 2  a3  ...  a n
Example:
Joshua divides his day into leisure, sleep, and work. In the ratio 1 : 2 : 3. How many hours does he spend
working?
24
P3 =  3 = 12 hours.
1 2  3
DIRECT PROPORTION

If the ratio of two quantities being compared is constant, then they are directly proportional.
y1 y y y
y1 = kx1 and y2 = kx2, then  k and 2  k , therefore 1  2
x1 x2 x1 x 2
Example:
Junior paid 125php for 14 chocolate candies. How much would 25 of such chocolate candies cost?

125 x
 → 14x = 125(25) = 223.21php
14 25

INVERSE PROPORTION
If the product of two quantities being compared is constant, then they are inversely proportional
x1 x 2
x1y1 = k and x2y2 = k, then x1y1 = x2y2 or 
y 2 y1
Example:
It takes 20 men to build a house for 60 days. How many men will be needed to build it in 15 days?
20 x
 → 15x = 20(60) = 1 200 → x = 80 men
15 60

COMPUTING INTEREST
Simple Interest ( Simple Interest = Prt )
Simple interest is an interest computed on the original principal. The original amount deposited or borrowed is
called the principal. The percent used to determine the interest is called the interest rate. Interest rates are given for
specific periods of time such as years, months or days.
Example:
Christian opens a savings account that pays simple interest at the rate of 5¼% per year. If he deposits 2 000php
and makes no other deposits, find the interest and the final amount for 90 days.

I = (2 000php) ● (5¼%) ● (90/365) = (2 000php) ● 0.0525) ● (90/365) = 25.89php

Final Amount = Principal + I = P(1 + rt) = 2 000php + 25.89php = 2 025.89php
Compound Interest ( Final Amount = P[ 1 + r ]n )
Compound interest is different from simple interest because after the first interest calculation, the interest is
added to the principal, so interest is earned on previous interest in addition to the principal. Compound Interest rates
are usually given as annual (1 time a year), semiannual (2 times a year), quarterly (4 times a year), monthly (12 times a
year), and daily (365 times a year).
Example:
If 500php is invested at 8% compounded semiannually, what will the final amount be after three years?
Final Amount = P[ 1 + r ]n = 500[ 1 + (8% / 2)]3 * 2 = 500[ 1 + 0.04 ]6
= 500[1.27]
= 635

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Philippine Normal University

LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET)
Refresher Course for year 2015

PLANE AND SOLID GEOMETRY

PART I – CONTENT UPDATE

I. Basic Ideas

The undefined terms, point, line, and plane are geometric ideas and they are visually represented by a tiny dot, a thin
wire, and a smooth flat surface, respectively. Points are labeled by means of capital letters, lines by naming any two of its
points, and planes by naming at least three of its points. The subsets of a line are ray, segment, and the line itself.

A.. B. A. B. A. B.
Line Ray Line
segment
AB AB AB

Space is the set of all points.

Some postulates on points, lines and planes:

 An infinite number of lines may pass through a given point.
 To every pair of different points there corresponds a unique positive number.
 This number is called the distance between the two points.

 For every two different points there is exactly one line that contains both points.
 If two points of a line lie in a plane, then the line lies in the same plane.
 Any three points lie in at least one plane, and any three non-collinear points lie in exactly one plane.
 If two planes intersect, then their intersection is a line.
 An infinite number of planes may pass through a given line.

Further:
 Every segment has exactly one midpoint.
 If a line intersects a plane not containing it, then the intersection is a point.
 Given a line and a point not on the line, there is exactly one plane containing both.
 Given two intersecting lines, there is exactly one plane containing both.

II. ANGLES
If two rays have a common endpoint, but do not lie on the same line, then their union is an angle. Their common end
point is called its vertex and the two rays are called its sides. The following are angles:

A point may be on the angle, in the interior or neither on the angle nor in its interior called the exterior.
P. P. P.

The unit of measure for an angle is called a degree. An angle is measured with a protractor.

Angle Measurement Postulate. To every angle there corresponds a real number between 0 and 180.

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Kinds of Angles
1. Acute Angle. An acute is an angle whose measure is less than 90.
2. Right Angle. A right angle is one that measures 90. It is usually represented by a small square at
the vertex. Two lines that intersect and form right angles are called perpendicular (  ) lines.
3. Obtuse Angle. This is an angle whose measure is more than 90 but less than 180.

Remarks: In plane Geometry, an angle is simply a set of points. This should be distinguished from the angles
in trigonometry where we speak of directed angles. When we use directed angles, we allow “zero angles” and “straight angles”. In
the study of directed angles, we seldom use the degree as a unit measure. Instead, we use the radian.

FACTS ABOUT PAIRS OF ANGLES

1. Vertical Angles. Two angles are vertical angles if and only if their sides form two pairs of opposite rays. When two lines
intersect, they form two pairs of vertical angles.
2. Complementary Angles. Two angles whose measures total 90.
3. Supplementary Angles. Two angles whose measures total 180.
4. Linear Pair. Two angles that are formed by two
opposite rays and a third common ray. Two angles,
C.
BAC and CAD, form a linear pair if only if B, A, and D
are collinear and C is not on BA . . .
A linear pair is a supplementary pair. B A D

An angle bisector is a ray in the interior of the angle dividing it into two congruent parts.

III. EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS

Equality between two numbers has the following properties
 Reflexive Property: a  a , for every a
 Symmetric Property: If a  b , then b  a .
 Transitive property: If a  b and b  c , then a  c .

IV. CONGRUENCE RELATIONS

Congruence Properties between Angles (or between segments):
 Reflexive Property: A  A for every A .
 Symmetric property: If A  B , then B  A .
 Transitive Property: If A  B and B  C , then A  C .
AB  CD implies that AB  CD and vice versa.
Similarly, A  B implies that mA  mB and vice versa.

Equality is used for measures while congruence is used for figures.

Some Theorems on Angles

 If the angles in a linear pair are congruent, then each of them is a right angle.
 If two angles are complementary, then they are both acute.
 Any two right angles are congruent.
 If two angles are both congruent and supplementary, then each is a right angle.
 Supplements of congruent angles are congruent.
 Complements of congruent angles are congruent.
 Vertical angles are congruent.
 Two perpendicular lines form four right angles.
 The angles in a linear pair are supplementary.
 The shortest segment from a point not on a line to the line is the perpendicular () segment.
Examples:
1. Estimate the measure of an angle if it is three times the measure of its supplement.
Solution: x = 3(180 – x)
4x = 3(180)
x = 135

2. On the edge of a half-plane, take points, M, K, A such that A is between M and K. Take ray AT so that m TAK = 35. In the

same half-plane take ray AV such that

m MAV = 85. What is the measure of TAV? ( Ans. 60)
3. If mA = 64, find the measures of the angles that are complementary and supplementary to A.
Solutions:
The measures of two complementary angles must add to 90, so the measure of the
complement of A is given by 90 - 64 = 26.
The measures of two supplementary angles must add to 180, so the measure of the
supplement of A is given by 180 - 64 = 116.
4. In the figure, 1 is complementary to 2, and m3 = 141. Find the measure of each numbered angle in the figure.

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Solutions:
 Since 3 and m6 are vertical angles, then these angles are congruent. Thus, if m3 = 141, therefore, m6 = 141 .

 1 and 3 form linear pair and therefore they are supplementary.

Thus, m1 = 39.
 1 and 5 are vertical angles and vertical angles are congruent.
Thus, m5 = 39.
 Since 1 is complementary to 2, then m2 = 51.
 Since 2 and 8 are vertical angles, then m8 = 51.
 Now, m4 = m7 = 129. Why? ____________________________________

5. In the figure below, the measures of angles 1, 2, and 3 are in the ratio 1:2:3, respectively. Find the measure of each angle.

Solution:
Adding the terms of the ratio 1,2, and 3 gives 6.

1/6 of 90 = 15; 2/6 of 90 = 30; and 3/6 of 90 = 45 12

Thus, the measures of the angles are 15, 30 and 45.
3

6. Find the measure of an angle whose measure is 40 more than the measure of its supplement.

Solution: A B
Let x = the measure of the supplement of the angle
x + 40 = the measure of the angle H C
x + (x + 40) = 140
2x = 140 F G
x = 70 and x + 40 = 100
Thus, the measure of the angle is 110.
E D
IV. PARALLEL LINES
Facts about parallel lines:
1. Parallel lines are coplanar lines that do not intersect
2. Skew lines are noncoplanar and nonintersecting lines.
Examples:
a.) In the parallelepiped above, name all the lines that contain the edges parallel to AB .
b.) Name all the lines containing the edges that are skew to EF .
Solutions:
a.) The lines parallel to AB are FG , HC and ED
b.) The lines that are skew to EF are AB , HC , BG and CD .

3. A transversal is a line that intersects two coplanar lines at two different points.

Angles formed by Transversals

a.) Alternate Interior Angles b.) Alternate Exterior Angles

1 2 1 2
4 3
4 3
5 6
5 6 8 7
8 7

4 and 6; 3 and 5 are 1 and 7; 2 and 8

alternate interior angles are alternate exterior angles

c.) Same-side Interior angles d.) Corresponding angles

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4 and 5; 3 and 6 are angles 1 and 5; 2 and 6; 4 and 8; 3
on the same side of the transversal and 7 are corresponding angles

PRINCIPLES ON PARALLEL LINES

Principle 1: Parallel – lines postulates: Through a given point P, not on a line l, exactly one
line maybe drawn parallel to line l. .
P

Angles Relationships for Parallel Lines that are Cut by a Transversal

Principle 2: If parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the alternate interior angles are
congruent.

Principle 3: If parallel lines are cut buy a transversal, then the corresponding angles are
congruent.

Principle 4: If parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the alternate exterior angles are congruent.

Principle 5: If parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the same-side interior angles are supplementary.

Principles on Proving Lines to be Parallel

Principle 6: If two lines are cut by a transversal so that a pair of alternate interior angles are congruent, then the lines are parallel.

Principle 7: If two lines are cut by a transversal so that a pair of corresponding angles are congruent, then the lines are parallel.

Principle 8: If two lines are cut by a transversal so that a pair of alternate exterior angles are congruent, then two lines are parallel.

Principle 9: If two lines are cut by a transversal so that a pair of same-side interior angles are supplementary then two lines are
parallel.

Principle 10: Lines are parallel if they are parallel to the same line.

Examples:
A. Use the given information to decide which lines are parallel. Justify your answers with a principle for parallel lines.

1. 6  9
1 2
2. 4  8 a
3. m3 + m8 = 180 4 3
4. m5 + m7 = 180
12
b
5. 10  11
5
9 8 6 7
6. 2  10 c
10 11
Solutions: d e

1. d ║e by Congruent Corresponding Angles (Principle 7)

2. a ║ c by Alternate Interior Angles Postulate (Principle 6)

3. a║c by Same-Side Interior Angles are Supplementary (Principle 9)

4. b ║c by Same-Side Interior Angles are Supplementary (Principle 9)

5. d ║e by Congruent Corresponding Angles (Principle 7)

6. a ║c by Congruent Alternate Exterior Angle (Principle 8)

B. In the figure at the right, find the value of x given s║t cut by a transversal l
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1. m 2 = 2x, m3 = 4x l

2. m1 = 2x, m6 = 136 1 s

2
3. m1 = 3x, m5 = 60
3 5 t
4. m1 = 6x, m3 = 120 4 6
Solutions:

1. Since s║t, then 2 is supplementary to 3, (by Principle 5)

Thus, 2x + 4x = 180
6x = 180
x = 30

2. Since s║t, then 1  6 (Principle 4)

Thus, 2x = 136
x = 68

3. Since s║t, then 2  5 (Principle 2)

Thus, 2 = 60
But 1and 2 are supplementary (Def. of linear pair)
Therefore, from the given 1 = 3x and 2 = 60
Then 3x + 60 = 180
3x = 120
x = 40

10. Since s║t, then 1  3 (Principle 3)

Thus, 6x = 120
x = 20

V. TRIANGLES

A triangle is the union of the segments determined by three non-collinear points.

Triangles may be classified according to the congruence or noncongruence of their sides.

1. Scalene triangle. A scalene triangle is a triangle having no congruent sides.

2. Isosceles triangle. An isosceles triangle is a triangle having at least two congruent sides
3. Equilateral triangle. An equilateral triangle is a triangle having three congruent sides.

Scalene Isosceles Equilateral

Triangles may also be classified according to the kinds of angles they have.
1. Right triangle. A triangle having one right angle.
2. Obtuse triangle. A triangle having one obtuse angle.
3. Acute triangle. A triangle having three acute angles.

Right Acute
Obtuse
Some Theorems about Triangles

1. Isosceles Triangle Theorem. If two sides of a triangle are congruent, then the angles opposite these sides are congruent.
Conversely, if two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the sides opposite them are congruent
2. Every equilateral triangle is equiangular and conversely.
3. The sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle is 180.

Special Lines in a Triangle

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| Mathematics Major [2]

1. Angle bisector of a triangle. An angle bisector of a triangle is a segment or ray that bisects an angle and extends to the opposite
side.

2. Median of a triangle. A median of a triangle is a segment from a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side.

3. Perpendicular bisector of a side. A perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle is a line that bisects
and is perpendicular to a side.

4. Altitude to a side of a triangle. An altitude of a triangle is segment from a vertex

perpendicular to the opposite side.

5. Altitude of obtuse triangle. In an obtuse triangle, the two altitudes fall outside the triangle.
6. The altitudes to the congruent sides of an isosceles triangle are congruent.
7. The altitudes of an equilateral triangle are congruent.

Theorems on Right Triangles

1. In a 30-60-90 triangle,
a. the hypotenuse is twice as long as the shorter leg (the leg
opposite the 30 angle), and 60 2a
a
b. the longer leg is 3 times as long as the shorter leg.
30

a 3

2. In a 45-45-90 triangle, the hypotenuse is 2 times as long as either

leg.
45

a a 2

45
a
3. Pythagorean Theorem
In a right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse is
equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the legs. a c

b
a2 + b2 = c2

4. Angles Outside the Triangle 2

The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of
the remote interior angles.
1 3 4
m4 = m1 + m2
5. Exterior Angle Inequality Theorem
The measure of the exterior angle of a triangle is greater than the 2
measure of either remote interior angle.

1 3 4
m4 > m1
m4 > m2
6. Triangle Inequality Theorem

The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than a c
the length of the third side.

b
a+b>c

Examples:

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| Mathematics Major [2]
1. Find the lengths of the unknown sides in the
adjoining figure
a c
a b c
a. 3 ____ ____
b. ____ ____ 6 2
b
a=b

Solutions:
By Theorem 1, a) b = 3 and c = 3 2 b) a = 6 and b = 6

2. Find the lengths of the unknown sides in the

adjoining figure 60 c
a
a b c
4 3 30
a. ____ ____
b
b. ____ ____ 10

Solutions:
By Theorem 2, a) a = 4 and c = 8 b) a = 5 and b = 5 3 .

3. A pole is braced up by wires tied to its top portion from pegs on the ground
each 6 ft from the foot of the pole. If a wire is 16 ft long, how tall is the pole?
Solution:
c2  a 2  b2
162  6 2  b 2
b 2  162  6 2
b 2  256  36
b 2  220  14.83

4. Find the measures of the labeled angles in the marked figure at the right.
Solutions:
mx  60; my  120; mz  30; mw  30

TRIANGLE CONGRUENCE POSTULATES

Given two triangles. There are four ways to show that they are congruent using only three pairs of corresponding congruent
parts:

SAS Congruence Postulate. If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are congruent respectively to the
corresponding two sides and the included angle of another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.

