246 Sensor types | Engine-speed sensors

Sensor types

Engine-speed sensors engine speed (Fig. 2). The amplitude of the

alternating voltage increases strongly
Application along with increasing pulse-wheel speed
Engine-speed sensors are used in engine- (several mV to >100 V). At least about
management systems for 30 rpm are needed to generate an ade-
• Measuring the engine speed and quate amplitude.
• Determining the crankshaft position

(position of the pistons) The number of teeth on the pulse wheel

depends on the particular application. In
The engine speed is calculated from the in- Motronic systems, a 60-pitch pulse wheel
terval between the speed sensor’s signals. is normally used, although 2 teeth are omit-
ted (Fig. 1, Item 7) so that the pulse wheel
Inductive speed sensors has 60 – 2 = 58 teeth. The space where the
Design and operating principle missing teeth would be situated is allocated
The sensor is mounted directly opposite a to a defined crankshaft position and serves
ferromagnetic pulse wheel (Fig. 1, Item 7) as a reference mark for synchronizing the
from which it is separated by a narrow air control unit.
gap. It has a soft-iron core (pole pin, 4), The geometries of the pulse-wheel teeth
which is enclosed by a winding (5). The and the pole pin must be matched to each
pole pin is also connected to a permanent other. An evaluation circuit in the control
magnet (1), and a magnetic field extends unit converts the sinusoidal voltage, which
through the pole pin and into the pulse is characterized by strongly varying ampli-
wheel. The level of the magnetic flux tudes, into a constant-amplitude square-
through the coil depends on whether the wave voltage for evaluation in the control
sensor is opposite a pulse-wheel tooth unit microcontroller.
or space. Whereas the magnet’s leakage
flux is concentrated by a tooth, and leads Active speed sensors
to an increase in the magnetic flux through Active speed sensors operate according to
the coil, it is attenuated by a space. When the magnetostatic principle. The amplitude
the pulse wheel rotates, these changes in of the output signal is not dependent on the
magnetic flux induce a sinusoidal output rotational speed. This makes it possible for
voltage in the coil which is proportional to very low speeds to be sensed (quasistatic
the rate of change of the flux and thus the speed sensing).

1 Inductive engine-speed sensor (design) 2 Signal from an inductive engine-speed sensor

Fig. 1
1 2 3
1 Permanent magnet 2 cm
2 Sensor housing 1
3 Crankcase
4 Pole pin
S
5 Winding
Output voltage

6 Air gap
7 Pulse wheel with
N
reference mark 4
UMZ0138-5Y

5 3
6
2
UAE0727-1E

Fig. 2 7
1 Tooth
2 Tooth space Time
3 Reference mark

K. Reif (Ed.), Automotive Mechatronics, Bosch Professional Automotive Information,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-03975-2_9, © Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2015
 Sensor types | Engine-speed sensors 247

Differential Hall sensor AMR sensors

A voltage UH proportional to the magnetic The electrical resistance of magnetoresis-
field (Hall voltage) can be picked off hori- tive material (AMR, Anisotrop Magneto
zontally to the current direction at a cur- Resistive) is anisotropic, i.e. it depends on
rent-carrying plate which is permeated the direction of the magnetic field to which
vertically by a magnetic induction B. In it is exposed. This property is utilized in
a differential Hall sensor, the magnetic an AMR sensor. The sensor is located
field is generated by a permanent magnet between a magnet and a pulse wheel.
(Fig. 3, Item 1). Two Hall sensor elements The field lines change direction when the
(2 and 3) are situated between the magnet pulse wheel rotates (Fig. 4). This generates
and the pulse wheel (4). The magnetic flux a sinusoidal voltage, which is amplified in
by which these are permeated depends on an evaluation circuit in the sensor and
whether the speed sensor is opposite a converted into a square-wave signal.
tooth or a space. Determining the differ-
ence between the signals from two sensors GMR sensors
reduces the magnetic interference signals The use of GMR technology (Giant Mag-
and achieves and improved signal/noise neto Resistive) is a further development
ratio. The edges of the sensor signal can of active speed sensors. Because of the
be processed without digitization directly higher sensitivity by comparison with the
in the control unit. AMR sensors, larger air gaps are possible,
Multipole wheels are used instead of the which makes applications in difficult cir-
ferromagnetic pulse wheel. Here, a magne- cumstances possible. The higher sensitiv-
tizable plastic is attached to a nonmagnetic ity also results in less background noise
metallic carrier and alternately magne- from the signal edges.
tized. These north and south poles adopt All two-wire current interfaces previ-
the function formerly performed by the ously used for Hall speed sensors may
teeth of the pulse wheel. also be used on GMR sensors. Fig. 3
a Configuration
b Signal of Hall
sensor
– high amplitude
with small air gap
– low amplitude
3 Principle of differential Hall sensor 4 Principle of speed sensing with an AMR sensor
with large air gap
c Output signal
UAE0993-1Y

