SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS

Ch.10 Sinusoidal Steady-state Power Calculations

10.1 ~ 10.2
1 Instantaneous Power (p) : the rate at which the energy is absorbed by an element
 It varies as a function of time.

p = vi [W = VA]
where v and i satisfy the passive sign convention.

When v and i are periodic of period T, the instantaneous power is also periodic.
That is, v(t + T) = v(t) and i(t + T) = i(t)

then, p(t + T) = v(t + T) i(t + T)

= v(t) i(t)
= p(t)  periodic
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS

Fig. 10.2 Instantaneous power, voltage, and current versus ωt

for steady-state sinusoidal operation

(10.8)

 negative power implies that energy stored in inductors or capacitors is being extracted.
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS

Again,

p (10.8)

The average (or real) power describes the power in a circuit that is
transformed from electric to nonelectric energy.
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
P= cos(θυ – θi)
p = P + Pcos2t - Qsin2t 2
𝑉 𝐼
Q = 𝑚2 𝑚sin(θυ – θi)
①

Fig. 10.3 Instantaneous real power and average power

for a purely resistive circuit assuming ω = 377 rad/s.
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS

②
(Q > 0)

Fig. 10.4 Instantaneous real power, average power,

and reactive power for a purely inductive circuit
assuming ω = 377 rad/s and Q = 1 var
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS

③
(Q < 0)

Fig. 10.5 Instantaneous real power, average power,

and reactive power for a purely capacitive circuit
assuming ω = 377 rad/s and Q = -1 var

④ υ - i  power factor angle

Knowing the value of pf does not tell you the value of
power factor, pf power factor angle, because cos(υ - i) = cos(i -  υ).

pf = cos(υ - i) leading pf  i leads v  capacitive load

lagging pf  i lags v  inductive load
reactive factor, rf = sin(υ - i)
Using the current as the reference leads to Q being positive for inductors ( υ - i = 90) and negative for
capacitors (υ - i = -90).
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS

10.3 The rms value and Power Calculations

Assume that a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the terminals of a resistor, and then
the average power delivered to the resistor
2 2
P = 𝑇1 ‫𝑡𝑡׬‬00+𝑇𝑉𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑅(𝜔𝑡+𝜃𝜐)𝑑𝑡 *Eq.(9.5)
1 1 𝑡 +𝑇
= 𝑅 [𝑇 ‫ 𝑡׬‬0 𝑉𝑚2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝜐 )𝑑𝑡]
1 𝑡0 +𝑇 2
𝑉rms = ‫׬‬
𝑇 𝑡0
𝑉𝑚 cos2 𝜔𝑡+𝜙 𝑑𝑡
0
2
𝑉rms
Comparing this with Eq. (9.5) reveals that the average power delivered to R is simply the
𝑉2
rms value of the voltage squared divided by R, or P = rms .
𝑅
If the resistor is carrying a sinusoidal current, Imcos(t + θi), the average power delivered to
2 𝑅.
the resistor is P = 𝐼rms

rms  square root of the mean value of the squared function

SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS
<Assessment Problem 10.3> The periodic triangular current has a peak value of 180 mA.
Find the average power that this current delivers to a 5 k resistor.

<Sol.> To get rms value of i(t), refer to Exam. 9.4.

𝑇 𝑇ൗ
4
න 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡 = 4 න 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡
0 0

The expression for i in the interval 0 to T/4 is

4𝐼𝑝
i(t) = 𝑡. Therefore,
𝑇
𝑇ൗ 2
𝑇 4 16𝐼𝑝 𝐼𝑝2 𝑇
න 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡 = 4න 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 =
0 0 𝑇2 3

1 𝑡0 +𝑇 2 𝐼𝑝
Using the definition of rms value Irms = ‫׬‬ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡, Irms = .
𝑇 𝑡0 3

0.18
Since Ip = 0.18 A, Irms = Arms.
3

0.0324
 the average power P = 𝐼rms
2 𝑅=
3
(5000) = 54 W
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS

rms value  effective value

that is., Vrms = Veff

𝑃
Rewriting the power factor, pf = cos(υ - i) =
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS

10.4 Complex Power, S

Complex power is the complex sum of real power and reactive power.

S = P + jQ [VA] volt-amps

 ① We can get P or Q from S which is directly computed from V & I.

② It provides the geometric interpretation.

<power triangle>

|S| = 𝑃2 + 𝑄 2
Calculating Complex Power
<Exam.10.4> An electrical load operates at 240 Vrms. The load absorbs an average
power of 8 kW at a lagging power factor of 0.8.
a) Calculate the complex power of the load.
<Sol.> Since P = 8 kW and cosθ = 0.8, from the power tringle

P = |S|cosθ and Q = |S|sinθ

𝑃
 |S| = = 10 kVA and sinθ = 0.6
cos𝜃

 Q = 10k × 0.6 = 6 kvar

 S = 8 + j6 kVA
b) Calculate the impedance of the load.
<Sol.> To find the magnitude of load impedance, let’s try to get Irms.
P = VrmsIrmscosθ |𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 |
Therefore, |Z| = = 5.76
|𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 |
= 240Irms(0.8)
And θ = cos-10.8 = 36.87
= 8000 W
lagging power factor  inductive load
 Irms = 41.67 A
θ is positive
 Z = 5.7636.87 
 10.5 Calculations of Complex Power, S
From S = P + jQ, S

Def. complex power S S= V

=rmsVIrms
* *
rmsI rms

magnitude of S, |S| = |Vrms||I*rms| = |Vrms||Irms|

angle of S, S = Vrms + I*rms * Caution : S is not S.