ASA Congruence Postulate. If two angles and the included side of one triangle are congruent respectively to the
corresponding two angles and the included side of another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.

SSS Congruence Postulate. If the three sides of one triangle are congruent respectively to the corresponding three sides
of another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.

SAA Congruence Theorem.. If a side and two angles adjacent angles of one triangle are congruent respectively to the
corresponding side and two adjacent angles of another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.

Corresponding Parts Principle. If two triangles are congruent by SAS, ASA, SSS, or SAA, then their remaining corresponding parts are
also congruent

Examples:

7
| Mathematics Major [2]
Each pair of marked triangles are congruent by the indicated congruence postulate.

60 60

32 32
ASA SAS

65

95
95
65
SAA SSS

Triangle Congruence for Right Triangles

From the triangle congruence postulates, any two right triangles may be congruent by any of the following principles:

LL Congruence. Two right triangles are congruent if the two legs of one are congruent, respectively, to the
corresponding two legs of the other. (By SAS)

LA Congruence. Two right triangles are congruent if a leg and an adjacent acute angle of one are congruent,
respectively, to the corresponding leg and an adjacent acute angle of the other. (By ASA; by SAA if the acute
angles are not adjacent)

HL Congruence. Two right triangles are congruent if the hypotenuse and a leg of one are congruent,
respectively, to the corresponding hypotenuse and a leg of the other. (By Transitivity)

40

40

First Minimum Theorem

The shortest segment joining a point to a line is the perpendicular segment.

Thus, the distance between a line and an external point is the length of the perpendicular segment from the point to the line.

Similar Triangles

Two triangles are said to be similar if

a. their corresponding angles are congruent, and
b. their corresponding sides are proportional.

Examples of similar triangles:

Similarity Postulates:
1. AA Similarity. If two angles of one triangle are congruent to two corresponding angles of another triangle, then the
triangles are similar.
2. SAS Similarity. If an angle of one triangle is congruent to a corresponding angle of another triangle and the sides that
include these angles are proportional, then the triangles are similar.
3. SSS Similarity. If all the three sides of one triangle are proportional to the lengths of the corresponding sides of another
triangle, then the triangles are similar.

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| Mathematics Major [2]
4. Midsegment Theorem for Triangles. A

A segment whose endpoints are the midpoints of two sides

of a triangle is
D E
a. parallel to the third side, and
b. half the length of the third side. B C
1
DE // BC and DE  BC
2
5. Side-Splitting Theorem
A
If a line parallel to a side of a triangle intersects the other two sides in distinct
points, then it cuts off segments which are proportional to these sides.
D E

B C
AB AC

AD AE

6. Similarity in a right triangle. The altitude to the hypotenuse of a right triangle forms two triangles that are each
similar to the original triangle and to each other.
7. Given a right triangle and the altitude to the hypotenuse. (a) The altitude to the hypotenuse is the geometric
mean of the segments into which it separates the hypotenuse. (b) Each leg is the geometric mean of the
hypotenuse and the segment adjacent to the leg.

Thus, in the marked adjoining figure, C

ABC  ACD  CBD. Thus,

AD CD

CD BD A B
D
Hence, CD2  AD  BD Finally,

AD AC BD BC
Moreover,  . 
AC AB BC BA

Hence, AC2  AD  DC . And BC2  BD  BA

Examples:

1. Two angles of ABC have measures, 45 and 15, while two angles of DEF have measures 120 and 45. Are the
triangles similar? By what Similarity theorem or definition?

Solution: YES, by the AAA Similarity Theorem_

2. One angle of PQR measures 40 and the sides that include the angle measures 5 each. Another triangle has an
angle that measures 70 and the sides that include these angle measures 8 each. Are the triangles similar?
Solution: YES, by the SAS Similarity Theorem
3. Given the figure as marked. Find PS.
Solution:
S
x
Q 15 9

x 12 PS 12
15 9
PS  (15)(12)  9  20
T
P R
4. In the marked figure at the right, C
AD = 8 and DB = 18. Find CD.

Solution:
(CD)2  AD  BD
(CD)2  8  18 A B
CD = 12 D

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| Mathematics Major [2]
QUADRILATERALS

A quadrilateral is a four-sided figure.

 If all four angles of a quadrilateral are right angles, then the quadrilateral is a rectangle.
 If all four angles of a quadrilateral are right angles, and all four sides are congruent, then the quadrilateral is a
square.
 If both pairs of opposite sides are parallel, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
 If one and only one pair of opposite sides are parallel, then the quadrilateral is a trapezoid.

THEOREMS ON QUADRILATERALS

1. Each diagonal separates a parallelogram into two congruent triangles.

2. In a parallelogram, any two opposite sides are congruent.
Corollary: If two lines are parallel, then all points of each line are equidistant from the other line.

Recall: The distance between a line and an external point is the length of the perpendicular segment from the point to
the line.

The distance between any two parallel lines is the distance from any point of one to the other.
3. In a parallelogram, any two opposite angles are congruent.
4. In a parallelogram, any two consecutive angles are supplementary.
5. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

Application:
6. The segment joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side and half as long.
7. A rhombus is a parallelogram all of whose sides are congruent.
8. A rectangle is a parallelogram all of whose angles are congruent.
9. A square is a rectangle all of whose sides are congruent.
10. If a parallelogram has one right angle, then it is a rectangle.
11. In a rhombus, the diagonals are perpendicular to each other.
12. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other and are perpendicular, then the
quadrilateral is a rhombus.

CIRCLES

Definition
Let P be a point in a given plane, and r be a positive number. The circle with center P and
radius is the set of all points of the plane whose distance from P is r.

Definition
Let P be a point, and let r be a positive number. The sphere
with center P and radius r is the set of all points of space whose
distance from P is r.

Basic Terms on Circles and Spheres

 Two or more spheres or two or more circles with the same center are called concentric.
 A chord of a circle is a segment whose endpoints lie on the circle.
 A line which intersects a circle in two points is called a secant of the circle.
 A chord of a sphere is a segment whose endpoints lie on the sphere.
 A diameter of a circle or sphere is a chord containing the center.

 A radius of a circle or a sphere is a segment from the center to a point of

the sphere.

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| Mathematics Major [2]
 The interior of a circle is the set of all points of the plane whose distance from the center is less than the
radius.
 The exterior of a circle is the set of all points of the plane whose distance from the center is greater
than the radius.
Definition

A tangent to a circle is a line (in the same plane) which intersects the circle in one and only one point. This point
is called the point of tangency.

Theorems Circles and Spheres

1. The intersection of a sphere with a plane through its center is a circle with the same center and the same radius.
2. The intersection of a sphere with a plane through its center is called a great circle of the sphere.
3. A line perpendicular to a radius at its outer end is tangent to the circle.
4. Every tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of tangency.
5. The perpendicular from the center of a circle to a chord bisects the chord.
6. The segment from the center of a circle to the midpoint of a chord which is not a diameter is perpendicular to
the chord.
7. In the plane of a circle, the perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the center.
8. In the same circle or in congruent circles, chords equidistant from the center are congruent.
9. In the same circle or in congruent circles, any two congruent chords are equidistant from the center.
10. If the line and the circle are coplanar, and line intersects the interior of the circle, then it intersects the circle in
two and only two points.

Definition

Two circles are tangent if they are tangent to the same line at the same point. If two tangent circles are coplanar,
and their centers are on the same side of their common tangent, then their internally tangent. If two tangent circles
if two tangents are coplanar, and their canters are on opposite sides of their common
tangent, then their externally tangent

ARCS OF CIRCLES

In the adjoining circle at the right, P is the center. The set of points (darkened) on the circle in the interior of
APB is the minor arc AB . The remaining set of points on the circle is the major arc AB . A and B are the endpoints
of the arcs.

Definition

A central angle of a circle is an angle whose vertex is the center of the circle.

In the figure, APB is a central angle.

Definition

Let C be a circle, and let A and B be the endpoints of a diameter. A semicircle

is the union of A, B, and the points of C that lie in a given half-plane with
AB as edge. The points A and B are the end points of the semicircle.

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| Mathematics Major [2]
Definition

1. The degree measure of an arc is the measure of the corresponding central angle.
2. The degree measure of a semicircle is 180.

INSCRIBED ANGLES AND INTERCEPTED ARCS

Definition

An angle is inscribed in an arc if

1. The sides of the angle contain the end points of the arc and
2. The vertex of the angle is a point, but not an end point, of the arc.

Definition

An angle intercepts an arc if

1. The end points of the arc lie on the angle,
2. All other points of the arc are in the interior of the angle, and
3. Each side of the angle contains an end point of the arc.

Theorems on Inscribed Angles and Intercepted Arcs

1. The measure of an inscribed angle is half the measure of the intercepted arc.
2. An angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.
3. Every two angles inscribed in the same arc are congruent.
Definitions

A triangle is inscribed in a circle if the vertices of the triangle lie on the circle. If each side of the triangle is
tangent to the circle, then the quadrilateral is circumscribed about the circle.

SOLIDS AND THEIR VOLUMES

12
| Mathematics Major [2]

Theorems

1. The volume of the prism is the product of the altitude and the area of the base.
2. The volume of a triangular pyramid is one-third the product of its altitude and its base area.
3. The volume of a pyramid is one-third the product of its altitude and its base area.
4. The volume of a circular cylinder is the product of its altitude
and the area of its base.
5. The volume of a circular cone is one-third the product
of its altitude and the area of its base.

TRANSFORMATIONS

Starting point

These triangles are congruent.

If you cut out ΔDEF and place it onto ΔABC , they should have the same size and shape. The movement may be a slide, a flip,
or a turn.
Look at the kite at the right. If we fold the kite over BD , there is a one-
to-one correspondence between the points of the kite. A  C, points along AB
and CB correspond, and points along AD and CD correspond.

Transformation

A transformation is a one-to-one correspondence between points in the plane such that each point P is associated with a
'
unique point P , called the image of P .
Transformations that preserve the size and shape of geometric figures are called isometries (iso means “same” and metry
means “measure”) or rigid motions.
Types of isometries: translation, rotation and reflection.

 Translation
Translation is a transformation that acts like a “slide”.

Example:

Describe a transformation that will move ABC to

' ' '
coincide with A B C

Solution:
Slide the triangle so that A moves to A’. Since B’ and C’ are
the same distance and direction from B and C, respectively, as A’ is from point A, point B’ is the image of B and point C’ is the image
of C. Thus, ABC moves to A 'B'C' . Trace ABC and slide it using the arrow from A to A’.
To define translation, we need the concept of directed line segment. Informally, a line segment AB can be directed in two
ways: (1) pointing from A to B denoted as AB or (2) pointing from B to A denoted as BA .
Further, two line segments are said to be equivalent if they are parallel, have the same length and point in the same
direction.

13
| Mathematics Major [2]
Definition

Translation
Suppose that A and B are points in the plane. The translation associated with directed line segment AB , denoted TAB , is
' '
the transformation that maps each point P to the point P such that PP is equivalent to AB .

' ' '

Directed segment PP is equivalent to AB so that PP ║ AB and P P = AB. Thus quadrilateral
'
P P BA is a parallelogram, since it has a pair of opposite sides that are parallel and congruent. We can imagine that P is “slid”
by the translation TAB in the direction from A to B for a distance equal to AB.

 Rotation

This is an isometry that corresponds to turning the plane around a fixed point.
Example
Describe a transformation that will move ABC to coincide with A 'B'C' .

Solution:
We can turn ABC 180º around point P, the midpoint of segment BB ' to coincide with A 'B'C' .

To define rotation, we need the concept of a directed angle. An angle ABC is said to be a directed angle if it satisfies
the following properties:

1. If mABC  0 , then the measure of the directed angle is 0º.

2. If ABC is a straight angle, then the measure of the directed angle is 180º.
3. In the adjoining figure,
a) Let BA be turned about B through the smallest possible angle so that the image of
ray BA coincides with BC .

b) If the direction of the turn is counterclockwise, the measure of the directed angle is the positive number
mABC . If the direction is clockwise, the measure is the negative number  mABC . The directed angle
ABC is denoted by ABC .

For the directed angle by ABC , ray BA is called the initial side and ray BC is called the terminal side.

Definition
Rotation
The rotation with center O and angle with measure a, denoted R O,a , is the
'
transformation that maps each point P other than O to the point P such that
1. The measure of directed angle POP' is a, and
2. OP  OP
'

Point O is mapped to itself by R O,a .

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| Mathematics Major [2]
 Reflection
This isometry corresponds to flipping the plane over a fixed line.

Example:
Describe a transformation that will move ABC to coincide with A 'B'C'

Solution:
Flip ABC over the perpendicular bisector of AA ' .

' '
Then point A moves to point A , point B to B , and C to C ' . Hence, ABC moves to coincide with A 'B'C'

 Reflection

A transformation that “flips” the plane over a fixed line is called a reflection.

Definition

Suppose that a line l is a line in the plane. The reflection in line l, denoted by M t , is the
transformation that maps points as follows:
'
1. Each point P not on line l is mapped to the point P such that l is the
'
perpendicular bisector of segment PP .
2. Each point Q on line l is mapped to itself.

Examples of transformations

15
| Mathematics Major [3]
Philippine Normal University
LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET)
Refresher Course for year 2015

WHAT TO EXPECT
MAJORSHIP: MATHEMATICS
FOCUS: Basic Algebra
LET COMPETENCIES:
1. Perform operations on Algebraic Expressions
2. Simplify a given algebraic expression with series of operations
3. Apply the Laws of Exponents in Multiplying and Dividing Algebraic Expressions
4. Factor polynomials
5. Use factoring in simplifying rational expressions
6. Perform operations on Rational Expressions
7. Perform operations on Radical Numbers
8. Identify the domain and/or the range of a given function
9. Identify/ describe the graph of a function
10. Solve problems on
a) Linear equations
b) Systems of linear equations
11. Compute the value of a function f(n), where n is a counting number

PART I – CONTENT UPDATE

I. Algebraic Expressions
A mathematical phrase that contains a variable is an open phrase. A number phrase is an expression
that does not contain a variable. It is also referred to as a numerical expression. The English phrase ‘a certain
number added to 5’ may be translated to the open phrase ‘n + 5’ where n stands for a certain number. The
English phrase ‘seven added to 5’ may be translated to the number phrase ‘7 + 5’.

x
Expressions like 8 + 2, 12 – 2, 5 x 2, and 20 ÷ 2 are some number phrases for the number 10. Expressions like
5
, - 2a, 2n + 8, 2(l + w) are examples of open phrases. Another name for open phrase is algebraic expression.
An expression composed of constants, variables, grouping symbols, and operation symbols, is called an
algebraic expression. It is the result of adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing (except by 0), or taking roots
on any combination of constants and variables.
1 2 x3 1 1
Example a) 2 x  3x b. 2 x  x
2
c)  4x2  2x  5 d)  2
3 x x

A. Polynomials
A term of a polynomial is a constant, a variable or the product of a constant and one or more variables
raised to whole number exponents. The constant preceding the variable in each term is called coefficient of
the variable. In 3x 3  15x 2  2 , the coefficient of x3 is 3, and the coefficient of x2 is –15. In algebra, a number is
frequently referred to as a constant, and so the last term –2 in 3x 3  15x 2  2 is called the constant term.
A polynomial is a term or a finite sum of terms, with only non-negative integer exponents permitted
on the variables. If the terms of a polynomial contain only the variable x, then the polynomial is called
polynomial in x.