a 1 S
N a 1 2 3 1 Magnet
2 3 2 Hall sensor 1
3 Hall sensor 2
4 4 Pulse wheel

b 5 6 b
Fig. 4
7 a Configuration at
various times
b Signal from
c AMR sensor
c Output signal
UAE0994-1E

c 1 Pulse wheel
Time 2 Sensor element
3 Magnet
248 Sensor types | Hall phase sensors

Hall phase sensors piston is in the compression or exhaust

stroke. The phase sensor on the camshaft
Application provides the control unit with this infor-
The engine’s camshaft rotates at half the mation. This is required, for example, for
crankshaft speed. Taking a given piston on ignition systems with single-spark ignition
its way to TDC, the camshaft’s rotational coils and for sequential fuel injection (SEFI).
position is an indication as to whether the
Design and operating principle
1 Hall rod sensor (design) Hall rod sensors
Hall rod sensors (Fig. 1a) utilize the Hall
a
1 effect: a rotor of ferromagnetic material
2
(7, pulse wheel with teeth, segments or
aperture plate) rotates along with the cam-
Fig. 1
a Positioning of shaft. The Hall IC (6) is located between
2 cm

sensor and single- 3 the pulse wheel and a permanent magnet

track pulse wheel 4 (5), which generates a magnetic field
S
b Output signal
5 N strength perpendicular to the Hall ele-
characteristic UA
6 a ment.
If one of the pulse-wheel teeth (Z)
1 Electrical Z
connection (plug)
now passes the current-carrying sensor
7 L
2 Sensor housing ϕ element (semiconductor wafer), it changes
3 Crankcase the magnetic-field strength perpendicular
4 Sealing ring to the Hall element. This results in a volt-
5 Permanent magnet b age signal (Hall voltage) which is indepen-
6 Hall IC L L
UA ϕs High dent of the relative speed between sensor
7 Pulse wheel with
and pulse wheel. The evaluation electron-
UMK1768Y

tooth/segment (Z)
Z
and space (L) Low ics integrated in the sensor’s Hall IC condi-
a Air gap tion the signal and output it in the form of a
Angle of rotation ϕ
w Angle of rotation square-wave signal (Fig. 1b).

2 Generations of camshaft sensors

PG-1 PG-3-3 PG-3-5 PG-3-8

TIM no no yes yes
Fig. 2
TIM = Twist Intensive
TPO no yes no yes
Mounting (i.e. the Accuracy low medium medium high
sensor may be
twisted around its
axis any number of
times, without losing
accuracy. Important
for minimizing type
diversity).
TPO = True Power On ess
(i.e. the sensor detects progr
cal
directly on switching
ologi
on whether it is located hn
over a tooth or a space. Tec
UAE0995E

Important for short

synchronization times PG-1 PG-3-3 PG-3-5 PG-3-8
between crankshaft and
camshaft signals).
 Sensor types | Speed sensors for transmission control 249

Speed sensors for Because of the very compact design of the

transmission control transmissions, the mechanical customer
interface cannot generally be covered
Application by standard geometries. This means that
Transmission speed sensors determine custom sensor types are needed for each
the shaft speeds in AT, ASG, DKG and transmission model. Module-integrated
CVT transmissions. These are the turbine types differ in respect of insertion length,
and output shaft speeds on AT transmis- direction of recording and mounting
sions with a hydrodynamic torque con- flange (Fig. 1). A further variation found
verter, the speed of the primary and sec- in stand-alone sensors is the location of
ondary pulleys in CVT transmissions and the mounting socket and the design of
the speeds of the two input shafts and the the connector.
driven shaft of double-clutch transmis- Hall ASICs (Application Specific Inte-
sions. The speed of the power take-up grated Circuit) with varying complexities
element is also detected for high dynamic of the evaluation algorithms are used to
demands on power take-up control. cover the complete range of the functional
Direction of rotation detection can also requirements (Fig. 2).
be necessary in high-end transmissions in If a ferromagnetic trigger wheel or
order to optimize clutch management and a trigger area (toothed, stamped or em-
for rollback prevention. bossed) is available on the rotating trans-
Both stand-alone sensors and sensors mission component, the magnetic field
built into electronics modules which proj- required to operate the Hall sensor is
ect into the transmission from the outside generated by a back-bias magnet.
or are mounted internally are used.