= Vrms  Irms
= v - i
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS
* Alternate Forms for S
Considering two-terminal subcircuit containing impedance Z,
Vrms = Z Irms
 S = VrmsI*rms = ZIrmsI*rms = Z|Irms|2 = R|Irms|2 + jX|Irms|2 (Z = R + jX)

Re(𝑍)
Since Re(S) = P, P = Re(Z) |Irms|2 = 2 |Vrms|2 = R |Irms|2 (10.33)
|𝑍|
|𝐕rms |2
= if Z is pure resistive (10.36)
𝑅
Im(𝑍) X > 0 for inductor
Im(S) = Q, Q = Im(Z) |Irms|2 = 2 |Vrms|2 = X |Irms|2 (10.34)
X < 0 for capacitor
|𝑍|
|𝐕rms |2
= if Z is pure reactive (10.37)
𝑋
According to the admittance Y, Irms = Y Vrms
S = VrmsI*rms = Y*|Vrms|2 (10.35)

P = Re(S) = Re(Y*) |Vrms|2 = Re(Y) |Vrms|2

Re(𝑌)
P= 2 |Irms|2
|𝑌|
Calculating Average and Reactive Power
<Exam.10.5> A load having an impedance of 39 + j26  is fed from a voltage source
through a line having an impedance of 1 + j4 . The effective value of the source
voltage is 250 V.
a) Calculate the load current IL and voltage VL.
b) Calculate the average and reactive power delivered
to the load.
c) Calculate the average and reactive power delivered
to the line.
d) Calculate the average and reactive power supplied
by the source.
Calculating Power in Parallel Loads
<Exam.10.6>
Load 1 absorbs an average power of 8 kW
at leading pf of 0.8.
Load 2 absorbs 20 kVA at lagging pf of 0.6.
a) Determine pf of two loads in parallel.

|S1| = -  total S
S = 250Is*
= 250(I1+I2)*
= S1 + S2
S1 S2 = 20000 + j10000 [VA]
<Exam.10.6> Continued

IS = I1 + I2 ≡ ISrms

S S

 lagging pf
<Exam.10.6> Continued

b) Determine ①the apparent power required to supply the loads, ②

the magnitude of the current, Is, and ③the average power loss in the
transmission line.

S
|S|

s
<Exam.10.6> Continued
c) Given that the frequency of source is 60 Hz, compute the value of capacitor
that would correct pf to 1 if placed in parallel with the loads.

S = 20000 + j10000

(10.37)

|S|
Since S = VrmsI*rms, |S| = |Vrms||I*rms|
= |Vrms||Irms|

* Note that the addition of the capacitor has reduced the line loss from 400W to
320W. That’s why it makes sense to operate devices at a power factor close to 1.
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS

10.6 Maximum Power Transfer

For maximum average power transfer,

ZL = ZTh* (Refer to Ch.4.)

Then, the maximum average power Pmax,

1 𝐕Th 2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (VTh = rms voltage)
4 𝑅𝐿
2
1 𝐕𝑚
= (Vm ≠ rms voltage)
8 𝑅𝐿

<pf.>
ZTh = RTh + jXTh
in rectangular form
ZL = RL + jXL
Assume VTh is expressed in rms values. So is I.
𝐕Th
𝐈= 𝑅Th +𝑅L +𝑗 𝑋Th +𝑋L
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS

 Situations in which ZL is not possibly equal to the conjugate of ZTh :

* Maximum power transfer when ZL is restricted
1 RL and XL may be restricted to a limited range of values.
Then, adjust XL as near to –XTh as possible
2
and then, adjust RL as close to 𝑅𝑇ℎ + (𝑋𝐿 + 𝑋𝑇ℎ )2 as possible.

 see <Exam. 10.9>

2 Restriction when the magnitude of ZL can be varied but its phase

angle cannot
Under this restriction, the greatest amount of power is transferred to
the load when |ZL| = |ZTh|.
 proof <Prob. 10.45>
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS

<Prob. 10.45>
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS
<Example 10.8> Determining Maximum Power Transfer without Load
Restrictions.
a) For the circuit shown below, determine the impedance ZL that results in
maximum average power transferred
to ZL.

<Sol.>
<Example 10.8> Continued

<Thévenin equivalent>
(b) What is the maximum average power transferred to the load impedance
determined in (a)?
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS
<Example 10.9> Determining Maximum
Power Transfer with Load Impedance
Restrictions.
b) Assume that the load resistance can be
varied between 0 and 4000 Ω and that
the capacitive reactance of the load can
be varied between 0 and -2000 Ω. What
settings of RL and XL transfer the most
average power to the load?

jXL
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS

<Example 10.11> Finding Maximum Power I2


Transfer in a circuit with an Ideal Transformer  + 
I1
V1 V2
The variable resistor in the circuit is adjusted until
 +
maximum average power is delivered to RL.
a) What is the value of RL in ohms?
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS

<Thévenin equivalent>
SINUSOIDAL STEADY – STATE POWER CALCULATIONS

b) What is the maximum average power delivered to RL?

(10.48)

 the maximum power average power delivered to RL