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Examples:
2 x3
a)  8r 2 s 3 b) x2 – 2xy – 3y2 c)  4x2  2x  5
3

d) 8 x  3 y 3 e)  4r 2 s 3  2 1 f) x 4  8x 2  11x  5

B. Degree of a Polynomial
The degree of a polynomial in one variable is the highest exponent of the variable in the polynomial. A
term containing more than one variable has degree equal to the sum of all the exponents appearing on the
variables in the term. The degree of a polynomial in more than one variable is the highest degree of all the
terms appearing in the polynomial. If a monomial consists of a constant term then the expression is called
constant polynomial. The degree of a constant polynomial is zero.
Examples:
1) The degree of the polynomial 6 x 3 y 2  3xy is 5.
2) The degree of the polynomial  4 x 2  5 x  3 is 2.
3) The degree of the polynomial 2 x 2  5 x 2 y  7 y is 3.
C. Like Terms
If two terms contain the same powers of the same variables, they are called like terms or similar
terms. For example, 3x 2 and  5x 2 are like terms, whereas 3x 2 and  2x 3 are not like terms. Other examples
are 4 xy and  5 yx ,  3x 2 y and 5 yx 2 , and  4 x x  y  and 7 x x  y  .
D. Kinds of Polynomials
Certain polynomials have special names depending on the number of terms they have.
1. Monomial is a polynomial that has only one term.
5x 2 y 3
Examples: a)  8r 2 s 3 b) 
4
2. Binomial is a polynomial that has two terms.
6x 2 y
Examples: a) 8 x  3 y 3 b)  3 xy
5
3. Trinomial is a polynomial that has three terms.
2x 2 3
Examples: a)  4 x 2  5 x  3 b)  5x 2 y 
3 5
4. Multinomial is a polynomial that has four or more terms
2a 4 b 3 a 3 b 2
Examples: a) 4 x 3  5x 2  x  7 b)   2 a 2 b  5a
5 4
E. Evaluating Algebraic Expressions
In Algebra, we replace a variable with a number. This is called substituting the variable. To evaluate an
algebraic expression, substitute the variable by a number and then calculate. Evaluating an algebraic
expression means obtaining or computing the value of the expression where value/s of the variable/s is/are
assigned.

Examples: Evaluate.
x y x y y  x 3y
1)  for x = 12 & y = 8 2)  for x = 2 & y = 4
4 4 2 x

12  8 12  8 4  2 3(4)
=  = 
4 4 2 2

20 4 6 12
=  =5+1 =  =3+6
4 4 2 2

24 18
= =6 = =9
4 2
F. Operations on Algebraic Expressions
H. Simplifying Algebraic Expressions Involving Grouping Symbols
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II. Laws of Exponents

A. Product Law
If m and n are integers and a  0, then
a m  a n  a m n
Examples:
1) x 2  x 3  x 5 2) 32  34  36

B. Power of a Power Law

If m and n are integers and a  0, then
a 
m n
 a mn
Examples:
    x   x
1) x 3
2 4 6 4 24
 
2) 32
3
 36

C. Power of a Product Law

If m is an integer and a  0 and b  0, then
abm  a mb m
Examples:
 
1) 2 x 3
2
 22 x 6  4x 6  
2) 32 x 4 y 2    3
3 3 2
x12 y 6 
3
 36 x 36 y18

D. Quotient Law
If m and n are integers and m > n, and a  0, then
am
 amn
an
If m and n are integers and m < n, and a  0, then
am 1
n
 nm
a a
If m and n are integers and m = n, and a  0, then
am
 amn  a0  1
an
Examples:
29 x 4 1 1 1
1) 4  29  4  25  32 2)  2   2  ( 4 )   2  4  2
2 x x x x

E. Power of a Quotient Law

If n, a, and b are integers, and b  0, then
n
a
n
a
   n
b b
Examples:
3
x
4
x3 2 24 16
1)    3 2)    4 
 y y 3 3 81

III. Special Products and Factoring

A. Special Products
A. Product of the Sum and Difference of Two Terms

The product of the sum and difference of two terms is obtained by subtracting the product of
the last terms from the product of the first terms, and is called the difference of two squares
(DTS).
Examples:
a) a  b a  b   a 2  b 2 b)  3a  5b  3a  5b   9a 2  25b 2

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Square of a Binomial

The square of a binomial is the sum of the square of the first term, twice the product of the two
terms, and the square of the last term.
a  b2  a 2  2ab  b 2  a 2  2ab  b 2
a  b2  a 2  2a b  b 2  a 2  2ab  b 2

Product of Two Binomials of the Form ax  by  and cx  dy 

The product of the binomials ax  by  and cx  dy  where a, b, c, & d are real numbers, is
equal to ax cx  dy   by cx  dy  .

Product of a Binomial and Trinomial of the Form a  b  and a 2  ab  b 2 

The product of a binomial a  b  and a trinomial a 2  ab  b 2  where the first term of the trinomial is
the square of the first term of the binomial, the middle term of the trinomial is the negative of the product of
the two terms of the binomial, and the third term of the trinomial is the square of the second term of the
binomial, is equal to the product of the first terms plus or minus the product of the last terms of the
binomial and trinomial factors.

1) a  ba 2  ab  b 2   a 3  b 3 (Sum of Two Cubes)

2) a  ba 2  ab  b 2   a 3  b 3 (Difference of Two Cubes)

Cube of a Binomial
The cube of a binomial a  b  is equal to a  b  a  b  a  b  or a  b .
3

a  b3 = a  b2 a  b  = a 2  ab  b 2 a  b = a 3  3a 2b  3ab2  b 3

B. Factoring

Factoring is the reverse of multiplying. To factor an expression means to write an equivalent expression
that is a product of two or more expressions.

1) Common Monomial Factoring

1 Get the GCF of the terms in the polynomial.
2 Divide the polynomial by the GCF of the terms in the polynomial.
3 Write as factors the GCF and the quotient.
Examples:
Factor
a) 5 x 4  20x 3 = 5 x 3 x  4
b) 16x 4 y 2  24x 2 y 2  48x 2 y 4 = 8 x 2 y 2 2 x 2  3  6 y 2 

2) Factoring the Difference of Two Squares (DTS)

For a binomial to be a difference of two squares, two conditions must hold.
1. The given binomial is a difference of two terms.
2. The two terms must be perfect squares.
Examples:
Factor
a) 4 x 2  25, b) 36x 8  25 y 6
Procedure:
a2
   b2
a b a b

a) 4 x  25 = (2 x) - (5) = (2 x + 5) (2 x - 5)
2 2 2

a2 b2
     a 
b 
a 
b

b) 36x  25 y = (6 x ) - (5 y ) = (6 x + 5 y ) (6 x - 5 y 3 )
8 6 4 2 3 2 4 3 4

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3) Factoring the Perfect Square Trinomial (PST)
The square of a binomial is often called the perfect square trinomial.
Use the following to help recognize a perfect square trinomial:
a) Two of the terms (1st & 3rd) must be squares, a 2 and b 2 , and are both positive.
b) If we multiply a and b and double the result, we get the middle term, 2ab, or its additive
inverse, - 2ab.
To factor perfect square trinomial, use the following relationships:
a) a  2ab  b 2  a  b   a  b  a  ba  b   a  b a  b
2 2 2

b) a 2  2ab  b 2  a  b   a  b  a  ba  b   a  b a  b

2 2

Remember to factor out a common factor first, if there is any.

4) Factoring the Quadratic Trinomial
In the polynomial x 2  bx  c , recall that c is the constant term. If that c is not a perfect square, the
trinomial cannot be factored using perfect square trinomial type. It may, however, be possible to factor it as
the product of two different binomials.
Some points to consider in factoring x 2  bx  c , where b and c are constants.
a) If the sign of the constant term is positive, look for its factors whose sum is the numerical
coefficient of the middle. The signs of these factors must be the same. The sign of the middle
term becomes the signs of the factors of the constant term.

Some points to consider in factoring ax 2  bx  c , where a, b and c are constants.

To factor ax 2  bx  c , we look for binomials in the form
__ x  __ __ x  __ 
where the products of constants in the blanks are as follows.
a) The constants in the first blanks of the binomials have product a.
b) The constants in the last blanks of the binomials have product c.
c) The product of the constants in the extremes and the product of the
constants in the means have a sum of b.
5) Factoring the Sum or Difference of Two Cubes
If we divide a 3  b 3 by a  b , we get the quotient a 2  ab  b 2 and no remainder. So a  b
and a 2  ab  b 2 are factors of a 3  b 3 . Similarly, if we divide a 3  b 3 by a  b , we get the quotient
a 2  ab  b 2 and no remainder. So a  b and a 2  ab  b 2 are factors of a 3  b 3 .

Factoring a Difference or a Sum of Two Cubes

a 3  b 3 = ( a  b ) ( a 2  ab  b 2 )
a 3  b 3 = ( a  b ) ( a 2  ab  b 2 )

6) Factoring by Grouping
When the given expression is a multinomial, it may be factored by grouping.
Examples:
a) 6 x 3  9 x 2  4 x  6 b) x 2  2 xy  y 2  b 2
Procedure:
a) 6 x 3  9 x 2  4 x  6
There is no factor common to all the terms other than 1. We can, however, group the terms as
(6 x  9 x 2 ) and (4 x  6) and factor these separately.
3

= (6 x 3  9 x 2 )  (4 x  6) Grouping the terms

= 3x (2 x  3)  2(2 x  3)
2
Factoring each binomial
= 2 x  33x  2
2
Factoring out the common factor (2x–3)
b) x  2 xy  y  b
2 2 2

The terms do not have any common factor other than 1 but the terms can be grouped as
( x  2 xy  y 2 ) and b 2  . Both groups can be expressed as squares. Thus, x  y   b
2 2 2

= x  y   b
2 2
Rewriting the expression as DTS.
=  x  y   b x  y   b Factoring the DTS
=  x  y  b  x  y  b  Simplifying each factor
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7) Factoring by Completing the Square
There are polynomials that cannot be factored by using any of the preceding methods. Completing the
square can factor some of these polynomials.

Examples: Factor
a) x  64
4
b) 4 x 4  37 x 2 y 2  49 y 4

Procedure:
a) x 4  64
If the given expression is a binomial whose terms are perfect squares and positive, these two terms can
be considered as the first and last terms of the perfect square trinomial. It means that in the binomial x 4  64 ,
the middle term is missing. The middle term (mt) can be found by using the formula:
mt = 2 ft lt
where ft is the first term and lt is the last term.
Using the formula,
 
mt = 2 x 4 64 = 2 x 2 8  16x 2
So,
= x 4  64  0 Additive Identity Property
= x 4  16x 2  64  16x 2 16x 2  16x 2  0
= ( x 4  16x 2  64)  (16x 2 ) Grouping the terms
 
= x 2  8  4 x 
2 2
Rewriting the expression as DTS
= x 2  8  4 x
 x 2  8  4 x Factoring the DTS

 
x 4  64  x 2  4 x  8 x 2  4 x  8  Simplifying and arranging the terms

b) 4 x 4  37 x 2 y 2  49 y 4
In the expression 4 x 4  37 x 2 y 2  49 y 4 , the first and last terms are squares . For the given to be a PST,
the middle term must be
mt = 2 4 x 4 49 y 4 = 22 x 2 7 y 2   28x 2 y 2
Thus, we rename  37 x 2 y 2 as  28x 2 y 2  9 x 2 y 2 , and we have
4 x 4  37 x 2 y 2  49 y 4 = 4 x 4  28x 2 y 2  49 y 4  9 x 2 y 2
= (4 x 4  28x 2 y 2  49 y 4 )  (9 x 2 y 2 ) Grouping the terms
 
= 2 x 2  7 y 2  3xy 
2 3
Rewriting the expression as DTS
= 2 x  7 y   3xy
2 2
 2x  7 y   3xy Factoring the DTS
2 2

  
4 x 4  37 x 2 y 2  49 y 4 = 2 x 2  3xy  7 y 2 2 x 2  3xy  7 y 2 Simplifying & arranging the terms

IV. Rational Expressions

Definition:
A rational expression, or a fraction, is a quotient of algebraic expressions (remember that division by zero
is not defined).

A. Signs of Rational Expressions

a  a  (a) a (a) a
1)     
b b b  (b) b  (b)

a a  (a) a a (a)
2)     
b b b  (b) b (b)
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Examples:
x x  (  x) x
a.   
y  x  ( y  x)  ( y  x) x  y

y 3  x3  ( y 3  x3 )  ( x3  y 3 )
b.  
x y x y x y

B. Relations of Rational Expressions

1) Equivalent rational expressions

a c
These are rational expressions with equal values. Note that  if and only if ad  bc .
b d
Examples:
1 4 1 2a 3b 2 1 x 2  xy  y 2
a)  b)  4 2 c) 
2 8 a 2a b x y x3  y 3

2) Similar rational expressions

These are rational expressions with the same denominator.
Examples:
3 7 9 2 x 1 y  2 2x x 1 x  y
a) , , b) , , c) , ,
4 4 4 ab ab ab 2x  y 2x  y 2x  y

3) Dissimilar rational expressions

These are rational expressions having different denominators.
Examples:
5 3 1 3  x 3 x 2  1 2x  3y
a) , , b) 2 , , 2 c) , ,
9 8 6 a b ab ab x  y x  y x2  y 2

C. Reduction of Rational Expression to Simplest Form

A rational expression is said to be in lowest or simplest form if the numerator and denominator are
relatively prime. The process of reducing fractions to their simplest form is dividing both numerator and
denominator by their greatest common factor (GCF).

Examples:
35a 4b 2
1) Reduce to lowest terms.
 42a 3b 3
Solution:
35a 4b 2 57aaaabb 5a
 
 42a b
3 3
 23 7  a  a  a b b b 6b
Or
35a 4 b 2  7a 3b 2 5a

 42a b  7a b
3 3 3 2
 6b
where the greatest common factor (GCF)between the numerator and the denominator is 7a 3b 2 .

x3  x 2  6 x
2) Reduce 3 to lowest term.
x  3x 2  2 x

Solution:
We will first factor the members of the given fraction and then proceed as above.
x3  x 2  6 x x( x 2  x  6)
 Common factoring by x
x3  3x 2  2 x x( x 2  3x  2)

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x( x  3)(x  2)
 Factoring quadratic trinomials
x( x  1)(x  2)

x3
= Canceling x and (x – 2)
x 1

3x  2
3) Reduce to simplest form.
3x( x  1)  2( x  1)
Solution:
3x  2
= Given
3x( x  1)  2( x  1)
3x  2
= Common factoring or by grouping
( x  1)(3 x  2)

1
= Canceling (3x – 2)
x 1

D. Operations on Rational Expressions

1) Multiplication and Division of Rational Expressions

a c ac
a) Product of fractions:  
b d bd
The product of two or more given rational expressions is a fraction whose numerator is the product of
the numerators of the given fractions and whose denominator is the product of the given denominators. The
product should be reduced to lowest terms.