Requirements 1 Sensor types

Transmission speed sensors are exposed

to very severe operating stresses because a
of
• Extreme ambient temperatures between
-40 and +150 °C
• An aggressive operating environment
caused by the transmission oil, also
known as ATF (contains special addi-
tives for transmissions and has a low
condensate content) 1
• High mechanical stress with vibrational
accelerations up to 30 g
• Abraded metallic materials and a build-
up of particles in the transmission b c
1 1
The package of the electronics used in the
sensor is hence subject to high demands
as a consequence of these severe stresses. Fig. 1
a Bottom read
A service life of more than 15 years in
b Side read
transmission oil has been achieved by
SAE1081Y

c Slant read
using a suitable oil-resistant package.
1 Direction of
detection
250 Sensor types | Speed sensors for transmission control

It is mounted in the sensor immediately Operating principle

behind the ASIC. Transmission speed sensors use the differ-
Compact transmissions increasingly ential Hall effect. The difference between
require speed measurement over greater the Hall voltages from two Hall plates on
distances (magnetic air gap) by rotating, the ASIC is determined. The majority of
nonmagnetic components or through a the similar interferences can be compen-
housing wall. Multipole wheels (magne- sated for in this way. The difference signal
tized rings) are used for these applica- is first amplified on some ASIC types,
tions, the back-bias magnet is omitted then converted into a digital signal by
from the sensor. trigger algorithms of varying complexities.
This constitutes the controlled variable for
Design modulating the output current by means
The Hall ASICs used in the transmission of a power source. A digital signal with
speed sensors are mounted in a retainer two current levels (typically 7 mA for the
with or without a back-bias magnet –
depending on the magnetic interface –
with the electrical contact being made 3 Hall sensor with two-wire current interface

by a welding process, then inserted in

a housing, potted with epoxy resin or – in IS US
the case of types mounted on the outside
of the transmission – have an oil-tight en- UV
RM URM
closure sprayed onto them (Fig. 3).
The sensor has a two-wire interface,
which combines optimum diagnostic op-
tions with a minimum number of electrical
connections. The two terminals both sup-
ply the Hall IC and transmit the signal.

SAE0907-1Y

2 Requirements complexity

Vibration immunity
Direction of rotation detection

High speed range Vibration suppression

Sensor requirement

Speed accuracy Additional third Hall area

Air gap changes Higher cycle frequency

Large Noise suppression

air gap
area Switching threshold tracking

Offset tracking Multiplier tracking

SAE1082E

ASIC complexity
 Sensor types | Speed sensors for transmission control 251

low level and 14 mA for the high level) is Some transmission controls include func-
obtained, the modulation frequency of tions that require detection of a standstill.
which corresponds to the frequency of For this application, the sensor must have
tooth change on the trigger wheel and as great an immunity as possible against
thus represents the speed of rotation. vibration-induced variations in the air gap
The sensor signal is evaluated in the elec- and the torsional vibration of the trigger
tronic control unit by means of a measur- wheel. This property of the sensor, known
ing shunt RM, which converts the sensor as immunity against vibration, can only
current IS into the signal voltage URM. be implemented to a very limited degree
On principle, it does not matter for in differential Hall sensors with only two
the operation of a differential Hall ASICs Hall plates, by the use of adaptive trigger
whether the sensor is operated with a thresholds, for example. Two phase-
steel trigger wheel or on a multipole shifted differential signals become avail-
wheel (Figs. 4a and 4b). able with the use of a third Hall plate.
This makes both the detection of the di-
rection of rotation (Figs. 4c to f) and addi-
tional function algorithms for increasing
4 Transmission speed sensor operating principle immunity against vibration possible.
a Rotation
The typical values for “value” and “high Fig. 4
feature” sensors differ in the air gap range a Configuration with
1 achievable (distance between the sensitive trigger wheel
L C R area on the sensor and the trigger wheel), b Configuration with
2
the signal frequency range and the addi- multipole wheel
3 c Sensor signal
tional functionalities implemented (Table 1).
(difference signal
b Rotation between Hall plates
The complexity of transmission type, R and C)
4
N S N
mounting space restrictions including d Sensor signal
all the derived marginal design conditions (difference signal
L C R
2 and the functional requirements leads to between Hall plates

application-specific solutions in most ap- C and L)

c
e Output signal for
plications. These are characterized by a
Difference

R-C clockwise rotation

combination of ASIC, package design and
signal

f Output signal for

sensor mechanical and magnetic interface counterclockwise
suitable for the system requirements. rotation
d
Difference