Examples:
 9a 2b3 20c 6 d 4 4b3c 5  2
1)   
4b 6c 4 18a 3d 2 5c 7 d 3 ad

a 2  4b 2 8a  4b a 2  4ab  3b 2
2)  
2a 2  7ab  3b 2 2a  4b a 2  ab  2b 2

(a  2b)(a  2b) 4(2a  b) (a  b)(a  3b)

=   Factoring
(2a  b)(a  3b) 2(a  2b) (a  2b)(a  b)

2( a  b )
= Canceling common factors and get the product
ab

a c a d ad
b) Quotient of fractions:    
b d b c bc
To obtain the quotient of two rational expressions, we multiply the dividend by the reciprocal of the divisor.
Examples:
100a 2b 4 60a 3b3
1) 
30bc3 42ac4
Solution:
100a 2b 4 42ac4
=  Getting the reciprocal of the divisor
30bc3 60a 3b3
then proceed to multiplication

(5b)(20a 2b3 ) 7c(a)(6c3 )

=  Factoring the numerator and
(5b)(6c3 ) 3(a)(20a 2b3 )
the denominator
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7c
= Canceling the common factors of the numerators and the
3
denominators and simplify the result.

x 2  3x  2 x2  x  2
2) Divide by 2
2 x 2  3x  1 2 x  3x  2
Solution:
( x  2)(x  1) ( x  2)(2 x  1)
=  Factoring and multiplying the dividend by the
(2 x  1)(x  1) ( x  1)(x  2)
reciprocal of the divisor

x2
= Canceling common factors
x 1

c) Addition and Subtraction of Rational expressions

Sum or difference of rational expressions:

a c ac
Similar:  
d d d
a c ad  bc
Dissimilar:  
b d bd

Examples:
2x  1 7x  5 9x  3
a) Find   .
6x  1 6x  1 6x  1

Solution:
2x  1  7x  5  9x  3
= Writing the rational expressions as a single
6x  1
fraction with a common denominator
(2 x  7 x  9 x)  (1  5  3)
= Collecting like terms in the numerator
6x  1

1
= Performing the indicated operations in the
6x  1
numerator
2 3x 8y
b) Express  2  2 in simplest form.
3x  2 y 3x  2 xy 9 x  4 y 2

Solution:
2 3x 8y
=   Factoring the
(3x  2 y ) x(3x  2 y ) (3x  2 y )(3x  2 y )
denominators

Make the rational expressions similar by getting the LCD, divide the LCD by the
given denominator and multiply the quotient by the given numerator

2 x(3x  2 y ) 3x(3x  2 y ) 8 y ( x)
=  
x(3x  2 y )(3x  2 y ) x(3x  2 y )(3x  2 y ) x(3x  2 y )(3x  2 y )

6 x 2  4 xy  9 x 2  6 xy  8 xy
= Getting the products in the
x(3x  2 y )(3x  2 y )
numerators

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 3 x 2  2 xy
= Combining like terms in the
x(3 x  2 y )(3 x  2 y )
numerator

 ( x)(3x  2 y )
= Factoring the numerator
( x)(3x  2 y )(3x  2 y )

1
= Reducing the result to
(3x  2 y )
simplest form

E. Simplification of Complex Rational Expressions

Complex rational expression is a rational expression in which the numerator or denominator is a
rational expression.

Examples:
x2
y
y
1) Simplify the complex rational expression .
y2
x
x
Solution:
y 2  x2
y y 2  x2 y 2  x2
= 2  
y  x2 y x
x

y 2  x2 x x
=  2  Canceling common factors
y y x 2
y
and then multiplying
the dividend by the reciprocal
of the divisor.

V. Radical Expressions and Negative Exponents

Any expression involving an n th root can be written in radical form. The symbol is called the radical
symbol.

Radicals
1

If n is a positive integer and a is a real number for which a n is defined, then the expression
1
n
a is called a radical, and n
a =a .n

The number a is called the radicand. The number n is called the index of the radical. Remember that
1
n
a is the positive nth root of a when n is even and a is positive, whereas n a is the real nth root
a = a n . So n

of a when n is odd and a is any real number. The expressions  4 , 4  16 , and 6  2 are not real numbers
because there are no even roots of negative numbers in the real number system.
m
Whenever the exponent of a base is in rational form where n  0, the expression can always be
n
expressed in radical form.

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Example 1: Write each exponential expression using radical notation.
3 5 2
a) a 4
b) a 2
c) 8 3

Solution:
3 5 2
4 3 5 3
a) a = 4
a b) a 2
= ( a) 2
c) 8 = 3
82

Example 2: Write each radical expression using exponential notation.

a) 36 b) 3
8 c) 3
a6
Solution:
1 1 6

a) 36 = 36 2
b) 3
 8 = (8) 3
c) 3
a =a6 3

A. Simplifying Radical Expressions

Product Rule for Radicals

The n th root of a product is equal to the product of the n th roots of the factors. In symbols,
n
ab = n
a nb ,
provided that all of the expressions represent real numbers.

Examples: Simplify each of the following using the Product Rule for Radicals.
a) 4 32 b. 12x 6 c) 3
54x 5 y 9
Solution:
a) 4
32 = 4 16  4
2 = 4
24  4
2 = 24 2
b) 12x 6 = 4x 6  3 = 22 ( x 3 ) 2  3 = 2 x 3 3
c) 3
54x 5 y 9 = 3 27 x3 y 9  3
2x 2 = 3
33 x 3 y 9  3
2x 2 = 3xy 3 3 2 x 2

Quotient Rule for Radicals

The n th root of a quotient is equal to the quotient of the n th roots of the numerator and
n
a a
denominator . In symbols n  n
provided that all of the expressions are real numbers and b  0 .
b b

Examples: Simplify each of the following using the Quotient Rule for Radicals.
 8x 3 y 5 24y 5
a) 3
b) 3
27 125

Solution:
 8 x3 y 5 3
 8 x3 y 3 y 2 3
(2)3 x3 y 3 y 2  2 xy 3 y 2
a) 3   
27 3
33 3 3

24 y 5 3 8  3 y 3 y 2 3
23 y 3 y 2 2 y 3 y 2
b) 3   
125 3 3
5 5 5

Rationalizing the Denominator

Multiplying both the numerator and denominator by another radical that makes the denominator
rational.

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Examples: Rationalize the denominator of each of the following:
10 3
24x 2 y 4 2
a) b) c)
6 3
4 xy 1 3

Solution:
10 10 6 60 22  15 2 15 15
a)      
6 6 6 62 6 6 3

3
24x 2 y 4 3
24x 2 y 4 3
2x2 y 2 3
48x 4 y 6 3
23  6 x 3 xy 6 2 xy 2 3 6 x
b) =      y3 6 x
3
4 xy 3
4 xy 3
2x2 y 2 3
8 x3 y 3 3
23 x 3 y 3 2 xy

c) To rationalize letter c, use the conjugate of the two-term denominator as the multiplier of both numerator
and denominator of the given expression.
2 1  3 2(1  3 ) 2(1  3 ) 2(1  3 )
     (1  3 )  1  3
1 3 1 3 1  32 1 3 2

B. Operations on Radical Expressions

1) Addition and Subtraction

Like radicals are radicals that have the same index and the same radicand. To simplify the sum of
3 2  5 2 , we can use the fact that 3x + 5x = 8x is true for any value of x. So, 3 2  5 2  8 2 . The
expression 3 2  2 3 cannot be simplified because they are unlike radicals. There are radicals that need to
be simplified before adding or subtracting them.
Examples:
Find:
1) 2x 3 - 4x 2 + 5 18x 3 2) 3 16 x 3 y 4 - 3
54x 3 y 4

Procedure:

1) 2x 3 - 4x 2 + 5 18x 3 Given
= 2 x 2  x - 2 2 x 2 + 5 32  2 x 2  x Product rule for radicals
= x 2 x - 2x + 15x 2 x Simplifying each radical
= 15x 2 x - 2x Adding like radicals

2) 3 16 x 3 y 4 - 3
54x 3 y 4 Given
= 3
23  2  x 3  y 3  y - 3
33  2  x 3  y 3  y Product rule for radicals
= 2 xy 3 2 y - 3xy 3 2 y Simplifying each radical
=  xy 3 2 y Adding like radicals

2) Multiplication of Radicals
The product rule for radicals, n ab = n a  n b , allows multiplication of radicals with the same index.
Examples: Find the product of the radicals in simplest form.
1)  2 6  4 3 2) 3
a (3 a  23 a 2 ) 3) (2 3 + 5 ) (2 3 - 5)

Procedure:
1)  2 6  4 3 =  8 18  8 2  32  (8)(3) 2  24 2

a (3 a  23 a 2 ) = a2  2 a3 = a 2  2a
3 3 3 3
2)
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3) (2 3 + 5 ) (2 3 - 5 ) = 4 32 - 52 = 4(3) – 5 = 12 – 5 = 7

C. Simplifying Expressions with Negative Exponents

For any rational number a except 0, and for all whole numbers m,
1
am 
am

To simplify algebraic expressions with negative exponents, mean to express the given expression into
an equivalent quantity where the exponents become positive.

Examples: Simplify the following expressions:

92 a 4bc3 9 x 2  4 y 4
a)  4  3  2  3 b) 1
3 a b c 3x  2 y  2
Procedure:

92 a 4bc3 (32 ) 2 a 4bc3 34 a 4bc3 34 a 4b 2c3 b3

a)  4  3  2  3   4  3  2  3   4  3  2  3  4 4 2 3 
3 a b c 3 a b c 3 a b c 3 abc a

9 x 2  4 y 4 x 2 y 4 9 y 4  4x2 (3 y 2  2 x)(3 y 2  2 x) 3 y 2  2 x
b) 1    
3x  2 y  2 x 2 y 4 3xy 4  2 x 2 y 2 xy 2 (3 y 2  2 x) xy 2

VI. Relations, Functions, and their Zeros

A. Definition of Relation, Function, Domain and Range

A relation is a set of ordered pairs. The domain of a relation is the set of first coordinates.
The range is the set of second coordinates. Relations are often defined by equations with no domain
stated. If the domain is not stated, we agree that the domain consists of all real numbers that, when
substituted for the independent variable, produce real numbers for the dependent variable.

Example 1:
The table of values below shows the relation between the distance of the movie projector from the
screen and the size of a motion picture on the screen.
Distance 1 2 3 4
Screen Size 1 4 9 16
The numbers in the table above could be written as ordered pairs (x, y) where x is the
First member or first coordinate and y is the second member or second coordinate. We can express these
numbers as the set of ordered pairs.
1,1, 2. 4, 3, 9, 4,16 

 
The set 1,1, 2. 4 , 3, 9 , 4,16  is a relation. The domain of the relation is 1, 2, 3, 4 , and the range

is 1, 4, 9, 16 . 
Example 2:
The set of ordered pairs below shows a similar relation. Each person is paired with a
number representing his or her height.

Person Carl Dan Em Frank

Height (cm) 202 142 138 142

The relation is Carl , 202 , Dan , 142 , Em,138 , Frank ,142  . The domain is
Carl , Dan , Em, Frank  and the range is 138, 142, 202  . Notice that for each person there is
exactly one height. This is a special kind of relation called a function.
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A function is a relation that assigns to each member of the domain exactly one member of
the range. It is a set of ordered pairs of real numbers  x, y  in which no two distinct ordered pairs
have the same first coordinate. The set of all permissible values of x is called the domain of the
function, and the set of all resulting values of y is called the range of the function.

Example 3:
 
Let f be the function defined by f  x, y  y  x 2  3 . Find the domain and range of the function.
Solution:
The domain is the set of all real numbers. Since the expression x 2 is nonnegative, the smallest value
that y can take is 3 (when x  0 ). Hence the range is is the set of all real numbers greater than or equal to 3 or
y y  3 .
Example 4:
 x 
Find the domain and range of the function defined by f   x, y  y  .
 x  1
Solution:
The domain is the set of all real numbers except  1 , which is x  R x  1. To determine the range,
y
express x in terms of y, that is x  . From this result, y cannot be equal to  1 . Therefore the range of
y 1
function is the set of all real numbers except  1 , which is y  R y  1

B. Values of Functions

The symbol f  x  (read " f of x" or " f at x" ) denotes the particular value of the function that
corresponds to the given value of x . The variable x is called the independent variable while the variable y is
called the dependent variable because y is usually expressed in terms of x when their relationship is given in
the form of an equation. If there is an equation that is a function, we may replace y in the equation with f  x 
, since f  x  represents y . For example, if the given function is y  3x  1 , we may write it as f  x   3 x  1 .

To evaluate a function for a specific value of x , replace each x in the function with the given value, and
then perform the indicated operation/s.

Example 1: Find the value of f x   3x 2  5 x  2 when x  2 , denoted by f 2  .

Solution:
f x   3x 2  5 x  2
f 2  32  52  2
2

f 2   34   10  2 f 2   12  8 f 2   4
In the example, the ordered pair 2, 4  belongs to the function f , in symbols 2, 4  f . We also say that 4 is
the image of 2 under f , and 2 is the pre-image of 4 under f .

Example 2: Given that f is the function defined by f x   x 2  4 x  3 , find the following:

a) f 0  b) f  2  c) f 2h  d) f  3h 2 
e) f  x  h  

VII. Equations
Definition
An equation is a mathematical sentence that uses an equal sign to state that two expressions
represent the same number or are equivalent.

Examples:
a) 3  2  5 b) 3x  4  2 x  5 c) x 2  9  0

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An equation that contains at least one variable is called an open sentence. Equations b & c above are
examples of open sentences. In equation b, only -1 makes the sentence true or satisfies the equation.
However, more than one number might satisfy an equation. For example, +3 and -3 satisfy the equation
x 2  9  0 . Any number that satisfies an equation is called a solution or root to the equation. The set of
numbers from which you can select replacements for the variable is called the replacement set.

Solution set
The set of all solutions to an equation is called the solution set to the equation.

1) Solving Equations

To solve an equation means to find all of its solutions. The most basic method for solving equations
involves the properties of equality.

Properties of Equality
For any rational numbers a, b and c,
a) a  a is always true Reflexive Property
b) If a  b , then b  a Symmetry Property
c) If a  b , b  c , then a  c . Transitive Property
d) Adding the same number to both
sides of the equation does not
change the solution set of the
equation. In symbols, if a  b ,
then a  c  b  c . Addition Property
e) Multiplying both sides of the
equation by the same nonzero
number does not change the
solution set of the equation.
In symbols, if a  b then
ac  bc . Multiplication Property

Equations that have the same solution set are called equivalent equations. Using the properties of
equality, we can derive equations equivalent to the original equation. The equations 2 x  4  10 and
 x  21  4 x are equivalent equations because 7 satisfies both equations.

2) Types of Equations

Identity is an equation that is satisfied by every number by which both sides of the
equation are defined. The number of solutions is infinite.

a) 23 x  1  6 x  2
x
Examples: b) x  1  x  1 c) 1
x

Both equations 23 x  1  6 x  2 and x  1  x  1 are considered identities because both sides of each
x
equation are identical. They can be satisfied by any real numbers. The equation  1 can be satisfied by all
x
0
real numbers except 0 because is undefined.
0

Conditional equation is an equation that is satisfied by at least one number but is

not an identity. The number of solutions is finite.
Examples: a) 3x  4  2 x  5 b) x 2  9  0

The only value that makes equation 3x  4  2 x  5 true is – 1. While x 2  9  0 has the solution set  3, 3.

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Inconsistent equation is an equation whose solution set is the empty set.

Examples: a) x  x  2 b) 5  3 x  6   4 x  9   7 x

Simplifying either of the two equations using only the properties of equality will yield an equation that is false.

A. Linear Equations

Definition
An equation is linear if the variables occur as first powers only, there are no products of
variables, and no variable is in a denominator. The graph of the linear equation is a straight line. A
linear equation is also called a first-degree equation.

Examples:
2x x
a) y  4 x  2 c) 3x  2  5x  4 e.  5  1
3 2
b) 2x  5  9 d) 4 x  2 y  0

Linear Equations in One Variable

A linear equation in one variable x is one in the form ax  b  0 where a and b are real
numbers, with a  0 .

Techniques in Solving Equations

1) Simplifying the equation first

Example: Solve the equation 2( x  4)  5x  34.

Solution:
Before using the properties of equality, we simplify the expression on the left of the equation:
2( x  4)  5x  34. Given
2 x  8  5x  34 Distributive Property
7 x  8  34 Combining like terms
7 x  8  8  34  8 Addition property by 8
7 x  42 Simplify
1
7 x  42 Multiplication property
7
x=6 Solution set is {6}

2) Using the properties of equality

Example: Solve  x  21  4 x .
Solution:
We want to obtain an equivalent equation with only an x on the left side and a constant on the other.

 x  21  4 x Given
 x  21  4 x  21  4 x  4 x  21 Addition Property
3x  21 Combining like terms
1
3x  21 Multiplication Property by
1
3 3
x=7

Checking: Replacing x by 7 in the original equation gives us

- 7 – 21 = - 4(7)
- 28 = - 28
which is correct. So the solution set to the original equation is {7}.
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We may remove fractions by multiplying by the lowest common denominator (LCD).
3 5
Example: Solve the equation  4   3.
x 2x
Solution:
Find the LCD first. The LCD is 2x.
3 5
4  3. Given
x 2x

3 5 
2 x  4   3 Multiply the equation by 2x.
x 2x 

6  8x  5  6 x Distributive property
6  8x  (6)  (6 x)  5  6 x  (6)  (6 x) Addition property
2 x  1 Combining like terms
1
2 x  1 Multiplication property
2
1 1
x=  Solution set is {  }.
2 2

Decimals may be removed from an equation before solving. Multiply by a power of 10 large enough to
make all decimal numbers whole numbers. If you multiply by 10, you move the decimal point in all terms one
place to the right. If you multiply by 100, you move the decimal point in all terms two places to the right.

Example: Solve the equation x  0.1x  0.75x  4.5

Solution: Because the highest number of decimal places is 2 in the term 0.75x, we multiply the equation by
100, thus

100( x  0.1x  0.75x  4.5) Multiply the equation by 100

100x  10x  75x  450 Distributive Property
100x  10x  (75x)  75x  450  (75x) Addition property
15x  450 Combining like terms
1
15x  450 Multiplication property
15
x = 30 Solution set is {30}

Applications of Linear Equations in One Variable

1) Number-Related problems
Example:
There are two numbers whose sum is 50. Three times the first is 5 more than twice the second. What
are the numbers?

2) Time, Rate, and Distance or Motion-Related Problems

Example:
A passenger bus starts from Tuguegarao City and heads for Santiago City at 40 kph. Two hours later, a car
leaves the same station for Santiago City at 60 kph. How long will it be as the car overtakes the passenger bus?

3) Age- Related Problems

Example:
Mother is four times as old as Mary. Five years ago, she was seven times as old. How old will each be in
5 years?

4) Work-Related Problems
Example:

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Jerry can build a garage in 3 days, and Sam can build a similar garage in 5 days. How long would it take
them to build a garage working together?

5) Investment-Related Problems
Example:
Gary invested P50,000, part of it at 6% and the other part at 8%. The annual interest on the 6%
investment was P480 more than that from the 8% investment. How much was invested at each rate?

6) Digit-Related Problems
Example:
The tens digit of a certain number is 3 less than the units digit. The sum of the digits is 11. What is the
number?

7) Geometry-Related Problems
Example:
The length of a rectangular piece of property is one meter longer than twice the width. If the perimeter
of the property is 302 meters, find the length and width.

8) Mixture-Related Problems
Example:
What amounts (in ounce) of 50% and 75% pure silver must be mixed to produce a solution of 15 ounces
with 70% pure silver?

B. Systems of Equations

Definition:
Any collection of two or more equations taken as one is called a system of equations. If the
system involves two variables, then the set of ordered pairs that satisfy all of the equations is the
solution set of the system.

Types of Systems of Linear Equations

1) A system of equations that has one or more solutions is called consistent. The graphs of the
equations either intersect at a point or coincide. The set of coordinates of the intersection is
the solution set of the system.

a) Consistent Independent is a system of linear equations with only one point as its solution. The graphs of the
equations in the system intersect at one point only.

Example:
a) Find the solution set x  y  6 and x  y  2 by using the substitution method.
Procedure:
The second equation states that x and y  2 are equal, thus in the first equation, we can replace x
with y  2 .
x y 6 Equation 1
y2 y  6 Replace x in equation 1 with y  2

Since this equation now has only one variable, we can solve for y .
2y  4
y2

Next, replace y with 2 in either equation to solve for x .

Equation 1 x y 6 Equation 2 x  y2
x26 x  22
x4 x4
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Checking: Replace x with 4 and y with 2 in either equation.

Equation 1 x y 6 Equation 2 x  y2
42  6 4  2 24 = 2 + 2
66 44

The solution set of the system is {4, 2}. The system is consistent because there is only one solution.

b) The sum of two numbers is 115. Their difference is 21. Find the numbers.
Procedure: (By Elimination Method)
Let x = 1st number (greater number) & y = 2nd number (smaller number)
Formulate the equations:
Equation 1: x  y  115
Equation 2: x  y  21
Here, the elimination method can be done by adding the equations or by subtracting one equation
from the other. Thus,

x  y  115 Equation 1
+
x  y  21 Equation 2
2 x  136
From the sum, compute for the value of the retained variable x .

x  68 MPE

To compute for the value of y , replace x with 68 in either equation.

Equation 1 x  y  115
68  y  115
y  115 68
y  47

The numbers are 68 and 47. The system is consistent because there is only one solution.

b) A system of equations that has infinitely many solutions is called consistent dependent. The graphs of the
equations coincide. The equations in the system are equivalent.

Examples:
a) 2 y  2  x Equation 1 b) 3 y  1  2( x  3)
x  2y  4 Equation 2 3 y  2 x  3

Expressing y as a function of x in each of the equations in each system gives equal expressions.
Graphing can also show dependence between the two equations in each system. The graphs of the equations
will coincide.

2) A system of equations that has no solution is called inconsistent. The graphs of the equations do not
intersect or are parallel. The solution set is an empty set.

Examples:
a) 2 x  3 y  6 Equation 1 b)  4 y  5x  7
3 y  2x  3 Equation 2 4 y  5x  12

Solving the system by elimination or by substitution will result into the inequality of two constants
where both variables are dropped. The elimination of both variables implies that no solution can be obtained.

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Philippine Normal University

LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET)
Refresher Course

WHAT TO EXPECT

MAJORSHIP

Area: MATHEMATICS

Focus: Advanced Algebra

LET Competencies
 Solve for the roots of a given quadratic equation
 Solve problems on quadratic equations
 Determine an equation given a set of roots which are imaginary/complex numbers
 Perform operations involving exponential and logarithmic functions
 Solve for the solution set of a given inequality
 Determine the rth term of the expansion (a + b)n
 Solve problems involving arithmetic and geometric progressions
 Solve problems involving variations
 Determine the number of positive and negative roots of a given polynomial

PART I - CONTENT UPDATE:

QUADRATIC EQUATION
An equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a  0, a ,b, and c are constants, is a quadratic equation.

Examples:
The following are quadratic equations:
1. 3x2 + 4x + 5 = 0
2. 2x2 - 21x = 0
3. 5x2 - 25 = 0

ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

To solve a quadratic equation in x means to find the value/s of x (unknown) that will satisfy the given equation.
The values of x that will make the equation true are called the roots or solutions of the quadratic equation.

Methods of Finding the Roots of a Quadratic Equation

1. Factoring (Use this method if ax2 + bx + c is factorable)
Example: Find the roots of x2 + 2x - 15 = 0

Factoring the left side of the equation,

(x + 5) (x – 3) = 0

Equating each factor to zero,

(x + 5) = 0 (x – 3) = 0
Solving the resulting linear equations,
x=-5 x=3
2. Quadratic Formula (Use this method if ax2 + bx + c is not factorable)
The quadratic formula is

 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a

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| Mathematics Major [4]
Example: Solve 3x2 – 2x – 7 = 0
Substitute a = 3 b = -2 c = -7 in the quadratic formula,

2  (2) 2  4(3)(7)
x
2(3)

1  22
x
3

BINOMIAL FORMULA
To obtain the terms of the binomial expansion (a + b)n, we use the binomial formula:
n 1 n (n  1)a n  2 b 2 n (n  1)(n  2)a n 3 b 3
(a + b) = a  na
n n
b   ...  nabn 1  b n
2! 3!

THE rth TERM OF THE EXPANSION (a + b)n

n (n  1)(n  2)...(n  r  2)a n  r1 b r1
rth term =
(r  1)!
Example:

Find the fifth term of (2a – 3b)8

n=8 r=5 n–r+2=5
(8)(7)(6)(5)(2a) 4 (5b) 4
5th term =
4!
5th term = 90, 720 a4b4

EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

An exponential function with base b is defined by an equation of the form

f (x) = b x, where b and x are real numbers and b> 0,b ‡ 1.

Note: An exponential function has a constant base and a variable exponent.

Examples:
The following are examples of exponential functions
1. f(x) = 2x
2. f(x) = 32x - 2
4 x 3
1
3. f(x) =  
2

PROPERTIES OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

The exponential functions f (x) = bx and g(x) = by where x and y are real numbers, b> 0, b  1 , satisfy the
following properties
1. bxby = bx+y
2. bx = by , if and only if x = y
1
3. b-x =
bx
4. If b>1, and x< y, then bx < by
5. If 0 < b < 1 and x < y, then bx > by

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| Mathematics Major [4]

NATURAL EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

The natural exponential function is defined by the equation

f(x) = ex where e = 2.71828…
Notice that e is an irrational number.

EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS

An equation where the unknown quantity appears in an exponent is called an exponential equation.

Examples:
The following are exponential equations:
1. 60 = 2x-3
2. 5x-3 = 23x-2
3. 62x – 6x+3 = 24x+5

SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS

To solve an exponential equation is to find the value of the unknown quantity in the given equation.
Example 1: Solve for x in 64 = 8x-2
Solution:
Rewriting the given equation, we have
82 = 8x-2

Since the bases are equal, the exponents must be equal. Thus,
2=x–2
4=x
Hence, x = 4

x 2 4 x 3
Example 2: Solve for x in the equation 2 2
Equating the exponents, we have
x2 + 4x= -3
x2 + 4x + 3 = 0
(x + 3) (x + 1) = 0
x = -3 x = -1.

Therefore x = -3 x = -1.

LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

The equation f(x) = logb x, where b  1 , x> 0 and b> 0 is called a logarithmic function.
Examples:
The following are logarithmic functions:
1. f(x) = log2 (3x -2)
2. f(x) = log2 x
3. f(x) = log8 (6x -3)

Note:
1. If the base of the logarithm is not indicated it is understood that the base is 10.
2. If the base of the logarithm is the number e, then it is called a natural logarithm and it is written as
f(x) = ln x.

LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS
A logarithmic equation is an equation that contains logarithm.
Examples:
The following are logarithmic equations
1. log3 81 = 4
2. log2 8 = 3
3. log2 16 = 4
4. log 100 = 2

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| Mathematics Major [4]

The logarithmic equation y = logb x can be written in exponential form as by = x and vice-versa.

Here are some examples:

Logarithmic Form Exponential Form
log2 8 = 3 23 = 8
log10 100 = 2 102 = 100
1 1
log4 = -2 4 2 
16 16

Log3 81 = 4 34 = 81

PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS

1. logb x + logb y = logb (xy)

Example:
log2 (2x + 3) + log2 x = log2 [x(2x + 3)]

x
2. logb x – logb y = logb  
 
y
Example:
3x  5 
log3 (3x -5) – log3 5x = log3  
 5x 

3. logb xn = nlogb x

Example:

log2 x3 = 3 log2 x

SOLVING LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS

To solve a logarithmic equation means to find the value of the unknown quantity in the given equation.

Example 1: Solve for x in log (x + 2) – log x = log (x + 2)

Rewriting the given equation, we have

x 2
log  log(x  2)
x

Since the logarithmic of both sides of the equation are equal, then we have

x 2
 x 2
x
x(x + 2) = x + 2
x2 + x - 2 = 0
(x + 2) (x-1) = 0
x = -2 x = 1
Thus, x = 1

Example 2
Solve for x in log(x – 4) + log(x – 3) = log 30

Solution
Rewriting the given equation, we obtain
log(x – 4)(x – 3) = log 30
(x – 4) (x – 3) = 30
x2 - 7x + 12 = 30
x2 - 7x -18 = 0
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| Mathematics Major [4]
(x – 9) (x + 2) = 0
x = 9 x= -2
Thus, x = 9.

INEQUALITIES

Any relation expressed using the symbols <, >, > or < is called an inequality.
An absolute inequality is an inequality which is always true. A conditional inequality is one which is true only for
certain values of the variable involved.
1. 4 > 3 is an absolute inequality
2. x > 3 is a conditional inequality

PROPERTIES OF INEQUALITIES

Let a, b, c, & d be real numbers. The following hold.

1. Trichotomy Property
a > b or a < b or a = b
2. a > b if a - b > 0
a < b if a – b < 0
3.
a. If a> 0 and b> 0, then a + b> 0 and ab>0.
b. If a < 0 and b < 0, then a+b< 0 and ab> 0

4. Transitivity

If a < b and b < c then a < c.

5. Addition Property

If a < b and c < d, then a + c < b+ d

6. Multiplication Property

If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc

If a < b and c < 0, then ac > bc

SOLVING INEQUALITIES

To solve an inequality means to find the value of the unknown that will make the inequality true.

Examples:
1. Solve the inequality 4x + 3 < x + 8
Solution:
4x + 3 < x + 8
4x – x < 8 – 3
3x < 5
5
x<
3

2. Solve the inequality 2x - 3 < 5x + 7

Solution:
2x – 3 < 5x + 7
2x – 5x < 7 + 3
-3x < 10
 10
x>
3
3. Solve the inequality 3x2 – 5 x + 7
Solution:
3x2 –- 5x < 0
x(3x – 5) < 0

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| Mathematics Major [4]
Case I
x > 0 and 3x – 5 < 0
x > 0 and 3x < 5
5
x > 0 and x <
3

5
Thus, 0 < x <
3
Case II
x < 0 and 3x – 5 . 0
x < 0 and 3x > 5
5
x < 0 and x >
3
Thus, the solution is a null set.
5
Therefore the general solution is 0 < x <
3
4. Solve the inequality 3x2 – 4 <– 3x
Solution:
x2 – 4 < – 3 x
x2 + 3 x – 4 < 0
(x + 4) ( x – 1) < 0

Case I
x + 4 < 0 and x – 1 > 0
x < –4 and x > 1

Thus, there’s no solution.

Case II

x + 4 > 0 and x – 1 < 0

x > -4 and x < 1

Thus, x = ( -4, 1)

Therefore, the general solution set is (-4, 1) or -4 < x < 1.

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

A sequence is an ordered list of numbers called terms.

Example:
For the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, …, the first term is 1, the second term is 3, and so on and so forth.

The sum of the terms of a sequence is called a series.

Example:
The sum of the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7,… denoted by 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +… is a series.

ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE

A sequence in which a constant d is added to the previous term to get the next is called an arithmetic sequence.
The constant d is called the common difference.