C-L 1 Trigger wheel

2 Hall plates L and
signal

R (C optional
for direction of
5 1 Typical characteristics rotation detection)
e
Type Value High feature 3 Permanent magnet
(back-bias)
Maximum air gap
Output
signal

4 Multipole wheel
at trigger wheel 2.5 mm 3.5 mm
5 Phase shift
at pole wheel 5 mm 7 mm
dependent on
f Signal frequency 0 to 8 kHz 0 to 12 kHz
the direction of
Direction of rotation No Yes
SAE1083E

rotation
detection
Output
signal

Trigger wheel – ± 1.5°

vibration Table 1
252 Sensor types | Wheel-speed sensors

Wheel-speed sensors Passive (inductive) wheel-speed sensor

A passive (inductive) speed sensor con-
Application sists of a permanent magnet (Fig. 2, 1) with
Wheel-speed sensors are used to measure a soft-magnetic pole pin (3) connected to
the rotational speed of the vehicle wheels it, which is inserted into a coil (2) with sev-
(wheel speed). The speed signals are eral thousand windings. This setup gener-
transmitted via cables to the ABS, TCS ates a constant magnetic field.
or ESP control unit of the vehicle which The pole pin is installed directly above
controls the braking force individually the pulse wheel (4), a gear wheel attached
at each wheel. This control loop prevents to the wheel hub. As the pulse wheel turns,
the wheels from locking up (with ABS) or the continuously alternating sequence of
from spinning (with TCS or ESP) so that teeth and spaces induces corresponding
the vehicle’s stability and steerability are fluctuations in the constant magnetic field.
maintained. This changes the magnetic flux through
Navigation systems also use the wheel- the pole pin and therefore also through
speed signals to calculate the distance the coil winding. These fluctuations in the
traveled (e.g. in tunnels or if satellite magnetic field induce an alternating volt-
signals are unavailable). age in the coil suitable for monitoring at
the ends of its winding.
Design and operating principle The frequency and amplitude of this
The signals for the wheel-speed sensor are alternating voltage are proportional to
generated by a steel pulse generator that wheel speed (Fig. 3) and when the wheel is
is fixed to the wheel hub (for passive sen- not rotating, the induced voltage is zero.
sors) or by a multipole magnetic pulse gen- Tooth shape, air gap, rate of voltage rise,
erator (for active sensors). This pulse gen- and the control unit input sensitivity de-
erator has the same rotational speed as the fine the smallest still measurable vehicle
wheel and moves past the sensitive area speed and thus, for ABS applications,
of the sensor head without touching it. the minimum response sensitivity and
The sensor “reads” without direct contact switching speed.
via an air gap of up to 2 mm (Fig. 2).
The air gap (with strict tolerances) en-
sures interference-free signal acquisition. 1 Passive (inductive) wheel-speed sensors

Possible interference caused for instance

by oscillation patterns in the vicinity of the a
brakes, vibrations, temperature, moisture,
installation conditions at the wheel, etc. is
therefore eliminated.

Since 1998 active wheel-speed sensors

have been used almost exclusively with
new developments instead of passive
b
(inductive) wheel-speed sensors.
Fig. 1
a Chisel-type
pole pin
(flat pole pin)
b Rhombus-type
SAE0974Y

pole pin
(lozenge-shaped
pole pin)
 Sensor types | Wheel-speed sensors 253

2 Figure illustrating the principle of the passive wheel-speed sensor

1 2 3 4

Fig. 2
1 Permanent magnet

SAE0975Y
2 Solenoid coil
3 Pole pin
5
4 Steel pulse wheel
5 Magnetic field lines

Various pole-pin configurations and Active wheel-speed sensor

installation options are available to adapt Sensor elements
the system to the different installation con- Active wheel-speed sensors are used al-
ditions encountered with various wheels. most exclusively in today’s modern brake
The most common variants are the chisel- systems (Fig. 4). These sensors usually
type pole pin (Fig. 1a, also called a flat consist of a hermetic, plastic-cast silicon
pole pin) and the rhombus-type pole pin IC that sits in the sensor head.
(Fig. 1b, also called a lozenge-shaped pole In addition to magnetoresistive ICs
pin). Both pole-pin designs necessitate (the electrical resistance changes as the
precise alignment to the pulse wheel magnetic field changes) Bosch now uses
during installation. Hall sensor elements almost exclusively.
These sensors react to the smallest
changes in the magnetic field and there-
fore allow greater air gaps compared to
passive wheel-speed sensors.

3 Signal output voltage of passive 4 Active wheel-speed sensors

wheel-speed sensor

Umax Umin
a
t

Fig. 3
b a Passive wheel-
speed sensor with
t pulse wheel
Voltage

b Sensor signal
c at constant
wheel speed
SAE0976E

SAE0977Y

c Sensor signal
Time t at increasing
wheel speed
254 Sensor types | Wheel-speed sensors

Pulse wheels A steel pulse wheel can also be used in-

A multipole ring is used as a pulse wheel stead of the multipole ring. In this case a
for active wheel-speed sensors. The multi- magnet is mounted on the Hall IC that gen-
pole ring consists of alternately magne- erates a constant magnetic field (Fig. 7b).
tized plastic elements that are arranged in As the pulse wheel turns, the continuously
the shape of a ring on a nonmagnetic metal alternating sequence of teeth and spaces
carrier (Fig. 6 and Fig. 7a). These north and induces corresponding fluctuations in the
south poles adopt the function formerly constant magnetic field. The measuring
performed by the teeth of the pulse wheel. principle, signal processing and IC are
The sensor IC is exposed to the continu- otherwise identical to the sensor without
ously changing fields generated by these a magnet.
magnets. The magnetic flux through the
IC therefore changes continuously as the Characteristics
multipole ring turns. A typical feature of the active wheel-speed
sensor is the integration of a Hall measur-
5 Explosion diagram with multipole pulse generator ing element, signal amplifier and signal
Fig. 7
conditioning in an IC (Fig. 8). The wheel-
a Hall IC with
multipole pulse
speed data is transferred as an impressed
generator current in the form of square-wave pulses
b Hall IC with steel (Fig. 9). The frequency of the pulses is
pulse wheel and 4 proportional to the wheel speed and the
magnet in sensor speed can be detected until the wheel is
practically stationary (0.1 km/h).
1 Sensor element 3
2 Multipole ring
The supply voltage is between 4.5 and
3 Magnet 20 volts. The square-wave output signal
4 Steel pulse wheel level is 7 mA (low) and 14 mA (high).

Fig. 5 2 7 Diagram illustrating principle for measuring speed

1 Wheel hub
SAE0978Y

2 Ball bearing IMR

1
3 Multipole ring a
4 Wheel-speed I
sensor
1

6 Sectional drawing of active wheel-speed sensor

2 1 b

IMR

I
Fig. 6 1
1 Sensor element
2 Multipole ring
SAE0979Y

SAE0980Y

with alternating
4
north and south
magnetization
 Sensor types | Wheel-speed sensors 255

This type of data transmission using digital Compact dimensions combine with low
signals is less sensitive to interference weight to make the active wheel-speed
than the signals from passive inductive- sensor suitable for installation on and even
type sensors. The sensor is connected to within the vehicle’s wheel-bearing assem-
the control unit by a two-conductor wire. blies (Fig. 10). Various standard sensor
head shapes are suitable for this.

8 Block diagram of Hall IC Digital signal conditioning makes it possi-

ble to transfer coded additional informa-
"Vcc"
tion using a pulse-width-modulated output
Power Supply signal (Fig. 11):
Regulator
• Direction of wheel rotation recognition:
Main
Comp This is especially significant for the
Oscillator “hill hold control” feature, which relies
(Clock) Signal
on selective braking to prevent the vehi-
Right
Speed cle from rolling backwards during hill
PGA
ADC starts. The direction of rotation recogni-
Gain Range
Digital
Offset Circuit tion is also used in vehicle navigation
Center
DAC systems.
• Standstill recognition:
Direction
ADC This information can also be evaluated
SAE0981Y

Left
= (Left + Right)/2 - Center
by the “hill hold control” function.
The information is also used for self-
diagnosis.
• Signal quality of the sensor:
9 Signal conversion in Hall IC Information about the signal quality of
the sensor can be relayed in the signal.
a b If a fault occurs the driver can be ad- Fig. 9
vised that service is required. a Raw signal
Os1 b Output signal
Voltage

Us1
OS1 Upper switching
Time t Time t
SAE0982E

threshold
11 Coded information transfer with
pulse-width-modulated signals US1 Lower switching
threshold
a 90μs

10 Wheel bearing with wheel-speed sensor Fig. 10

1 Wheel-speed
1 b 180μs
sensor

c 1440μs Fig. 11
a Speed signal when
reversing
0,74 s b Speed signal when
driving forwards
c Signal when vehicle
d 45μs
is stationary
SAE0983Y

SAE0984Y

d Signal quality
of sensor, self-
diagnosis