Examples:

1. The sequence 2, 4, 6, 8,… is an arithmetic sequence whose constant difference is 2.

2. The sequence 35, 30, 25, 20,… is an arithmetic sequence whose constant difference is -5
The nth Term of an Arithmetic Sequence (tn )
The nth term of an arithmetic sequence can be found by using the formula,
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| Mathematics Major [4]
tn = t1 + (n – 1) d
where
tn = nth term of the arithmetic sequence
t1 = first term of the arithmetic sequence
n = number of terms
d = common difference

Example 1
Find the 20th term of the sequence 4, 14, 24, 34,…

Solution:
Here t1 = 4, n = 20, d = 10
Thus,
t20 = t1 + (20 – 1) (10)
= 4 + (19) (10)
= 4 + (190)
t20 = 194
Example 2
Find the 50th term of the sequence 13, 10, 7, 4,…

Solution:
Here t1 = 13, n = 50, d = -3
Thus,
t50 = t1 + (n – 1) (d)
= 13 + (50 – 1) (-3)
= 13 + (49) (-3)
t50 = 134

ARITHMETIC SERIES

The indicated sum of an arithmetic sequence is an Arithmetic Series.

The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic sequence, denoted by Sn is given by the formula

n
Sn= ( t 1  t 2 ) or
2
n
Sn = [(2t1 + (n – 1)d]
2

Example 1: Find the sum of the first 20 terms of the sequence 1, 8, 15 . . .

Solution:
20
S20= [2(1) + (20 – 1) (7)]
2

=10 [2+ 133]

=10 (135)
S20=1350

Example 2:
How many multiples of 4 are there between 15 and 94?
Solution:

Here t1 = 16, tn = 92, d=4

Thus,
tn = t1 + (n – 1)d
92 = 16 + (n – 1) 4
92 = 16 + 4n – 4
80 = 4n
20 = n
So, there are 20 numbers which are multiples of 4 between 15 and 94.

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| Mathematics Major [4]

GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE
A sequence in which a constant r is multiplied by the previous term to get the next term is called a geometric
sequence. The constant r is called the common ratio.
Example:
1. The sequence 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,… is a geometric sequence whose constant ratio is 2.
8 1
2. The sequence 24, 8, , … is a geometric sequence whose constant ratio is .
3 3

The nth Term of a Geometric Sequence

The nth term of a geometric sequence is given by the formula,
tn = t, r n-1
th
where tn= n term of the geometric sequence
ti = first term of the geometric sequence
Example:
Find the 15th term of the sequence 1, 4, 16, 64,…
Solution
Here t1 = 1, n = 15, r=4
Thus,
t15 = t1 r n-1
= (1)(415-1)

POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION
The function defined by the equation
f(x) = a0xn +a1xn-1 + a2xn-2 + . . .+ an-2x2 + an-1x + an
where n is a nonnegative integer and a0, a1, . . ., an are constants, a0,  0 is a polynomial function in x of degree n.
The zeros or roots of f(x) are the numbers x such that f(x) = 0.

The Number of Positive and Negative Roots of a Polynomial Function

If f(x) is a polynomial function with real coefficients,
 The number of positive real zeros of f(x) is either equal to the number of variations in sign in f(x), or to
that number diminished by a positive even integer.
 The number of negative real zeros of f(x) is either equal to the number of variations in sign in f(-x), or to
that number diminished by a positive even integer.
Example: Determine the possible number of positive and negative zeros of f(x).
1. f(x) = 8x3 – 12x2 – 2x + 3
Because f(x) is of degree 3, there would be 3 zeros. f(x) has 2 variations in signs, while f(-x) = -8x3 – 12x2
+ 2x + 3 has 1 variation in sign.
Thus, f(x) may have the following possible roots
1. 2 positive zeros and 1 negative zero
2. no positive zero, 1 negative zero, and 2 imaginary zeros
2. f(x) = 4x6 – 3x5 + 7x3 – 3
Because f(x) is of degree 6, there would be 6 zeros. f(x) has 3 variations in signs, while f(-x) = -8x3 – 12x2
+ 2x + 3 has 1 variation in sign.
Thus, f(x) may have the following possible roots
1. 3 positive zeros, 1 negative zero, and 2 imaginary zeros
2. 1 positive zero, 1 negative zero, and 4 imaginary zeros
VARIATION
The term use to denote the effect of changes among two or more related quantities. There are different types of
variation:
 Direct Variation
If y varies directly as x, then we write y  kx where k is the constant of variation.
 Inverse Variation
k
If y varies inversely as x, then we write y  where k is the constant of variation.
x
 Joint Variation
If y varies jointly as x and w, then we write y = kwx where k is the constant of variation.
 Combined Variation
wx
If y varies jointly as w and x and inversely as z, then we write y  k where k is the
z
constant of variation.

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| Mathematics Major [5]

Philippine Normal University

LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS
Refresher Course for year 2015

WHAT TO EXPECT
CONCENTRATION: MATHEMATICS
Focus: Trigonometry
LET Competencies:
1. Show mastery of the basic terms, concepts and operations in Trigonometry involving
 Angles
 Trigonometric ratios
 Conversion (degree to radian and vice-versa)
 Pythagorean Theorem
2. Solve, evaluate and manipulate symbolic and numerical problems in Trigonometry by applying
fundamental principles and processes.

PART I. CONTENT UPDATE

1. Angles In General
An angle is formed by two rays with the same endpoint. The common endpoint is called the
vertex of the angle and the rays are called the sides of the angle.


O
A
Figure 1

In Figure 1, the vertex of the angle  (read as theta) is labeled O. A and B are points on each
side of . Angle  can also be denoted by AOB, where the letter associated with the vertex is written
between the letters associated with the points on each side.
We can think of  as having been formed by rotating side OA about the vertex to side OB. In
this case, we shall call side OA the initial side of  and side OB the terminal side of .
When the rotation from the initial side takes place in a counterclockwise direction, the angle
formed is considered a positive angle. If the rotation is in clockwise direction, the angle formed is a
negative angle.

2. Degree Measure
One way to measure the size of an angle is with degree measure. The angle formed by rotating
a ray through one complete rotation has a measure of 360 degrees, written as 360.

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| Mathematics Major [8]
1
One degree (1), then, is of a full rotation. Likewise, 180 is one-half of a full rotation, and 90 is
360
half of that (or a quarter of a rotation). Angles that measure 90 are called right angles, while angles that
measure 180 are called straight angles. Angles that measure between 0 and 90 are called acute angles,
while angles that measure between 90 and 180 are called obtuse angles.

A central angle in a circle is an angle with its vertex at the center of the circle. In a circle, a central
angle that cuts off an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle has a measure of 1 radian (rad).

 s
O
r

Figure 2

3. Conversions

 To convert degrees to radians, we consider the fact that 1  rad
180

 180 
 To convert radians to degrees, we consider the fact that 1 rad =  
  
We note the following:
1. If the unit of measure of an angle is not indicated, then it is understood to be in radians.
2. 1 rad is approximately 57, thus, 1 rad is much larger than 1 degree.

Example 1.
1.1 Convert 60 to radians.
 
Solution: Note that 1  rad, so to convert from degrees to radians, we multiply by . Thus, we have
180 180
   
60  60 rad  rad
 180  3
When our answer is in terms of , we are writing an exact value. If we wanted an approximation, we
would replace  with 3.1416.
 3.1416
Exact value   0.7854 Approximate value
4 4

1.2 Convert -270 to radians.


Solution: We multiply by the given by . Thus, we have
180
   3
 270  270 rad   rad
 180  2
Example 2.

2.1 Convert to degrees.
4
180
Solution: To convert from radians to degrees, we multiply by .


   180 
rad =    45
4 4  
7
2.2 Convert  to degrees.
6
180
Solution: We multiply the given by . Hence, we have.

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| Mathematics Major [8]

7 7  180 
 rad =     210
6 6   
4. Pythagorean Theorem
Right triangles are very important to the study of trigonometry. In every right triangle, the longest side
is called the hypotenuse, and it is always opposite the right angle. The two other sides are called the legs of
the right triangle.
Y

z
x

X
Z y
Figure 3
Right triangle XZY (symbolized as right XZY) with right angle Z is drawn in Figure 3. Its hypotenuse is z
while its legs are x and y.
We now state the Pythagorean Theorem.
Pythagorean Theorem: In any right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum
of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides (called legs).

B
If C = 90, then
c c2 = a2 + b2
a

A
C b
Figure 4
Example 3. Solve for x in the right triangle in Figure 4.

x
9

C A
12
Figure 4

Solution: Applying the Pythagorean Theorem, we have

x 2  9 2  122
x  9 2  122 = 15
Example 4. Solve for x in the right triangle in Figure 5.

x 13

C A
x+7
Solution: By applying the Pythagorean Theorem, we have
Figure 5

( x  7) 2  x 2  132

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| Mathematics Major [8]
x 2  14x  49  x 2  169
2 x 2  14x  120  0
x 2  7 x  60  0
( x  12)(x  5)  0
x + 12 = 0 or x - 5 = 0
x = -12 or x=5

Our only solution is x = 5. We do not accept x = -12 because x is the length of a side of triangle ACB and
therefore, its value cannot be negative.

5. Trigonometric Functions
If  is an angle in standard position, and the point (x, y) is any point on the terminal side of  other than
the origin, then the six trigonometric functions of  are defined as follows:
y
The sine of  : sin  
r
x
The cosine of  : cos  
r
y
The tangent of  : tan  ; x  0
x
x
The cotangent of  : cot   ; y  0
y
r
The secant of  : sec   ; x  0
x
r
The cosecant of  : csc   ; y  0
y
where r2 = x2 + y2 or r  x 2  y 2 . That is, r is the distance of the point (x, y) from the origin.
Example 5. Find the six trigonometric functions of  if  is in standard position and the point (2, -3) is on
the terminal side of .

(-2,3)


Figure 6
Solution: Using the values x = -2 and y = 3, we solve for r.
r  x 2  y 2  13
Applying the definition for the six trigonometric functions, we have
y 3
sin    x
cot   
13
r 13 y 3
x 2
cos     r
sec    
13
r 13 x 2
y 3 x 2
tan    csc    
x 2 y 3
6. Solving Right Triangles
To solve a right triangle is to know the measurement or to approximate the sizes of its acute angles
and sides when the measurements of at least one leg and an angle or of two of its sides are given.
We now define the six trigonometric ratios as follows:
side opposite  hypotenuse
sin   csc  
hypotenuse side opposite 

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| Mathematics Major [8]
side adjacent to  hypotenuse
cos   sec  
hypotenuse side adjacent to 

side opposite  side adjacent to 

tan  cot  
side adjacent to  side opposite 

Example 6. Find the value of sin B

A

c = 6 cm
b = 3 cm

B C
a = 3 3 cm
side opposite B
Solution: The sine ratio is . The length of the side opposite B
hypotenuse
is 3 cm., and the hypotenuse is 6 cm. Therefore, we have
side opposite B 3
sin B    0 .5
hypotenuse 6

Example 7. In right XYZ with right angle Z, mX = 25 and y = 10 units. Solve the triangle.
Solutions: First, we draw the triangle.
X

z=?
y = 10 units

Y Z
x=?

We now solve for the unknown parts of the triangle.

mY = 90 - 25 = 65.

x x
Now, tan X  . By substitution, we have tan 250 
y 10
x  10 tan 250
x  4.66
y 10
Similarly, sin Y  . Thus, sin 650 
z z
10
z
sin 650
10
z
0.906
z  11.04

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| Mathematics Major [6]

WHAT TO EXPECT
MAJORSHIP: MATHEMATICS
Focus: Analytic Geometry
LET Competencies:

1. Determine the equation of a line given:

a. any two points on the line
b. a point and the slope of the line
c. a point and the slope of the line parallel to the desired line
d. a point and the slope of the line perpendicular to the desired line
e. the intercepts.
2. Solve problems involving
a. the midpoint of a line segment, distance between two points, slopes of lines, distance
between a point and a line, and segment division.
b. a circle, parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola.
3. Determine the equations and graphs of a circle, parabola, ellipse and hyperbola.

PART 1: CONTENT UPDATE

Introduction:
This material includes a brief review of the basic terms concerning lines, circles, parabolas, ellipses,
and hyperbolas.
A straight line is represented by an equation of the first degree in one or two variables, while the circle,
parabola, ellipse and hyperbola are represented by equations of the second degree in two variables.

A. The Straight Line

1. The distance between two points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) is ( x1  x2 ) 2  ( y1  y2 ) 2 .

2. Slope of a line
y1  y2 y  y1
a) The slope of the non-vertical line containing A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2) is m  or m  2 .
x1  x2 x2  x1
b) The slope of a line parallel to the x-axis is 0.
c) The slope of a line parallel to the y-axis is undefined.
d) The slope of a line that leans to the right is positive.
e) The slope of a line that leans to the left is negative.

3. The Equation of a line

In general, a line has an equation of the form ax + by + c = 0 where a, b, c are real numbers and
that a and b are not both zero.

4. Different forms of the equation of a line

a) General form: ax + by + c = 0.
b) Slope-intercept form: y = mx + b, where m is the slope and b the y-intercept.
c) Point slope form: y  y1  m( x  x1 ) where (x1, y1) is any point on the line.
y2  y1
d) Two point form: y  y1  ( x  x1 ) where (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are any two points on the
x2  x1
line.
x y
e) Intercept form:   1 where a is the x-intercept and b the y-intercept.
a b

5. Parallel and Perpendicular lines

Given two non-vertical lines p and q so that p has slope m 1 and q has slope m2.
a) If p and q are parallel, then m1 = m2.
b) If p and q are perpendicular to each other, then m 1m2 = -1.

6. Segment division
Given segment AB with A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2).

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| Mathematics Major [6]
x1  x2 y1  y2
a) The midpoint M of segment AB is M ( , ).
2 2
r AP r1
b) If a point P divides AB in the ratio 1 so that  , then the coordinates of P(x,y) can be
r2 PB r2
rx r x r y r y
obtained using the formula x  1 2 2 1 and y  1 2 2 1 .
r1  r2 r1  r2
7. Distance of a point from a line

The distance of a point A(x1,y1) from the line Ax + By + C = 0 is given by

Ax1  By1  C
d .
A2  B 2

B. The Circle
1. Definition. A circle is the set of all points on a plane that are equidistant from a fixed point on the plane.
The fixed point is called the center, and the distance from the center to any point of the circle is called
the radius.
2. Equation of a circle
a) general form: x2 + y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
b) center-radius form: (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2 where the center is at (h,k) and the radius is equal to r.
3. Line tangent to a circle
A line tangent to a circle touches the circle at exactly one point called the point of tangency. The
tangent line is perpendicular to the radius of the circle, at the point of tangency.

C. Conic Section

A conic section or simply conic, is defined as the graph of a second-degree equation in x and y.

In terms of locus of points, a conic is defined as the path of a point, which moves so that its distance
from a fixed point is in constant ratio to its distance from a fixed line. The fixed point is called the focus of the
conic, the fixed line is called the directrix of the conic, and the constant ratio is called the eccentricity, usually
denoted by e.

If e < 1, the conic is an ellipse. (Note that a circle has e=0.)

If e = 1, the conic is a parabola.
If e > 1, the conic is hyperbola.

D. The Parabola
1. Definition. A parabola is the set of all points on a plane that are equidistant from a
fixed point and a fixed line of the plane. The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line is the
directrix.
2. Equation and Graph of a Parabola
a) The equation of a parabola with vertex at the origin and focus at (a,0) is y2 = 4ax. The parabola
opens to the right if a > 0 and opens to the left if a < 0.
b) The equation of a parabola with vertex at the origin and focus at (0,a) is x2 = 4ay. The parabola
opens upward if a > 0 and opens downward if a < 0.
c) The equation of a parabola with vertex at (h , k) and focus at (h + a, k) is (y – k)2 = 4a(x – h).
The parabola opens to the right if a > 0 and opens to the left if a < 0.
d) The equation of a parabola with vertex at (h , k) and focus at (h, k + a) is (x – h)2 = 4a(y – k).
e) The parabola opens upward if a > 0 and opens downward if a < 0.
f) Standard form: (y – k)2 = 4a(x – h) or (x – h)2 = 4a(y – k)
g) General form: y2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0, or x2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
3. Parts of a Parabola
a) The vertex is the point, midway between the focus and the directrix.
b) The axis of the parabola is the line containing the focus and perpendicular to the directrix. The
parabola is symmetric with respect to its axis.
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c) The latus rectum is the chord drawn through the focus and parallel to the directrix (and therefore
perpendicular to the axis) of the parabola.
d) In the parabola y2=4ax, the length of latus rectum is 4a, and the endpoints of the latus rectum are
(a, -2a) and (a, 2a).

y
L

M P(x, y)
In the figure at the right, the vertex of the C
parabola is the origin, the focus is F(a,o),
the directrix is the line containing LL' ,
the axis is the x-axis, the latus rectum is
O F(a, 0) x
the line containing CC ' .

C’

L'

y y – 4/3 = 0 L
y
x1=0

O
x y2=0
P(x,y) V(3,2)
F(0,-4/3) F(5,2)

O x

L’
16
The graph of x 2   y.
3
The graph of (y-2)2 = 8 (x-3).

E. Ellipse
1. Definition. An ellipse is the set of all points P on a plane such that the sum of the distances of P from two
fixed points F’ and F on the plane is constant. Each fixed point is called focus (plural: foci).
2. Equation of an Ellipse
a) If the center is at the origin, the vertices are at ( a, 0), the foci are at ( c,0), the endpoints of the
x2 y2
minor axis are at (0,  b) and b 2  a 2  c 2 , then the equation is   1.
a 2 b2
b) If the center is at the origin, the vertices are at (0,  a), the foci are at (0,  c), the endpoints of the
x2 y2
minor axis are at ( b, 0) and b 2  a 2  c 2 , then the equation is   1.
b2 a 2
c) If the center is at (h, k), at (h a, k), the foci are at (h c,k), the endpoints of the minor axis are at

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(h, k b) the distance between the vertices is 2a, the principal axis is horizontal and b 2  a 2  c 2 ,
( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2
then the equation is   1.
a2 b2

d) If the center is at (h, k), the distance between the vertices is 2a, (h, k a), the foci are at (h, k c),
the endpoints of the minor axis are at (h b, k),the principal axis is vertical and b 2  a 2  c 2 , then
( y  k ) 2 ( x  h) 2
the equation is   1.
a2 b2

3. Parts of an Ellipse.
For the terms described below, refer to the ellipse shown with center at O, vertices at V’(-a,0) and
V(a,0), foci at F’(-c,0) and F(c,0), endpoints of the minor axis at B’(0,-b) and B(0,b), endpoints of one latus
b2 b2
rectum at G’ (-c,  ) and G(-c, )
a a
b2 b2
and the other at H’ (c,  ) and G(c, ).
a a

B(0,b)
2 2
(c, ba ) (c, ba )

V’(-a,0) F’(-c,0) O F(c,0) V(a,0) x

2
(c, ba )
2
(c, ba )
B’(0,-b)

a) The center of an ellipse is the midpoint of the segment joining the two foci. It is the intersection of
the axes of the ellipse. In the figure above, point O is the center.
b) The principal axis of the ellipse is the line containing the foci and intersecting the ellipse at its
vertices. The major axis is a segment of the principal axis whose endpoints are the vertices of the
ellipse. In the figure, V 'V is the major axis and has length of 2a units.
c) The minor axis is the perpendicular bisector of the major axis and whose endpoints are both on the
ellipse. In the figure, B' B is the minor axis and has length 2b units.
d) The latus rectum is the chord through a focus and perpendicular to the major axis. G' G and H ' H
2b 2
are the latus rectum, each with a length of .
y a

(0, 3)
(-4, 9 )
(2,6)
5 (4, 9 )
5 (8,5)
(-6,4)
(-5,0) (-4,0) (4,0) (5,0)
O x (2,1)
(-8,1) (12,1)
(-4,- 9 ) (4,- 9 ) O x
5 5
(0, -3)
(8,3)
(2,-4)

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x2 y2 ( x  2) 2 ( y  1) 2
The graph of   1. The graph of   1.
25 9 100 25

4. Kinds of Ellipses
a) Horizontal ellipse. An ellipse is horizontal if its principal axis is horizontal. The graphs above are both
horizontal ellipses.
b) Vertical ellipse. An ellipse is vertical if its principal axis is vertical.

F. The Hyperbola
1. Definition. A hyperbola is the set of points on a plane such that the difference of the distances of each point
on the set from two fixed points on the plane is constant. Each of the fixed points is called focus.
2. Equation of a hyperbola
a) If the center is at the origin, the vertices are at ( a, 0), the foci are at ( c,0), the endpoints of the minor
x2 y2
axis are at (0,  b) and b 2  c 2  a 2 , then the equation is   1.
a 2 b2
b) If the center is at the origin, the vertices are at (0,  a), the foci are at (0,  c), the endpoints of the minor
y2 x2
axis are at ( b, 0) and b 2  c 2  a 2 , then the equation is 1.
a 2 b2
c) If the center is at (h, k), the distance between the vertices is 2a, the vertices are at (h a, k), the foci are
at (h c,k), the endpoints of the minor axis are at (h,k  b),the principal axis is horizontal and
( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2
b  c  a , then the equation is
2 2 2
 1.
a2 b2
d) If the center is at (h, k), the distance between the vertices is 2a, the vertices are at (h, k a), the foci are
at (h,k  c), the endpoints of the minor axis are at (h b, k),the principal axis is vertical and b 2  c 2  a 2 ,
( y  k ) 2 ( x  h) 2
then the equation is  1
a2 b2
2. Parts of a hyperbola.
For the terms described below, refer to the hyperbola shown which has its center at O, vertices at V’(-
b2
a,0) and V(a,0), foci at F’(-c,0) and F(c,0) and endpoints of one latus rectum at G’ (-c,  ) and G(-c,
a
b2 b2 b2
) and the other at H’ (c,  ) and H(c, ).
a a a
y

2 2
(c, ba ) B(0,b) (c, ba )

V’(-a,0)
x
F’(-c,0) O V(a,0) F(c,0)

2
(c, ba )
2
(c, ba ) B’(0,-b)

a) The hyperbola consists of two separate parts called branches.

b) The two fixed points are called foci. In the figure, the foci are at ( c,0).
c) The line containing the two foci is called the principal axis. In the figure, the principal axis is the x-
axis.

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d) The vertices of a hyperbola are the points of intersection of the hyperbola and the principal axis. In
the figure, the vertices are at ( a,0).
e) The segment whose endpoints are the vertices is called the transverse axis. In the figure V 'V is
the transverse axis.
f) The line segment with endpoints (0,b) and (0,-b) where b 2  c 2  a 2 is called the conjugate axis,
and is a perpendicular bisector of the transverse axis.
g) The intersection of the two axes is the center of the hyperbola .
h) The chord through a focus and perpendicular to the transverse axis is called a latus rectum. In the
b2 b2
figure, G' G is a latus rectum whose endpoints are G’ (-c,  ) and G(-c, ) and has a
a a
2b 2
length of .
a

3. The Asymptotes of a Hyperbola

Shown in the figure below is a hyperbola with two lines as extended diagonals of the rectangle shown.

y
b b
y x y x
a a

(0,b) P

x
(-a,0) O (a,0)

(0,-b)

These two diagonal lines are said to be the asymptotes of the curve, and are helpful in sketching the graph of a
x2 y2 b b
hyperbola. The equations of the asymptotes associated with 2
 2  1 are y  x and y   x . Similarly,
a b a a
y2 x2 a a
the equations of the asymptotes associated with 2  2  1 are y  x and y   x .
a b b b

y y

(6,9)

(-9,6) F(0,6) (9,6)

3y  x  0
(0,3)
F’(-6,0) (-3,0) O (3,0) F(6,0) x

O x
(0,-3)
3y  x  0
(6,-9) F’(0,-6)

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x2 y2 y2 x2
The graph of  1. The graph of   1.
9 27 9 27

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LICENSURE EXAM FOR TEACHERS (LET)
Refresher Course for 2015

CALCULUS

PART I – CONTENT UPDATE

Theorems on Limits of Functions

We use the following theorems to evaluate limits of functions:
1. Uniqueness Theorem: If the limit of a function exists, then it is unique. That is, if
lim f ( x)  L1 and lim f ( x)  L2 , then L1  L2 .
xa x a

2. If m, b  R , then lim (mx  b)  ma  b

xa

3. If f ( x)  c , a constant, then lim c  c

xa

4. lim x  a
xa

5. If lim f ( x)  L1 and lim g ( x)  L2 then

xa x a

5.1 lim[ f ( x)  g ( x)]  L1  L2

xa

5.2 lim[ f ( x)  g ( x)]  L1  L2

xa

 f ( x)  L1
5.3 lim 
x  a g ( x)
 provided L2  0
  L2

6. If lim f ( x)  L and n  Z  then

xa

6.1 lim[ f ( x)]n  Ln

x a

6.2 lim n f ( x)  n L with the restriction that if n is even, L  0.

x  a1

7. lim f ( x)  L if and only if lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  L

xa xa xa
8. If r is any positive integer, then
1
8.1 lim r  
x 0 x

1   r , odd
8.2 lim r  
x 0 x
  r , even
1
8.3 lim r  
x 0 x

9. Let a  R, lim f ( x)  0 and lim g ( x)  c where c  R, c  0

xa xa

 g ( x) 
9.1 If c  0 and if f (x) approaches 0 through positive values of f (x) , then lim    
x  a f ( x)
 
 g ( x) 
9.2 If c  0 and if f (x) approaches 0 through negative values of f (x) , then lim    
x  a f ( x)
 
 g ( x) 
9.3 If c  0 and if f (x) approaches 0 through positive values of f (x) , then lim    
x  a f ( x)
 
 g ( x) 
9.4 If c  0 and if f (x) approaches 0 through negative values of f (x) , then lim    
x  a f ( x)
 
10. Let lim f ( x)   , lim g ( x)   and lim h( x)  c where c is any
xa xa xa

constant, then
1
| Mathematics Major [7]
10.1 lim[ f ( x)  h( x)]  
xa

10.2 lim[g ( x)  h( x)]  

x a

10.3 if c  0, lim[ f ( x)  h( x)]  

x a

10.4 if c  0, lim[ f ( x)  h( x)]  

xa

10.5 if c  0, lim[g ( x)  h( x)]  

xa

10.6 if c  0, lim[g ( x)  h( x)]  

xa

c c
11. If p  Z  , c  R then lim p
 0 and lim p  0
x   x x   x

II. Theorems on Differentiation

In getting the derivative of a function, one or more of the following theorems may be applied:
1. If f ( x)  c, where c is a constant, then f ' ( x)  0
2. If f ( x)  x n , where n  Z  0, then f ' ( x)  nxn 1
3. If f ( x)  g ( x)  h( x), then f , ( x)  g ' ( x)  h' ( x)
4. If f ( x)  g ( x)  h( x), then f '( x)  g ( x)h'( x)  h( x) g '( x)
5. If f ( x)  cg ( x), where c is a constant, then f ' ( x)  cg ' ( x)
g ( x) h( x ) g ' ( x )  g ( x ) h' ( x )
6. If f ( x)  , where h( x)  0 , then f , ( x) 
h( x ) h( x)2
7. If r is any rational number, f ( x)  [g ( x)]r , then f ' ( x)  r[g ( x)]r 1 g ' ( x)
8. If f ( x)  sin[g ( x)], then f '( x)  g '( x) cos[ g ( x)]
9. If f ( x)  cos[ g ( x)], then f ' ( x)   g ' ( x) sin[g ( x)]
10. If f ( x)  tan[g ( x)], then f ' ( x)  g ' ( x) sec 2[g ( x)]
11. If f ( x)  cot[ g ( x)], then f ' ( x)   g ' ( x) csc 2[g ( x)]
12. If f ( x)  sec[ g ( x)], then f ' ( x)  g ' ( x) sec[ g ( x)] tan[g ( x)]
13. If f ( x)  csc[ g ( x)], then f ' ( x)   g ' ( x) csc[ g ( x)]cot[ g ( x)]
14. If f ( x)  e g ( x ) then f '( x)  e g ( x ) g '( x)
15. If f ( x)  a g ( x ) where a is any constant not equal to 0, then f '( x)  a g ( x ) ln(a) g '( x)
1
16. If f ( x)  ln[g ( x)] then f '( x)  g '( x)
g ( x)

III. Formulas for Antiderivatives

The following are known formulas for antiderivatives
1.  dx  x  c
2.  af ( x)dx  a  f ( x)dx where a is a constant.
3.  [ f ( x)  f ( x)]dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx
1 2 1 2

 x n 1
  c, n  1
4. If n is a rational number ,  x n dx  n  1
 ln x  c, n  1
5.  sin udu   cos u  c
6.  cos udu  sin u  c
7.  sec udu  tan u  c
2

8.  sec u tan udu  sec u  c

9.  csc udu   cot u  c
2

10.  csc u cot udu   csc u  c

11.  tan udu  ln sec u  c
12.  cot udu  ln sin u  c

2
| Mathematics Major [7]
13.  sec udu  ln sec u  tan u  c
14.  csc udu  ln csc u  cot u  c
 u n 1
  c, n  1
15.  u du   n  1
n

 ln u  c, n  1
16.  eu du  eu  c
1 u
17.  a u du  a c
ln a

IV. Areas of Plane Regions

Below are some formulas for finding the areas of plane regions
1. Area (A) bounded by the curve y  f ( x) , the x-axis and the lines x  a
and x  b
b


A  f ( x )dx
a
2. Area (A) bounded by the two curves y  f1( x) and y  f2 ( x) for all
x  [a , b]


A  [ f2 ( x )  f2 ( x )]dx
a

V. Volumes of Solids of revolution

We use the following methods to find the volumes of solids of revolution
1. Disk Method
The region bounded by the curve y  f ( x) , the x-axis and the lines
x  a and x  b , is revolved about the x-axis.


V   [ f ( x )]2 dx
a
2. Ring Method
The region bounded by the two curves y  f1( x) and y  f2 ( x) ,
where f1(x) > f2(x) for all x  [a , b], is revolved about the x-axis

 
b
V   [f1( x )]2  [ f2 ( x )]2 dx
a
3. Shell Method
3.1 The region bounded by the curve y  f ( x) , the x-axis and
the lines x  a and x  b , is revolved about the y-axis.
b


V  2 xf ( x )dx
a
3.2 The region bounded by the two curves y  f1( x) and y  f2 ( x) , where f1(x) > f2(x) for
all x  [a , b], is revolved about the y-axis


V  2 x[ f1( x )  f2 ( x )]dx
a

3
 Geometry
Basic
and
Measurement Algebra

Arithmetic
and Advanced
Mathematics Major Business
Mathematics
Algebra

Licensure Examination for Teachers

Prepared by: Prof. Henry P. Contemplacion
Basic Trigonometry
Calculus
Analytic
Geometry

COMPLEX NUMBERS

25

COMPLEX NUMBERS RADICALS

RADICALS ALGEBRA
 ALGEBRA ALGEBRA

What must be subtracted from – b2 + 2ab)

Find the sum of (a2
3x3 – x2 + 5x – 2 to get and (a2 – 2ab + b2).
x3 + x2 – 2x + 1 ?

2x3 – 2x2 + 7x – 3 2a2

ALGEBRA 1. What fraction

ELEM. of 3 1/4 is
MATHEMATICS
1 1/3?
If x = -2, y = -1 and z = 2,
What is the value of 2. Find the smallest
2x2y3z2? positive integer that has
factors of 9,12 and 18.
-32

3. Give the value: 33 1/3% of 12

ELEM. MATHEMATICS Find theNumber Theory
difference
plus 66 2/3% of 18 minus 12 ½% of
16 between the largest and
4. Write 0.243243243243243.... in
fraction.
smallest prime no. from 1
5. How much interest to 100.
would be paid on a bank
loan of P50,000 for 9
months at 12% annual 95
interest?

Number Theory Number Theory

How many factors of set X are
The simplest expression for factors of any members of set
340/920 is _____________. Y?
X = (2,3,4,5,6) Y=(3,4,8,9,10)

1 4
 If x³ is Number
an odd number
Theory and y³ The green neon lights
NUMBER flash every 4
THEORY
is an even number, which of seconds; the blue, every 5
the ff. is/are TRUE ? seconds; the red, every 6 seconds.
I. x³ - y³ is an even number If all the lights flash together at 8:00
II. x³ + y³ is an odd number PM, at what time will they flash
III. x³ y³ is an even number together again?
IV. x³ - y³ + 1 is an odd number

II & III 8:01 PM

Kevin has collection of match boxes. If

he countsNUMBER
the match THEORY
boxes by twos,
Arithmetic and Business Mathematics
threes, fours, fives, or sixes, there is
always one left over. If he counts the A 25-hectare farm land produces
match boxes by sevens, none remain. 350 cavans of palay. How many
What is the fewest number of match cavans can 60-hectare land
boxes Kevin could have? produce?

Answer: 840

301

Arithmetic and Business Mathematics Arithmetic and Business Mathematics

What is the smallest number that How much is 30% of 70% of

can be divided by all the numbers 500?
1 to 10?

Answer: 2520 Answer: 105

Arithmetic and Business Mathematics Arithmetic and Business Mathematics

A water pipe 10 feet long was

What is the difference between
cut into 2 with the shorter part
38 and 83 ?
measuring 2.5 ft. Find the ratio
of the smaller part to the
larger part.
Answer: 6049 Answer: 1:3
Arithmetic and Business Mathematics Arithmetic and Business Mathematics
A bond paper is folded in half, after A merchant sold an item for
which it is folded again in half,
P35,000, in the process
and again in half. If this folding is
done 5 times, how many
earning for himself 15% profit.
rectangles on the original sheet of How much is the profit?
paper will be?
Answer: P5,250
Answer: 32

Arithmetic and Business Mathematics Arithmetic and Business Mathematics

A graduating class of 160 boys How much would P180,000
and 180 girls held a seniors’ amount to in 20 years if it
ball. Approximately what earns 9% per annum?
percent attended if 40% of the
girls and 30% of the boys
were there?
Answer: 35.29% Answer: P504,000

Arithmetic and Business Mathematics Arithmetic and Business Mathematics

A large container contains 12 A book is 2 ½ cm thick. How
liters when 30% full. How many copies of this book can
much does it contain when it be placed in a shelf one meter
is 90% full? long?

Answer: 36 liters Answer: 40

Arithmetic and Business Mathematics Arithmetic and Business Mathematics

If you are currently earning
P22,000 a month, how much Find the least common multiple
will your new salary be if you of the numbers 18, 24 and
are to receive a 4% increase 54?
next month?

Answer: P22,880 Answer: 216

Arithmetic and Business Mathematics Arithmetic and Business Mathematics

How many boys are there if 33

28 students passed while 20%
1/3% of 1500 first year high
failed in the midterm exam.
school students are girls?
How many students were
tested?

Answer: 35 Answer: 1000

Arithmetic and Business Mathematics Arithmetic and Business Mathematics

What is the number 2/3 of A housewife deposited

whose square root is 10? P150,000 at 6% compounded
annually for 5 years. What is
the amount in 5 years?

Answer: 225 Answer: P200,733.84

Arithmetic and Business Mathematics Arithmetic and Business Mathematics

A farmer has enough feeds for In how many years will P50,000
72 ducks for 14 days. If he grow to P60,000. If it is
sells 16 ducks, how long will invested at 6% compounded
the feeds last? monthly?

Answer: 18 Answer: 3.05

Arithmetic and Business Mathematics Arithmetic and Business Mathematics

A gas tank of Mr. Reyes car is Successive discounts of 20%

5/8 full. If he used 3/5 of this and 30% is equivalent to what
amount travelling from his single discount?
house to his province, what
part of the tank has gas?

Answer: 1/4 Answer: 44%

Arithmetic and Business Mathematics Arithmetic and Business Mathematics

A defective ruler was to be The average of 6 consecutive

found 11.5 in. long. Using this no. is 17.5. What is the
ruler a boy was found to be 4 average of 5 consecutive no.?
ft. tall. What is the actual
height of the boy?

Answer: 4ft. 2 in. Answer: 17

FRACTION FRACTION
A water tank is 5/6 full. If 1/3 of
the water was used for cleaning
If 2/5 of x is 20, what is 1/2 of x? the car, what part of the tank
has water?

25 5/9

FRACTION In one class, 1/4 of the students

FRACTION
I used 2/5 of the money in first are honor students. Of these
store and 1/3 in a second store. honor students, 2/7 are varsity
If I had P56 left how much athletes. If there are 6 athletes
money did I have at first? in the class how many students
are there in the class?

210 84

A 10-meter log was cut

RATIO RATIO
Divide P4340 among A, B and C
off at 75 dm. mark. What so that A’s share; B’s share; C’s
1 1 1
is the ratio of the smaller share is 2 : 3 : 5 , respectively.
piece to the larger piece? How much is the share of each?

1:3 2100, 1400, 840

Arithmetic and Business Mathematics Arithmetic and Business Mathematics
Half of the people in the room left.
One-fourth of the remaining What number when increased by
started to dance, there were then 90% of itself equals 133?
12 people who are not dancing.
Find the original number of the
people in the room.

Answer: 32 Answer: 70

PERCENT
An employee spends about The original price of a pair
PERCENT
P3,332 a month. This sum is of jogging pants was
70% of his monthly salary. P300. What was the rate
How much does he receive a of discount after paying
month? P195?

P4,760 35%

An agency with 3,200

PERCENT PERCENT
A tank was 50% full of water.
employees plans to 600 liters of water are added
reduce its staff by 35%. making it ¾ full. How many liters
How many employees are does it hold when full?
to be retained?

2080 2400 L

PERCENT
There are 1400 pupils in Kaiba FRACTION/ PERCENT
Central School. Of these
students, 12.5% are in Grade VI If the length of the rectangle is
and 20% of the rest are in reduced by 1/5 and width is also
Grade V. How many pupils are reduced by 1/5, what percent of
there in Grade V? the original area is the new area
of the rectangle?
64%
245
 Plane and Solid Geometry
Arithmetic and Business Mathematics
Measurement
In the Education Dept., 3/5 are
BSED students and the rest are A mile is about 1.609 km. How
BEED students. Of these BSED many meters is a mile longer
students, 1/3 are Math majors. If than a kilometer?
there are 20 Math majors, how
many BEED students are there?
Answer: 40 Answer: 609

Plane and Solid Geometry Plane and Solid Geometry

Measurement Measurement

How many hectares are in a The length and width of a

rectangular field that is 750 m rectangle are 3x –2 and 2x +
wide and 800 m long? 1, respectively. What is the
perimeter of the rectangle?

Answer: 60 ha Answer: 10x – 2

Plane and Solid Geometry Plane and Solid Geometry

Measurement Measurement

The outer diameter of a metal If the perimeter of a rectangle is

pipe is 3 ¼ cm and the inner 72 cm and its length is 6 cm
diameter is 2 ¾ cm. Find the longer than its width. What is
thickness of the pipe. its length?

Answer: ¼ cm Answer: 21 cm

Plane and Solid Geometry Plane and Solid Geometry

Measurement Measurement

The supplement of an angle is Rico cuts out the largest circle

three times its measure. What possible from a square whose
is the supplement? side is 10 m. What is the area
of the circle?

Answer: 25π or
Answer: 135° 78.54 sq.m.
 Plane and Solid Geometry Plane and Solid Geometry
Measurement Measurement

If the width of a rectangle is Find the measure of an angle if

denoted by w and the length is the measure of its supplement
4 times the width, what is the is 50 more than twice the
perimeter of the rectangle? measure of its complement.

Answer: 10w Answer: 50°

Plane and Solid Geometry Plane and Solid Geometry

Measurement Measurement

The length of an equilateral Each interior angle of a regular

triangle is 16 cm. Find its polygon measures 162°. How
area. many sides does it have?

Answer: 64 Answer: 20

Plane and Solid Geometry Plane and Solid Geometry

Measurement Measurement

What do you call a regular If arc AB is 72°, then the

polygon with 170 diagonals? measure of angle α?

Answer: Icosagon Answer: 36°

Plane and Solid Geometry Plane and Solid Geometry

Measurement Measurement

If arc AB has a length of 36° If arc AB has a length of 40°

and arc CD 72°, then the and arc CD 140°, then the
measure of angle AOB is measure of angle AOB is
____. (AB and CD intersect in the ____. (AB and CD intersect in the
interior of the circle) exterior of the circle)
Answer: 54° Answer: 50°
 Plane and Solid Geometry Plane and Solid Geometry
Measurement Measurement

If arc AC has a length of 228° A rectangular lot has a

and arc CA 132°, then the perimeter of 120 m. If the
measure of angle ABC is length of the lot is 20 m. more
____. (Angles formed by two tangent than its width, what is its
lines) area?
Answer: 48° Answer: 800 sq. m.

Plane and Solid Geometry Plane and Solid Geometry

Measurement Measurement
A picture 10 cm x 8 ½ cm is A room of 10 m by 7m. There is
mounted on a piece of hard 7.5 m by 5 m carpet in the
cardboard. If there is a margin middle. What percent of the
of 2 ½ cm around the picture, room is uncovered?
what is the perimeter of the ?
cardboard used?
Answer: 57 cm Answer: 46.4%

Plane and Solid Geometry Plane and Solid Geometry

Measurement Measurement
How much larger is the If the length of the rectangle is
supplement of 54° angle than reduced by 1/5 and width is
the complement of a 65° also reduced by 1/5, what
angle? percent of the original area is
the new area of the rectangle?

Answer: 101° Answer: 64%

Plane and Solid Geometry Plane and Solid Geometry

Measurement Measurement
What is the sum of 43 dm and What is the edge of a cube that
2.5 m in centimeters? has the same volume as a
rectangular box with
dimensions 18 in by 8 in by
1.5 in?

Answer: 680 cm Answer: 6 inches

 Algebra Algebra

What is the value of (16 ½) If (3 100) (4 100)(5 100) = 2 2a 15 50b

(16 1/3)(16 1/16)? then a + b = ____.

Answer: 4 Answer: 12

Algebra Algebra

Find the numerical value of Given: f(x) = - 2x2 - 3x,

36 3/2? f(-5)= ______.

Answer: 216 Answer: - 35

Algebra Algebra

The product of two numbers If the sum of two numbers is

is 60 and their reciprocal is 5 and the difference of the
4/5, what are the two number is 5, what is
numbers? the product of the
numbers?
Answer: 10 and 6 Answer: 0

Algebra Algebra
If Maria can address a box envelopes Mario sold five pigs and four goats for
in 5 hours and Jane can address P21,000. Selling the animals at the
the same box of envelopes in 10 same , Ben sold three pigs and 2
hours, how many minutes will it take goats for P12,000. What is the
Maria and Jane working together to selling price of each animal?
address all envelopes in the box?

Answer: 200 Answer: 3000 and 1500

 Algebra Algebra
Find the sum of the first 50 multiples Simplify the expression
of 4,
log4 3 * log3 32
4, 8, 12, 16,…, a50

Answer: 5100 Answer: 5/2

Algebra Algebra
In the expansion of (x + 3y)7 If f(x) = - 2x2 - 3x, then f(-5) =
the fourth term is: ____.

Answer: 945x4y3 Answer: - 35

Algebra Algebra
At an amusement park, Leo bought
If y = 3x and 2x + 3y = 22,
3 hamburgers and 4 sodas for a
then y = ____. total of P150. While paying the
same prices Kaye bought 2
hamburgers and 3 sodas for
P105. What is the total cost of 1
hamburger and 1 soda?
Answer: 6 Answer: P45

Algebra Algebra

If x > 0 and (22x - 1)(4x + 2) = If x > 0 and (22x - 1)(4x + 2) =

(8x + 3) , then x = _____. (8x + 3) , then x = _____.

Answer: 3 Answer: 3
 Basic Trigonometry Trigonometry
What is the value of sin 75°? Determine the length of the
arc cut by a central angle of
60° in a circle with radius of 2
cm.

Answer: Answer: 2π/3

Trigonometry Trigonometry
An angle of one revolution is A ladder 18 feet long leans
equal to an angle whose against a building forming
measure in terms of radians angle 60° with the ground.
as: How high up the side of the
building?

Answer: 2π Answer:

Trigonometry Trigonometry
From a point level with 1000 ft. away If in ΔABC, sin A = 3/5, then what is
from the base of a monument, the the value of sin B?
angle of elevation to the top of the
monument is 35°. Determine the
height in the nearest feet.

Answer: 700 ft. Answer: 4/5

Trigonometry Trigonometry
In ΔABC, C s a right triangle and If the ratio of sec x to csc x is
tan A = 1. What is the value of sin A 1:4 then the ratio of tan x to
+ cos A?
cot x is

Answer: Answer: 1:16

 Trigonometry Trigonometry
Find the exact value of tan Find the nearest feet the
- 5π/3. height of the flagpole which
cast a shadow 44.8 ft. long
when the angle of elevation
of the sun is 36°?

Answer: Answer: 32 ft.

Trigonometry Basic Analytic Geometry

A ladder 30 ft. long leans Find the distance between

against a wall, with its foot A(3,2) and B(-1,4).
8 ft. from the wall. Find the
nearest degree which the
ladder makes with the
ground?
Answer: 75° Answer:

Basic Analytic Geometry Basic Analytic Geometry

Find the midpoint of the The midpoint of a line

segment joining A(-4,5) segment M(1,2). One of
and B(2,-3). the endpoints is A(0,3).
Find the other endpoint
B.
Answer: (-1,1) Answer: (2,-7)

Basic Analytic Geometry Basic Analytic Geometry

Find the slope of the line Find the equation of the

joining the points (3,2) line through point (1,-2)
and (-1,-2). of slope 2.

Answer: 1 Answer: 2x - y = -4
 Basic Calculus Basic Calculus

Find the derivative of Differentiate

f(x) = 4x3 f(x) = 6x4 – 5x3 + x2 – 6x +7

Answer: 12x2 Answer: 24x3 – 15x2 + 2x – 6

Basic Calculus Basic Calculus

Find the derivative of Differentiate y = (2x2 – 4x)2

f(x) = (6x2 + 2x)(3x – 1)

Answer: 54x2 – 2 Answer: y’ = 16x3 – 48x2 +32x

Basic Calculus Basic Calculus

Find the derivative of Evaluate

y=

Answer: Answer:

Basic Calculus Basic Calculus

Evaluate Evaluate

Answer: Answer: