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Middle Jurassic Arc Reversal Victoriakatha Block and Sibumasu Terrane Collision Jadeite Formation and Western Tin Belt Generation Myanmar

The document discusses the geological history and tectonic evolution of Myanmar west of the Salween River. It proposes that an ophiolite nappe was obducted over turbidites on the passive western margin of the Sibumasu Terrane during Early Jurassic time. Following an arc reversal, the remaining Neo-Tethys ocean subducted eastward generating the 113-128 Ma Mondaung Arc. Collision and subduction resulted in the formation of world-famous jadeite deposits and the Western Tin Belt.

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108 views17 pages

Middle Jurassic Arc Reversal Victoriakatha Block and Sibumasu Terrane Collision Jadeite Formation and Western Tin Belt Generation Myanmar

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Sai Naing Lin aung

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Geological Magazine Middle Jurassic arc reversal, Victoria–Katha

www.cambridge.org/geo
Block and Sibumasu Terrane collision, jadeite
formation and Western Tin Belt generation,
Myanmar
Original Article
Cite this article: Mitchell A, MTH, and KMH Andrew Mitchell , Myint Thein Htay and Kyaw Min Htun
(2021) Middle Jurassic arc reversal, Victoria–
Katha Block and Sibumasu Terrane collision, Myanmar Precious Resources Group, Room 302, Shwe Than Lwin Condominium, New University Avenue road, Aye
jadeite formation and Western Tin Belt Yeik Thar Street, Bahan Township, Yangon, Myanmar
generation, Myanmar. Geological Magazine
158: 1487–1503. https://doi.org/10.1017/
S0016756821000066 Abstract
Myanmar is occupied by the N-wards continuation of the Sunda arc and by the Shan Plateau
Received: 21 August 2020
and its continuation through Yunnan into Tibet. Our new tectonic interpretation of the ophio-
Revised: 13 January 2021
Accepted: 13 January 2021 lite–flysch belts, world-famous jadeite and tin deposits in Myanmar west of the Salween adopts
First published online: 5 April 2021 previous proposals that, before 450-km post-early Oligocene dextral displacement along the
Sagaing Fault, the ophiolite belt in NE Myanmar continued through the topography that is
Keywords: now located west of the fault in the Indo-Burman Ranges. Differences in cross-section through
Indian Ocean; jade; Mondaung arc; Neo-Tethys;
ophiolite; orogenic flysch; epithermal gold Mogok and the Shan Scarps are reconciled by the recently proposed emplacement, in our view
during Permian time, of the Mogok Metamorphic Group onto the Slate Belt to form Sibumasu.
Author for correspondence: Andrew Mitchell, We argue that during Early Jurassic time a Neo-Tethys ophiolite nappe was obducted over tur-
Email: [email protected] bidites on Sibumasu’s passive western margin. Following reversal in tectonic polarity, the
remaining Neo-Tethys subducted E-wards generating the 113–128 Ma Mondaung Arc.
During ocean closure the Victoria–Katha Block and its Triassic flysch subducted beneath
Sibumasu, resulting in jadeite veins in overlying serpentinite that ascended in the subduction
zone and were exhumed at Hpakant and Nat Hmaw, bordering the Jade Mines Uplift.
Subduction of the Indian Ocean since Albian time generated the Popa–Loimye arc, while exten-
sional faulting led to uplift of the Indo-Burman Ranges and to the formation of the Western Tin
Belt granites. Tectonic effects in Myanmar of the India–Asia collision may be confined to the
Disang thrust belt in the Naga Hills.

1. Introduction
Myanmar west of the Salween River (Fig. 1) is of considerable geological interest because of its
position between the Indus–Yarlung suture zone and Lhasa block in Tibet, and the active Sunda
arc system and western part of the Shan Plateau, and because of its varied and valuable mineral
deposits, many of which were in production prior to World War 1. Since the early 1970s, great
progress has been made in defining a Shan–Thai, Sibumasu (Fig. 1) or Sibuma Block occupying
most of the Shan Plateau in eastern Myanmar, and in relating the post-Early Cretaceous Popa–
Loimye arc (e.g. Mitchell & McKerrow, 1975; Metcalfe, 1984; Barber et al. 2017; Cai et al. 2020)
and its mineralization (Goossens, 1978; United Nations, 1978; Gardiner et al. 2016, 2018; Khin
Zaw, 2017; Mitchell, 2017; Ye Myint Swe et al. 2017; Aung Zaw Myint, pers. comm., 2020) to
subduction of the Indian Ocean or Neo-Tethys (Li et al. 2020) beneath Myanmar. However,
despite many proposals as emphasized by Racey (2017), there is no consensus on the earlier
Mesozoic tectonic evolution of Myanmar west of the Salween, and few interpretations discuss
the Neo-Tethys subduction zone required to generate the Lower Cretaceous Mondaung mag-
matic arc in the Shan Scarps.
Probably the earliest attempts to identify small continental blocks and suture zones in or near
Myanmar were those of Hutchison (1973) in recognizing in eastern Malaya a Permian magmatic
arc and Stauffer (1974) in proposing a suture zone along the Bentong–Raub line at the eastern
margin of his West Malaya Block. Stauffer continued the Bentong-Raub line northwards
through Thailand and invoked late Triassic ocean closure by westward subduction. Mitchell
(1977) projected Stauffer’s suture zone through Chiang Rai (Fig. 2) into eastern Myanmar,
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge and inferred E-wards subduction beneath Hutchison’s eastern Malaya arc, followed by ocean
University Press. closure and generation of the Late Triassic tin-bearing granites in the Main Range Malaysia and
NW Thailand within the underthrust passive eastern margin of Stauffer’s West Malaya Block.
Metcalfe (1984, 2013) re-named this block Sibumasu, developed earlier ideas on the West
Burma island block of Mitchell (1979) and its Mesozoic accretion to eastern Myanmar, and
related Myanmar’s suture zones to the evolving Tethys.

Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. University of Yangon, on 02 Feb 2022 at 04:41:21, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0016756821000066
1488 A Mitchell et al.

Fig. 1. Sketch map of Myanmar north of 17° N

showing Sagaing Fault, structural units to east
and west, major faults and places referred to
in text. The Victoria–Katha Block is highlighted
in purple.

More recently many authors have supported the presence of Myanmar along a structure near the future Sagaing Fault in the
two blocks – West Myanmar and Sibumasu – between Indo- Triassic (Barber & Crow, 2009).
China and India during Mesozoic time (e.g. Mitchell, 1986; In this paper we put forward a new tectonic interpretation of
Gardiner et al. 2014, 2015, 2016). Others (Mitchell et al. 2012; Myanmar’s evolution west of the Salween based on two speculative
Deng et al. 2014; Wang et al. 2014) have projected within former hypotheses. The first of these is the long-proposed post-
Sibumasu an additional suture zone SW-wards into Myanmar Eocene dextral displacement on the Sagaing Fault of Win Swe
from the Santiashan (Luxi) zone (Fig. 1) of Mo et al. (1993) in (1972). Early estimates of this displacement ranged from
Yunnan. This zone, part of the Medial Myanmar Suture Zone 300 km (Mitchell, 1977) to 460 km (Curray et al. 1979). Morley
(Mitchell et al. 2015) along the Shan Scarp (Fig. 1), lies between & Arboit (2019) reviewed later proposals for c. 100 km to
the reduced Sibumasu or Sibuma block (Ridd, 2016) to the SE > 400 km of displacement on the Sagaing Fault and, from detrital
and the Tengchong block of Deng et al. (2014), Wang et al. zircon ages on sedimentary rocks in the North Minwun exten-
(2014) and Gardiner et al. (2018) to the NW. Ridd et al. (2019) sional basin 270 km north of Mandalay, together with extrapola-
invoked a larger Tengchong–Hukawng block that collided with tion of the present-day movement rate back to 27 Ma, inferred a
Sibuma during early Tertiary time, after which the southern part possible 486 km of displacement since middle Oligocene time. We
of this block moved N-wards on the Sagaing Fault to become here infer (Fig. 2) a provisional total dextral displacement of
the Hukawng Basin (Fig. 1). Others (e.g. Searle et al. 2017) inferred c. 450 km. The second hypothesis is for a major E–W (present ori-
a Mawgyi arc, additional to the West Myanmar block, between entation) crustal shortening (Fig. 3) of at least several tens of kilo-
Sibumasu and India. metres to explain the juxtaposition along the Shan Scarp (Fig. 1) of
Models in which Sibumasu is the only block between Indo- the Shan Plateau or Sibuma in the east with the Shan Scarps, part of
China and India south of the latitude of Mogok (e.g. Gardiner Bender’s (1983) Karen–Tenasserim unit, and western Myanmar in
et al. 2016, 2018; Zhang et al. 2018) are not easily reconciled with the west. In our interpretation (Fig. 3) this shortening took place
the need for a root or suture zone for the ophiolites and their meta- on a regional W-directed thrust which emplaced the Shan Plateau
morphic soles in the Indo-Burman Ranges (Figs 1, 2) and in the succession with migmatites of the Mogok Metamorphic Belt at
Tagaung–Myitkyina Belt (Fig. 1). Other interpretations invoke the base, over the Slate Belt, partly Carboniferous in age, in the
dextral strike-slip for emplacement either of the Shan Scarps of Scarps and southern Myanmar (Tanintharyi). We explain the
Dutt (1942) and western Myanmar along the Shan Scarp otherwise problematic presence (Mitchell et al. 2004; Ridd,
(Fig. 1) in the Cretaceous (Ridd & Watkinson, 2013), or of western 2017) of middle Permian – Triassic Plateau Limestone in the east

Fig. 2. Sketch map showing selected structural belts and loca-

tion names with western Myanmar in restored pre-late Oligocene
position prior to c. 450-km dextral strike-slip displacement on the
Sagaing Fault. The width of Shan Scarps is exaggerated to allow
for shortening on Pan Laung Fault. Red ‘V’s are Popa–Loimye Arc
related to Kaladan Fault subduction zone. Green circles are
Mondaung Arc related to subduction zone near Kheng Fault.
Myittha Chaung Fault shown in orange. Offset on Sagaing Fault
from Mitchell et al. (2015), with Naga Thrust from Evans (1964)
and Kaladan Fault from Aitchison et al. (2019).

Our proposal requires that the thrust surfaced to the west of

the Shan Scarp and adjacent Myittha Chaung (River) Fault
(Mitchell, 2017), an inferred late Mesozoic extensional structure.
Although published explanations relate many of the Cenozoic
tectonic and mineralization events in Myanmar west of the
Salween to collision with India (Searle et al. 2007, 2017; Wang
et al. 2014; Gardiner et al. 2018), our interpretation implies that
effects of this collision were largely confined to the Naga Hills
in northwesternmost Myanmar.

2. Structural belts in Myanmar

In part following Mitchell (2017), we divide Myanmar into eastern
and western geological provinces, each with their constituent
structural belts, now offset on the Sagaing Fault (Fig. 1).

2.a. Belts east of the Sagaing Fault

Fig. 3. Schematic generalized sequential E–W (present orientation) cross-sections
through Myanmar between 16° and 22° N, from west of Shan Scarps to Shan
In northeastern Myanmar the main or eastern strand of the
Plateau, showing relationship of Mergui Group (part of Slate Belt) to Shan Plateau Sagaing Fault forms the NW boundary of the Katha–Gangaw
succession during (a) early Permian (after Mitchell, 2017, fig. 29) and (b) Late Range, a slightly sinuous ridge of meta-sedimentary clastic rocks
Triassic time after crustal shortening on W-directed thrust, erosion and deposition mostly dipping SE beneath the Tagaung–Myitkyina Belt (Fig. 1)
of Plateau and Moulmein Limestones. The thrust is the Sakhanya Taung Fault or
or Upper Irrawaddy Basin. The Tagaung–Myitkyina Belt is occu-
Thrust of subsequent figures.
pied by serpentinites, minor gabbros, diabase dykes and basalt
lavas interbedded with volcanogenic sediments of the
Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation (United Nations, 1979b), over-
and identical Moulmein Limestone overlying the Slate Belt in lain in angular unconformity by middle Cretaceous Orbitolina
Tanintharyi in the west (Fig. 3b), by inferring that the shortening limestone. The Belt is truncated in the SW by the Sagaing Fault.
took place on a W-directed thrust during early Permian time, The Kumon Range, which includes high-grade metamorphic
although a much younger age would otherwise be possible. rocks, lies immediately west of the Katha–Gangaw Range and

Sagaing Fault (Fig. 1); the Kumon Range has not been mapped geo- fig. 7.12) and Mitchell et al. (2020b) argued that in the Mogok
logically and is not considered further here. region and the Shan Scarps the Slate Belt is overthrust by the
Along its southern and eastern margins the Tagaung– Mogok Metamorphic Belt, but around Mogok the Slate Belt has
Myitkyina Belt is juxtaposed on the high-angle Kyaukpyu Fault yet to be exhumed. We therefore regard at least part of the
(Fig. 1) with metamorphic rocks that, together with granites, Tengchong Block as the continuation of the Shan Scarps rather
occupy the Mogok Metamorphic Belt and is up to 40 km wide. than as the discrete block of Gardiner et al. (2018), bordered on
In the world-famous Mogok gem district, the belt consists of diop- the SE by the speculatively named Medial Myanmar Suture
side phlogopite spinel-bearing marble in which ruby occurs in the Zone. Lower Cretaceous intrusions in the Slate Belt form part of
absence of spinel, and sapphire is associated with syenite. the recently identified Mondaung Arc (Fig. 2) of Lin et al.
Suggested stratigraphic ages of the belt, debated for over a century, (2019a), described further in Section 4.
range from Archaen to Cretaceous, and metamorphic ages from Mitchell et al. (2012) and Mitchell (2017, p. 231) argued that
Archaen to Miocene. Searle et al. (2020) have shown that the syen- within the Scarps zircon U–Pb ages on the Nattaung granite SE
ites are accompanied by charnockite and that both occur as Jurassic of Yamethin (Fig. 2) and on a diorite intruding migmatite near
sills. They identify a granulite facies event that occurred during Payangazu (Fig. 1) constrain the age of the main metamorphic fab-
68–21 Ma (Fig. 4) in which the gemstones were generated from ric in the Mogok Metamorphic Belt to > 72 Ma and probably to
metamorphism of skarns and marbles. Sutherland et al. (2019) > 128 Ma, a conclusion dismissed by Searle et al. (2020, p. 2)
obtained an age of 32.4 Ma for ruby, and Myint Myat Phyo et al. who claimed that the authors thought they were dating the regional
(2020) reported zircon U–Pb ages of Oligocene – early Miocene for metamorphism.
a granulite facies event affecting spinel and ruby in the Mogok
gemfields. Spinel and ruby-bearing marble and migmatites con-
2.b. Belts west of the Sagaing Fault
tinue S-wards to Mandalay Hill (at Mandalay, Fig. 1) and migma-
tites occur intermittently through the Shan Scarps where, as the Myanmar west of the Sagaing Fault can be divided into the Central
mixed gneisses of Dutt (1942), they occupy a wide belt east of Myanmar Basin with crust of normal continental thickness (Sloan
Naypyidaw (Bateson et al. 1972), and occur at Payangazu and at et al. 2017), and the Indo-Burman Ranges (Fig. 1). The basin is
Kyaikkami south of Moulmein (Thet Paing Kyaw Win et al. 2020). bisected by the Popa–Loimye magmatic arc, a discontinuous chain
South of Mogok (Fig. 1) the margin of the Metamorphic Belt is of magmatic rocks of middle Cretaceous – Quaternary age, sepa-
juxtaposed on an unnamed extensional fault (Mitchell, 2017, fig. 2.7) rated from the Sagaing Fault by the Shwebo Basin and from the
with the overlying upper Proterozoic flyschoid Chaung Magyi Group, Indo-Burman Ranges by a fore-arc basin (Win Swe 1981) with
which underlies the Palaeozoic Shan Plateau succession as explained up to 17 km (Pivnic et al. 1998) of Albian–Quaternary sedimentary
further in Section 3. The plateau succession (Fig. 3b) consists of the rocks. The fore-arc basin is divided into sub-basins, of which the
silicic Bawdwin Volcanics Formation and, as described in the recent Chindwin and Hukawng are separated by the metamorphic rocks
review by Aye Ko Aung (2020), of overlying upper Cambrian clastic (Chhibber 1934a, p. 25) of the Jade Mines Uplift (Fig. 1).
sediments, Ordovician–Devonian predominantly carbonate forma- In the southern part of the Indo-Burman Ranges (Fig. 1),
tions, local lower Carboniferous sandstones and shales, the lower United Nations (1979a) recognized an Eastern Belt of meta-sedi-
Permian Yinyaw Formation of Hobson (1941), and Permian – mentary rocks, Triassic flysch, ophiolites and pillow basalts, and a
Upper Triassic Plateau Limestone (Thura Oo et al. 2002). An Western Belt of Campanian and Maastrichtian mudstones and
Upper Triassic – Lower Jurassic flysch locally overlies the Plateau Globotruncana-bearing pelagic limestones of the Falam
Limestone and is succeeded by a Middle and Upper Jurassic shal- Formation, exposed in eroded anticlines between lower
low-marine formation and the overlying Kalaw (Hsipaw) Red Palaeogene turbidite sandstones and mudstones preserved in
Beds. We consider that the succession on the Shan Plateau, part of high-elevation synclines (Mitchell 2017, figs 11.5, 11.6). The flysch,
Sibuma (Ridd, 2016), continues through Baoshan (Fig. 1) in ophiolites and basalts of the Eastern Belt are overlain in the east by
Yunnan into the Qiangtang Block in Tibet, and through northwestern the middle Cretaceous Orbitolina Limestone, locally succeeded by
Thailand and peninsular Malaysia. We see little evidence for the pro- the Campanian–Maastrichtian Kabaw Formation of Aung Khin &
posal of Gardiner et al. (2018) that a Baoshan Block was separate dur- Kyaw Win (1968) and Win Swe (1972), equivalent to the Falam
ing Palaeozoic time from Sibumasu. Formation of the Western Belt. The Orbitolina Limestone and
The Shan Scarps lie east of the Sagaing Fault and west of the Kabaw Formation are the basal formations of the fore-arc basin.
Paung Laung–Mawchi Zone (Fig. 1), a narrow belt bordering In the Naga Hills, Bannert et al. (2011) and Aitchison et al.
the Shan Plateau. The Scarps consist of the Slate Belt and (2019) describe their Naga Metamorphics that underlie the
Mogok Metamorphic Belt. The Slate Belt is composed of the 3826-m elevation Mount Sarameti (Fig. 2) in the east, and are
Mergui Group, a thick succession of argillites, slates and quartzites translated NW-wards on the Sarameti Thrust over ophiolitic rocks
with 516-Ma detrital zircons (Kyaw Linn Zaw et al. 2020) overlain within a mud-matrix melange. The Waziho Thrust, equivalent to
by Carboniferous diamictites, and the Taungnyo Group that is the Kheng Fault in the Chin and Rakhine Hills (Fig. 2), carries the
present near Moulmein (Fig. 1). In most places the Slate Belt occu- ophiolites and melange over the Tertiary Indo-Burman flysch of
pies the eastern part of the Shan Scarps, and its boundary with the Bannert et al. (2011). The flysch is correlated with the Disang
Mogok Metamorphic Belt to the west is the steep W-dipping Group of Evans (1964) by Aitchison et al. (2019), who consider
Sakhanya Taung Fault, here interpreted as an early Permian thrust it to be derived from and deposited on the Indian Plate. For
(Fig. 3). The Slate Belt is absent from the Mogok region, but reap- Aitchison et al. (2019) the India–Myanmar suture zone is the
pears south of Tengchong and continues through the ‘Tengchong Waziho Thrust, while for Yang et al. (2020) in the Chin Hills
Block’ in Yunnan into NE Myanmar where it forms a 300-km long the suture is the Kaladan Fault (Fig. 2), which they project
belt east of the Mogok Metamorphic Belt (Fig. 1). Mitchell (2017, NE-wards into the Naga Thrust of Evans (1964) in Assam.

Fig. 4. Ages (Ma) of selected post-205-Ma rock units and geological events in Myanmar west of Salween. Details of isotopic age determinations in text.

3. The Katha–Gangaw–Mogok cross-section: E-vergent dacitic dykes. Near Myitkyina, Yang et al. (2012) reported
orogeny and reversal in tectonic polarity Middle Jurassic (c. 173 Ma) zircon U–Pb ages of basalt, leucogab-
East of the Sagaing Fault near Mogok the SE-dipping succession bro, plagiogranite and pyroxenite, and Liu et al. (2016) obtained
(Fig. 5) of the Mogok Metamorphic Belt is overlain by the Upper Jurassic ages of c. 162 Ma on diorites and gabbro. The iso-
Chaung Magyi Group on an unnamed structure. This has been lated Tagaung Taung (hill), shown on Figure 1, consists of
interpreted as an extensional fault (Mitchell, 2017), possibly the chromitite-bearing dunites and harzburgites overlying a metamor-
continuation of the Myittha Chaung Fault (Fig. 2), because at phic sole thrust over cherts (United Nations, 1979b) containing
the lithological boundary sericite semi-schists (Chaung Magyi) uppermost Jurassic – Aptian (Teza Kyaw et al. 2020) radiolaria,
overlie high-grade schists and gneisses (Mogok Belt) to the NW, and locally over Upper Triassic turbidites. South of Tagaung,
and because a SE-dipping fault could explain evidence for late Maung Maung et al. (2014) described uppermost Jurassic cherts
Cenozoic uplift of the Metamorphic Belt. The Chaung Magyi overlying red mudstones. The middle Cretaceous Orbitolina
Group is overlain unconformably by the Cambrian–Tertiary suc- Limestone of Sahni (1937), preserved in synclines, lies unconform-
cession that includes the Upper Triassic – Lower Jurassic Napeng ably on the Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation.
flysch. In the Tagaung–Myitkyina Belt NW of the Mogok We interpret the Napeng turbidites on the Plateau (Fig. 5a) as
Metamorphic Belt and Kyaukhpyu Fault (Fig. 1), pillowed and an orogenic flysch deposited on and west of the Sibumasu passive
massive basalts, diabase dykes, andesites and volcanogenic sedi- continental margin, and ophiolitic rocks in the Tagaung–
ments of the Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation, and serpentinites Myitkyina Belt and at Santiashan (Chu et al. 2009) in southwestern
and chlorite schists (Than Tun & Khin Myint, personal commu- Yunnan as part of an oceanic arc obducted E-wards over the flysch
nication, 2002), are intruded by hornblende biotite granites and and accreted to the western margin of Sibumasu during Early

fault, now rotated to near-vertical, on which Late Cretaceous uplift

in the footwall formed the broad regional syncline in the Shan
Plateau succession to the SE.

4. The Sedo Granite and Payangazu cross-sections, and

the Mondaung Arc in the Shan Scarps
We argued in Sections 1 and 2.a above that in the Shan Scarps
(Figs 6, 8) the main body of the Mogok Metamorphic Belt is part
of a thrust sheet overlying the Mergui Group or Slate Belt on the
W-dipping Sakhanya Taung Fault. A cross-section from the Sedo
and Nattaung Granites south of Kalaw (Fig. 8) includes the Bon
Schist (Mitchell et al. 2004). This narrow discontinuous strip of
diopside-phlogopite marble, schist and granite at the eastern margin
of the Slate Belt resembles part of the Mogok Metamorphic Belt, and
is juxtaposed with folded upper Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of the
1–2-km wide Paunglaung–Mawchi zone (Figs 6, 7, 8) on the regional
Myittha Chaung Fault, an E-dipping extensional structure (Mitchell,
2017, p. 344). The boundary between the Paung Laung–Mawchi
zone and the Shan Plateau succession to the east (Figs 8, 9) is the
projected Pan Laung Fault of Garson et al. (1976), the Shan
Scarp Fault of Chit Thet Mon et al. (2020). The fault is here inter-
preted as a folded thrust on which the lower Permian Yin Yaw
Formation and middle Permian – Upper Triassic Plateau
Limestone are emplaced over the undated Ngayan Chaung
Fig. 5. (a–c) Sequential cross-sections through Mogok region east of Sagaing Fault
showing tectonic evolution. Popa–Loimye Arc (PLA) in (c) is repeated by post-early
Turbidites.
Oligocene displacement on Sagaing Fault. Location on Figures 1, 2. The Plateau Limestone is overlain in the Kalaw Syncline shown
in the east of Figure 8 by the Upper Triassic – Lower Jurassic
Shweminbon Formation (Figs 8, 9), interpreted as an orogenic
Jurassic time; in the terminology of Draut & Clift (2013), this was a flysch equivalent of the Napeng Formation (Fig. 5), deposited
forward-facing collision. We infer that ophiolite obduction and on and oceanwards of the Sibumasu passive margin and thrust
flysch deformation preceded deposition of the upper Bathonian E-wards during obduction of the Neo-Tethys Santiashan ophiolite
– Callovian Tati Limestone unconformable on Napeng flysch (Fig. 1) since removed in this area by erosion. The Shweminbon
(Brunnschweiler, 1970), and that limestone deposition accompa- flysch includes the Jurassic Pinmon East Limestone (Figs 6, 8).
nied a reversal in orogenic polarity. The reversal led to E-wards We suggest that Upper Triassic zircons in the flysch and associated
subduction of the remaining Neo-Tethys beneath Sibumasu, gen- Middle–Upper Jurassic Loi-an Formation to the east were derived
erating the Mondaung arc of Lin et al. (2019a). from granites similar to the 202-Ma Scarps Border granite of Lin
On its western side the Tagaung–Myitkyina Belt is underlain et al. (2019a) east of Payangazu (Figs 4, 6), rather than from the
structurally by the Katha Schist which includes quartzites and Upper Triassic granites in eastern Myanmar as argued by Cai
mica-schists with local kyanite, and contains detrital zircons with et al. (2017). Abundant detrital feldspar (authors’ unpublished
ages of 418 Ma and older and a peak in zircon age frequency at observations) in the Loi-an Formation SE of Kalaw may have been
500 Ma (Zhang et al. 2018). The schist, which forms the Katha– derived from the Scarps Border granites.
Gangaw Range, has been interpreted as part of an island-arc or small In the highly accessible Payangazu area (Figs 1, 6, 9a), biotite
continental block, the Victoria–Katha Block (Fig. 1), with Upper schists of the Mogok Metamorphic Belt overlie sericite schist
Triassic turbidites (Fig. 5a) on its passive eastern margin assigned to the Mergui Group on the W-dipping Sakhanya
(Mitchell et al. 2020b). In our interpretation, before E-wards subduc- Taung Fault, but display an apparent inverted metamorphic gra-
tion of Neo-Tethys ceased, the Victoria–Katha Block and its turbi- dient in which biotite schist and marble pass up-section and W-
dite cover were over-ridden by an ophiolite nappe and overlying wards into garnet and sillimanite schist. The Mergui Group is here
Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous oceanic island-arc rocks intruded by the 121-Ma Yebokson Granodiorite (Barley et al.
(Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation) and cherts expelled from the 2003). As in the Sedo–Kalaw section to the south (Figs 6, 8), the
Neo-Tethys (Fig. 5b). As the ocean closed, this nappe stack was over- Mergui Group is juxtaposed with the Loi-an Formation, here
ridden by the Sibumasu plate margin with its E-vergent nappes of known as the Kyaukhsu Taung Formation, and with the overlying
flysch and Lower Jurassic ophiolite (Fig. 5b, c). The Tagaung– Cretaeous Pyinyaung Formation, on the N-wards continuation of
Myitkyina Belt was then overlain unconformably by the middle the Myittha Chaung extensional fault (Figs 2, 9b). Along the Shan
Cretaceous Orbitolina Limestone. The Victoria–Katha Block is dis- Scarp the Pyinyaung Formation is overthrust on the projected Pan
tinct from the numerous West Burma (Myanmar) Blocks postulated Laung Fault of Garson et al. (1976) by the Plateau Limestone.
since the late 1970s, in that it includes the Katha–Gangaw Range that In our interpretation the Early Jurassic E-vergent orogeny in the
lies east of the Sagaing Fault. The Indo-Burma-Andaman microcon- Shan Scarps and Plateau, in the same way as that SE of Mogok
tinent of Bandyopadhyay et al. (2020) occupies a structural position described in Section 3 and shown to the east in Figure 5, was fol-
similar to that of the Victoria–Katha Block, but lacks Triassic flysch lowed by end-Jurassic reversal in tectonic polarity, and E-wards
and collided with Asia only after middle Cretaceous time. The high- subduction of the Neo-Tethys (Fig. 9a). This subduction can
angle Kyaukpyu Fault (Figs 1, 5c) may be a NW-dipping extensional explain generation of the Tengchong to Kalaw continental margin

96° 98° SHAN 100°

N Pe
Myittha Chaung Fault,
Paung Laung-Mawchi Zone
& Shan Scarps
20°
MYAN-
20° Pa
Nay Pyi Daw

Sagaing
M PLATEAU
MAR
18°

Fault
18°
THAI-

Yangon
Moul-
mein 16°
16°
Eastern limit
of Slate Belt
& tin granites
ANDAMAN
SEA Kn
K
Dawei W 14°
14° H B
Pg
CRETACEOUS-
EOCENE
P
GRANITES
Myeik
SHAN PLATEAU
SUCCESSION,
PHANEROZOIC T 12°
12°
SLATE BELT,

THAILAND
GULF OF
CARBONIFEROUS
Bo Y
& OLDER

MOGOK META-
MORPHIC BELT

0 100 200 10°

Fig. 6. Geological map of part of Shan Scarps and Shan Plateau margin after 10° Th
Garson et al. (1976), United Nations (1979c) and Mitchell et al. (2004). km

a – augen gneiss and gneissic granite; B – Bon Schist; D – diorite; G – two-mica granite; LAND
96° 98° 100°
Gd – granodiorite; Gs – Sedo Granite and equivalents; Jl – Loi-an Formation; JKp
– Pettalet Formation; Kk – Kalaw Red Beds; Kp – Pyinyaung Formation; m – marble;
Pt – Thitsipin Limestone, locally including Yin Yaw Formation; PTn – Nwabangyi Fig. 7. Map of principal (Myanmar) segment of Western Tin Belt of Myanmar
Dolomite; Q – alluvium; SBG – Scarps Border granite; Te – Neogene sediments; and Thailand showing location of larger of 400 lode tin and tungsten mines described
TJp – Pinmon East Limestone; TJs – Shweminbon Formation; YWD – Yinmabin by Clegg (1944). B – Bwabin (W,Sn); Bo – Bokpyin (Sn,W); H – Hermyingyi (W,Sn);
West Diorite. Mogok Metamorphics: y – Yinmabin Schist; ms – migmatites and schist. K – Kalonta (Sn,W); Ka – Kanbauk (Sn,W); M – Mawchi (Sn,W); P – Palauk (W,Sn);
Slate Belt: Cp – Kogwe Mudstone; Pzw – Poklokkale Wacke; PMZ – Paung Pa – Padatgyaung (W); Pe – Pedwe Taung (W); Pg – Pagaye (W,Sn); T – Tagu
Laung-Mawchi Zone; Sk – Shweminbon Au–Cu skarns; Ym – Yamethin. Location on (W,Sn); Th – Than Island (W); W – Wagon (W,Sn); Y – Yadanabon (W,Sn). From Clegg
Figure 1. Partly from Myanmar Geosciences Society (2014). (1944), Geological Map of Myanmar (2014) and Gardiner et al. (2016).

Thanbyuzayat (Fig. 2), the 121-Ma granite of Thet Paing Kyaw

arc of Zhang et al. (2018) or Mondaung (formerly Mondaung– Win et al. (2020) at Kyaikkami (Fig. 1), and perhaps the undated
Lawa) arc (Lin et al. 2019a; Mitchell et al. 2020b), with a zircon I-type granites of Cobbing et al. (1992) in the Coastal Ranges of
U–Pb age range of 113–128 Ma (Fig. 4) in and east of the Shan Tanintharyi south of Moulmein (Figs 1, 7). The arc is lost beneath
Scarps. The arc has subduction-related characeristics and isotopic alluvium north of Mondaung (Fig. 1) but probably re-appears in
evidence of a component of old crustal melt. It includes the 119-Ma the Tagaung–Myitkyina Belt as the 117-Ma dacite porphyry dyke
Lawa Diorite (Khin Zaw 2017; Lin et al. 2019a) intrusive into the (Mitchell et al. 2020b) NW of Mogok (Fig. 2). The youngest age
Shweminbon turbidites east of Lebyin (Fig. 6), the 121-Ma determined in the arc implies that subduction of Neo-Tethys
Yebokson Granodiorite (Barley et al. 2003) within the Mergui and the Victoria–Katha Block beneath Sibumasu ended at
Group and the nearby 128-Ma Yinmabin West Diorite (Mitchell c. 112 Ma.
et al. 2012) in the Mogok Metamorphic Belt (Figs 6, 9); several On Figures 6 and 8 we interpret the Pan Laung Fault of Garson
c. 121-Ma rhyodacitic intrusions at and south of Mondaung, et al. (1976) as a folded E-directed thrust on which the western edge
including that at Lebyin (Lin et al. 2019a) and those described of the upper plate lies east of the Shan Scarps. On the Shan Plateau
by Garson et al. (1976) from the footwall of the Pan Laung the equivalents of the Patchaung Volcanics (Fig. 6) appear to lie
Fault; the Kyaukse (Fig. 1) augen gneiss with a magmatic age of within an erosional window in the overthrust Plateau Limestone
114 Ma (Mitchell et al. 2012); and a 113-Ma dacitic clast in the (Mitchell, 2017, p. 131). In the footwall of the Myittha Chaung
Pyinyaung Conglomerate. The arc may also include the Fault (Figs 8, 9), uplift and consequent erosion can explain the
Patchaung Volcanics (Fig. 6) of United Nations (1979c), absence of the plateau succession above the Mogok
the 121-Ma granodiorite of Mi Paik & Khin Zaw (2014) near Metamorphic Belt and Mergui Group.

Fig. 8. Cross-section through Shan Scarps and Shan

Plateau margin near Kalaw (NCT – Ngayan Chaung
Turbidites; PMZ – Paung Laung-Mawchi Zone); Sakhanya
Taung Fault is early Permian thrust on Figure 3. Kalaw Red
Beds are in Kalaw Syncline. The cross-section is interrupted
on Figure 6 but indicated approximately by single line on
Figure 2.

Fig. 9. Cross-sections in early Cretaceous (a) and present-day (b) through Payangazu and Pyinyaung in Shan Scarps onto Shan Plateau showing geological evolution. The
Victoria-Katha plate consists of part of Neo-Tethys plus the Victoria-Katha Block. PMZ Paung Laung-Mawchi Zone. Yebokson Granodiorite, dacite sills and Patchaung
Volcanics are part of Mondaung Arc. Mergui Gp is part of Slate Belt. Location on Figures 2, 6.

The Lawa Diorite (Fig. 6) hosts gold-copper skarn deposits 5. Chin Hills and Sin Chaung extensional fault,
(Khin Zaw 2017; Mitchell, 2017) and an iron skarn with an asso- Indo-Burman Ranges
ciated major magnetic anomaly; copper-gold skarns occur else-
where in the arc. Undated dacitic and andesitic dykes intruding The southern Chin Hills (Fig. 10a), the best-known segment of the
auriferous veins of the Modi Taung orogenic gold district Indo-Burman Ranges, are described here because the Chin Hills
(Mitchell et al. 2004) shown on Figure 6 may be part of the structure is comparable to that of the Naga Hills – Jade Mines area,
Mondaung arc, suggesting that the veins formed before 128 Ma. discussed in Section 6.

Fig. 10. Southern Chin Hills, Indo-Burman Ranges. (a) Geological sketch map of Sin Chaung–Mahin Chaung valley, eastern limb of Mindat Anticline. Narrow pink areas along Sin
Chaung Fault are pillowed basalt, Orbitolina Limestone and Kabaw Formation. A – Apaw; K – Kanpetlet; L – Laungshe; S – Saw; SG – Swe Le Gyin; SK – Su boke kyin; T – Thigon.
Location shown on Figure 1. (b) Schematic composite cross-section through Sin Chaung valley and Fault near 21° N, not to scale, thickness of Orbitolina Limestone exaggerated to
show limestone lithologies and serpentinite sheets.

The Upper Triassic Pane Chaung Group of United Nations Mitchell (1986) interpreted the Pane Chaung Group as an oro-
(1979a) is equivalent to the Thanbaya Formation described in genic flysch deposited on the passive eastern margin of his Mount
1970s unpublished reports by the then Burma Oil Corporation Victoria Land, a continental fragment that we include here in the
and, although not reported by Brunnschweiler (1966), is widespread Victoria–Katha Block; deformation of the flysch was explained by
in the Eastern Belt of the Chin Hills (Fig. 10a) and Arakan (Rakhine) obduction of ophiolite onto the block during the Late Jurassic
Yoma. The Pane Chaung Group is a thick deformed sandstone tur- Epoch. More recently, Sevastjanova et al. (2015) inferred from
bidite formation or flysch with widespread broken beds, overturned detrital zircons that the flysch was derived from the area east of
locally horizontal bedding, and Upper Triassic Daonella reported by the Palaeo-Tethys suture zone in easternmost Myanmar (Fig. 2).
Theobald (1871) and Gramman (1974). United Nations (1979a) The cross-sections of Zhang et al. (2018) similarly indicate that
showed that the group is underlain by Brunnschweiler’s (1966) the Pane Chaung flysch was derived from Myanmar and accreted
Kanpetlet Schist, which includes deformed pillowed basalts metamor- to its western margin. Cai et al. (2020) have since reported
phosed to quartz-epidote-albite schist. Within the flysch in the 200–290-Ma-aged detrital zircons in the Pane Chaung flysch, cor-
northern Chin Hills, United Nations (1979a) mapped ultramafic related it with the Triassic flysch of the Tethyan Himalaya, and
bodies including Webula Taung with its metamorphic sole, from concluded that the Pane Chaung flysch was deposited in an
which they inferred that the ophiolite was obducted W-wards onto Upper Triassic submarine fan along the northern margin of
the flysch. The flysch is overlain by pillowed basalts (Fig. 10b) previ- Australia, and derived from West Papua.
ously regarded as part of the ophiolite, but here they are interpreted as Limestone containing the Albian–Cenomanian foraminifera
equivalent to the Mawgyi Volcanic Group in the Popa–Loimye arc. Orbitolina was described by Gramman (1974) from stream sec-
Rare mafic dykes intrude the flysch. Recent work has established tions east of Mount Victoria in the southern Chin Hills, and to
zircon U–Pb ages of 127 Ma for plagiogranite in the Webula ultra- the south (Fig. 10a) by United Nations (1979a) who reported an
mafic body and 116 Ma for its amphibolitic sole (Liu et al. 2016), upper Albian ammonite, and a basal conglomerate with clasts of
the latter indicating the approximate age of the obduction which basalt and ?Triassic sandstone lying depositionally on Triassic
accompanied closure of the Neo-Tethys. The presence of radiolarian flysch. The limestone provided a minimum age for flysch deforma-
cherts with Middle and latest Jurassic and middle Early Cretaceous tion beneath the advancing ophiolite and for eruption of the pil-
ages in the Naga Hills (Aitchison et al. 2019) and Middle Jurassic ages lowed basalt. The limestone was penetrated in an oil borehole in
in the Chin Hills (Zhang et al. 1918) indicates that oceanic rocks in the east of the fore-arc basin and overlies the Mawgyi Volcanic
the Tagaung–Myitkyina Belt and Indo-Burman Ranges have a Group on the western flank of the Popa–Loimye arc (United
similar maximum age. Nations, 1978; Mitchell, 2017, p. 289).

Putao
INDIAN

)
h

sch
h
CONTINENT

flysc

c
g flys

(fly

CK
ne

S A GA

Napeng t u r b i d i t e s
ophiolite over

BLO
l i t e over Napen
oce

128 - 113 Ma
eo ysch
-E

NG
IN

T
BEL
fl
us

CHO
ng

RA
sa

i
ac

D Myitkyina Tengchong
et

AW
r

–
rC INDIAN

G–
o phio
G

Naga
e

UN
pp

TEN
GA
U Luxi

A -

TA
V
KATH

sic
NEO - TETHYS IN

rias
AR

sic

T
A
OCEAN
nt

r T

EL
YIN

ur -
rus ese

B
r J sic
LATE JURASSIC -
ITK

T.
pr

ME
we a s
up
MY
t

lo Tri

K
. -

GO
r
Th

pe
Ma

EARLY CRETACEOUS

O
up
HUKAWNG M
ga

AY
06

T- D

hweminbon flysch
Na

IN BASIN Mt.

PRESEN
. 1

e s ( f l y s ch )
Loimye ch
SIBUMASU
STE

l i t e o v e r P a n e Ch f l y s
Arc

f o r M o n d a u ng A r c
RN
imye

JMU
Khamti
N a g a f l y sch

idit
Mandalay
ction z one for Popa - Lo

n turb
SHA
Mt.
K
e over S
Sarameti

N S
bo
EASTERN BELT

CAR
FAULT

emin
CHINDWIN
ophio
zone

hiolit

PS
BASIN Shw
op

Imphal Yamethin
n
o
AR C

o
y
i

lem
ct
NG

Wuntho
ch)

bdu

INDIAN CONTINENT
IM Y E
KHE

a
s

K
subdu

(fly

su
A- LO

CRETACEOUS-CENOZOIC COVER
.
in R

s
U

ite
POP

KATHA BLOCK
ndw

VICTORIA -
BE

JADE MINES SERPENTINITES

bid
au

Chi

ur
nF

METASED. ROCKS, FLYSCH IN

Kalemyo JADE MINES, KATHA-GANGAW RA.,

ada

Monywa AR
au

& EASTERN BELT IBR

Ch
Kal

WESTERN BELT
ne

SALWIN INDO-BURMAN RANGES (IBR)

EOCENE Haka
Pa

SIBUMISU

BASIN MOGOK METAMORPHIC BELT

B
PHANEROZOIC & UPPER
Mt. Popa PROTEROZOIC
AR

PASSIVE MARGIN FLYSCHES

100 km
OCEAN BASINS

Fig. 11. Sketch map reconstruction showing Sibumasu and Victoria–Katha Block separated by the Neo-Tethys during Late Jurassic – Early Cretaceous time, and the Victoria–
Katha Block and India separated by the Indian Ocean during Eocene time, with flysch deposits on passive margins of continental blocks, and detached ophiolite slabs prior to their
obduction over the flysch. Jade Mines Uplift (JMU) flanked by Nat Hmaw (west) and Tawmaw (east) jadeite-bearing serpentinites shown in present positions. AR – Ayeyawady
River.

United Nations (1979a) interpreted the Kanpetlet Schist in the Zhang et al. (2018, 2020). The boundary between the Triassic
southern Chin Hills as the core of the Mindat anticline with flysch and the fore-arc basin succession was regarded by
Triassic flysch in the eastern (Fig. 10a) and western limbs. The Chhibber (1934b, p. 220) as a normal fault, later called the
schist has been re-interpreted as either an upthrust wedge Kabaw Fault and interpreted by Yang et al. (2020) as a strike-slip
(Rangin et al. 2013; Yang et al. 2020) as shown in Figure 10, or structure, but the fault is not shown on the cross-sections of Pivnic
a W-overturned fault-bounded anticline (Zhang et al. 2017, et al. (1998) and has not been identified on satellite images.
2018, 2020). The eastern boundary of the Kanpetlet Schist was In our interpretation the Pane Chaung flysch was deposited on
described as a W-dipping reverse fault by Rangin et al. (2013) and oceanwards of the Victoria–Katha Block (Fig. 11), then a part
and Yang et al. (2020), and as an E-dipping normal fault by of Australia in Gondwana (Cai et al. 2020). During the Early

Fig. 12. Schematic cross-section from Naga

Hills through Jade Mines Uplift to Shan Scarps
showing jadeite dykes in Early Cretaceous sub-
duction zone associated with Mondaung Arc.
Naga Hills thrust geometry modified from
Aitchison et al. (2019) and Bannert et al. (2011)
to reconcile with southern Chin Hills, where
flysch and ophiolite are thrust over meta-sedi-
mentary rocks. Suspected Triassic flysch in
Naga Hills omitted in accordance with Bannert
et al. (2011) and Aitchison et al. (2019).
Simplified elements of Shan Scarps geology east
of Sagaing Fault in restored pre-late Cenozoic
position. LC – Lower Cenozoic sediments; PLA
– Popa–Loimye Arc. Location on Figures 1, 2.

Cretaceous Epoch the flysch was overthrust by an obducted Neo- of Chhibber (1934b), imply up-dip ascent of hydrothermal water
Tethys ophiolite during the rifting of the block and its drift from beneath the inclined impermeable serpentinite sheets, and replace-
Australia in front of the expanding Indian Ocean. We correlate the ment of overlying limestone. The Sin Chaung Fault at its present ero-
obducted ultramafic rocks in the Chin Hills with the Nat Hmaw sion level forms the eastern boundary of Triassic flysch, suggesting
and Tawmaw serpentinites (Figs 11, 12) flanking the Jade Mines that this fault rather than the inferred Kabaw Fault to the east sepa-
Uplift, and infer that, during ophiolite obduction, the Victoria– rates the Indo-Burman Ranges from the fore-arc basin. Obduction of
Katha Block and its flysch cover subducted beneath Sibumasu the ophiolite before deposition of the limestone cover establishes that
and were since exhumed as the Kanpetlet Schist, as schists in the ophiolite originated in the Neo-Tethys, not in the Indian Ocean to
the Jade Mines Uplift and the Katha–Gangaw Range, and as the the west where subduction began in the Albian (Fig. 11).
meta-sedimentary rocks of probable Ordovican and younger age
reported by Aitchison et al. (2019) in the Naga Metamorphic
Complex (Fig. 1) around Mount Sarameti (Fig. 12). Exhumation 6. Jade Mines Uplift and the Mondaung Arc subduction
may have preceded deposition in the fore-arc basin of the middle zone
Palaeocene – lower Eocene Paunggyi Formation (Fig. 10) that lies With the proposed c. 450-km dextral displacement on the Sagaing
with a regional unconformity on the Kabaw Formation and the Fault restored (Figs 2, 11), the Jade Mines Uplift and adjacent
Paung Chaung (Orbitolina) Limestone. southern Naga Hills lie to the west of the Shan Scarps at latitude
The Orbitolina Limestone is intruded by serpentinite sills or sheets 20° 30' N, while the northeastern end of the fore-arc basin and
up to 10 m thick (Chhibber, 1934b; United Nations, 1979a; Mitchell Naga Hills become continuous with the southwestern end of the
et al. 2010), abundant along the Sin Chaung in the southern Chin Hills Tagaung–Myitkyina Belt and Katha–Gangaw Range.
(Fig. 10a, b), where a conglomerate at the limestone base contains peb- The Jade Mines Uplift (Fig. 11) is separated from the main or east-
bles of Triassic sandstone and basalt. The sills may be similar to those ernmost strand of the Sagaing Fault by a narrow segment of ruby-
reported by Brunnschweiler (1966) in his Senonian limestone. We bearing diopside-phlogopite marble and biotite granite, probably
explain the relationship between the flysch and overlying rocks by the offset N-translated western margin of the Mogok Metamorphic
invoking a regional extensional structure, the Sin Chaung Fault, dis- Belt (e.g. Mitchell et al. 2020b), and by a belt of ultramafic rocks,
placement on which has downthrown the overlying fore-arc basin basalts and Tertiary sediments to the SW. The uplift (Figs 11, 12) con-
succession relative to the ultramafic rocks and underlying flysch in sists of an anticlinal core of amphibolite to lower greenschist facies
the footwall to the west (Fig. 10b). We attribute the dismembered rocks described by Chhibber (1934a) and well-represented among
nature and scattered distribution of the larger ultramafic bodies to cobbles in the Uru Boulder Conglomerate (our unpublished observa-
shearing of a formerly continuous obducted slab as the footwall tions 2004, 2020), bordered on the SE and west by the Tawmaw and
was exhumed, and interpret the serpentinite sheets as sills mobilized Nat Hmaw serpentinites, respectively. The core rocks include sericite
from underlying ophiolite during faulting. We think this zone is schist and quartzite in the Tanai (Chindwin River) gorge (Bannert
unlikely to be a subduction channel analogous to that of Draut & et al. 2011) and north of Nat Hmaw, and we speculate that they
Clift (2013) because displacement post-dates deposition of the are part of the Victoria–Katha Block.
Albian–Cenomanian Orbitolina Limestone and is therefore co-eval The serpentinites are distinctive in hosting jadeite dykes or
with Popa–Loimye arc magmatism, believed by most authors to be veins with a marginal zone of sheared chlorite schist up to
related to subduction near or west of the Kaladan Fault 50 cm wide (Fig. 13). The veins of jadeite (Noetling, 1893) or
(Figs 2, 12). Ophicalcite or listwaenite at the serpentinite–limestone jadeite with an albite rim (Bleeck, 1908) can be up to 10 m wide
contact (United Nations, 1979a; Mitchell, 1985, 1993), the silicic rocks (Chhibber, 1934a, p. 50) but are largely white and not of gem

Fig. 13. Photographs in quarry at Nat Hmaw east of Chindwin

River looking NE: (a) jadeite vein or dyke in serpentinite; and
(b) chlorite schist between vein and serpentinite host rock.
Maximum width of vein in (a) is about 2.5 m. Location of Nat
Hmaw on Figures 11, 12.

quality everywhere. Nevertheless, the veins are clearly the lode 7. Popa–Loimye arc, Indian Ocean subduction and the
source of Myanmar’s famed gem-quality jadeite, most of which Western Tin Belt
is produced from the Pliocene–Quaternary poorly lithified Uru
The Popa–Loimye arc (Figs 1, 2, 11), other names for which include
Boulder Conglomerate at Hpakant east of Tawmaw and from con-
the Wuntho–Popa or Western Burma arc (United Nations, 1978;
glomerates of probable Palaeogene age in the folded Tertiary suc-
Mitchell, 2017; Li et al. 2020), is a 700-km-long discontinuous belt
cession south of Hpakant (Chhibber, 1934a) and SW of Nat
of mostly I-type granitic and volcanic rocks of late Early
Hmaw. A hydrothermal origin for the jadeite has been proposed
Cretaceous (106 Ma) to Quaternary age (Fig. 4). The arc, exposed
by many authorities (Harlow & Sorensen 2005; Shi et al. 2005;
in four main uplifts separated by sedimentary cover, includes the
Harlow et al. 2007; Qiu et al. 2009), and zircon U–Pb ages on
92–106 Ma Kanzachaung batholith (United Nations, 1978; Pickard
Hpakant jadeite range from 163 Ma (Shi et al. 2008) through
& Barley, pers. comm., 1996; Mitchell et al. 2012; Lin et al. 2019b);
160 Ma (Yui et al. 2013) to 158 Ma (Qiu et al. 2009) and 77 Ma
33–40 Ma granodioritic to dioritic plutons (United Nations, 1978;
(Yui et al. 2013). 40Ar/39Ar isotopic ages on glaucophane and phen-
Pickard & Barley, pers. comm., 1996; Lin et al. 2019b); 14 Ma rhyolites
gitic muscovites associated with the jadeite are between 45 and
and quartz andesite porphyry intrusions (Yang, 2008; Mitchell et al.
152 Ma (Shi et al. 2014).
2012: Lee et al. 2016) and Pliocene–Quaternary stratovolcanoes and
Following Mitchell (2017, p. 448) and Mitchell et al. (2020a) we
shoshonitic basalt lava flows (Yang, 2008; Lee et al. 2016). Also present
interpret the serpentinite bodies at Tawmaw and Nat Hmaw as the
are 32 Ma sanidine trachytes (United Nations, 1978) and undated gar-
remnants of a formerly continuous jade-bearing serpentinite sheet,
net-bearing granites. The Cretaceous and lower Tertiary intrusive
present in the fore-arc or hanging wall of the subduction zone or
rocks are hosted by the Mawgyi Volcanic Group, consisting of mas-
channel that generated the Mondaung Arc (Fig. 12). As Neo-
sive and pillowed basalts, andesites and minor dacites beneath
Tethys closed and the Victoria–Katha Block underthrust the overrid-
the clastic Mawlin Formation and unconformable Orbitolina
ing Sibumasu plate to depths of perhaps 80 km, hydrothermal fluids
Limestone. In our view, the Mawgyi Volcanic Group is not part of
expelled from the block ascended into the adjacent subduction zone
the Popa–Loimye arc but more probably the continuation of the
and deposited the jadeite veins. Jurassic zircons in the jadeite are
older Ngapyawdaw Chaung Formation within the Tagaung–
inferred to be inherited, perhaps from subducted plagiogranite. We
Myitkyina Belt in its restored position (Fig. 11) to the NE.
speculate that hydrolysis of subducted peridotite led to ascent of
The arc has long been related to subduction of the Indian Ocean,
the jadeite and its buoyant serpentinite host rocks to depths where
the Neo-Tethys of Li et al. (2019), in a trench west of the Indo-
jadeite was evidently stable. Folding of the subduction zone resulted
Burman Ranges as argued elsewhere (e.g. Mitchell, 1986; Steckler
in exhumation of the underlying Victoria–Katha Block to form the
et al. 2008). We infer that the subduction began at c. 110 Ma following
anticlinal metamorphic core of the Jade Mines Uplift (Figs 1, 11).
the closure of the Neo-Tethys and during drift of the Victoria–Katha
West of the Tanai gorge the metamorphic rocks and serpentinites
Block and its Triassic flysch cover (Fig. 11) from Australia as the
are lost beneath Cenozoic sediments but, we suggest, re-appear further
Indian Ocean opened. Yang et al. (2020) conclude that subduction
west in the Indo-Burman Ranges as the ophiolite and Naga
continues today, but that around latitude 23° N the suture zone is
Metamorphic Complex of Bannert et al. (2011) and Aitchison
the Kaladan Fault (Fig. 2) situated between India-derived Neogene
et al. (2019) east of the Waziho Thrust. The Eastern Naga Fault of
and Eurasia-derived accreted Palaeogene sediments, and more than
Bannert et al. (2011) appears to lie at the western margin of the
200 km east of the buried margin of India (Fig. 12). The
Chindwin or Hukawang basins shown on Figure 12, and may be
Palaeogene belt of Yang et al. (2020) includes the Campanian–
the continuation of the Sin Chaung Fault at the eastern margin of
Maastrictian Falam Formation of United Nations (1979a); in the
the Chin Hills.
same way as Zhang et al. (2017, 2020), Yang et al. (2020) consider
We infer that jadeite dykes within the serpentinites were progres-
the Kanpetlet Schist to be metamorphosed Triassic flysch.
sively exposed and eroded during exhumation of the Victoria–Katha
Continuity (Figs 2, 11) of the Kaladan Fault suture zone with the
Block, and that compression during uplift may have led to extrusion
Naga Thrust (Yang et al. 2020) implies that the Eocene Disang
of the jadeite-bearing ductile serpentinite, providing a possible source
Group or flysch east of the thrust, and the Upper Cretaceous
for multi-tonne jadeite blocks in the upper Cenozoic Uru Boulder
Falam Formation in the western Chin Hills and its continuation as
Conglomerate at Hpakant and for cobbles in the Palaeogene jadeite
the Kabaw Formation in the fore-arc basin, were derived from
clast conglomerates. Rounding of the jadeite blocks in the conglom-
Myanmar, rather than derived from and deposited on the Indian
erate during their short transport in the small Uru River from the
Plate as Aitchison et al. (2019) propose. We follow Mitchell (2017,
adjacent lode source is unlikely, and could be explained by abrasian
p. 471) and Aitchison et al. (2019) in inferring deposition of
during their ascent within the serpentinite host rocks.

Disang flysch largely on and seawards of the passive southeastern from the 16–23-Ma Payangazu–Kabaing granitic dykes and plu-
margin of India (Fig. 12), but suggest that subduction after the tons (Mitchell et al. 2020b) within the Mogok Metamorphic Belt
Eocene Epoch took place initially on the Kheng Fault – Waziho (Fig. 6), and from the Mondaung arc (Fig. 2) in the Shan
Thrust and later on the Kaladan Fault – Naga Thrust. We also note Scarps, as indicated in Figure 4.
that the Naga Metamorphic Complex differs from the Kanpetlet We think it unlikely that partial melting, granite emplacement
Schist in being emplaced on a thrust rather than elevated in an anti- and tin mineralization accompanied inferred crustal shortening on
cline or fault-bounded anticline, and that the additional suture zone the Pan Laung Thrust because this would imply that the granites
east of the complex proposed by Aitchison et al. (2019) is probably a were emplaced at depth and exhumed subsequently during uplift
later structure that repeats the Neo-Tethys ophiolite (Fig. 12). We on the Myittha Chaung Fault. Confinement of most of the miner-
infer that at least some of their melange may be equivalent to the bro- alization to the apical parts of the granite plutons implies a rela-
ken beds in the Triassic flysch of the Chin Hills. tively shallow depth during mineralization.
Amalgamation of the Popa–Loimye arc with Eurasia along the
Sagaing Fault after 95 Ma, proposed by Westerweel et al. (2019)
8. Structural position and age of migmatites within the
and Licht et al. (2020), could be explained if the arc faced
Mogok Metamorphic Belt
Eurasia, to the present east, prior to amalgamation (e.g. Mitchell
et al. 2018). Amalgamation of a west-facing arc cannot easily be Our proposed evolution of central and western Myanmar implies
reconciled with the structural repetition of this arc and of the that migmatites in the Mogok Metamorphic Belt formed before
required post-113-Ma Andean arc to the east, implied by the late their emplacement onto the Mergui Group (Fig. 3) and their later
Cenozoic dextral offset of the Tagaung–Myitkyina Belt and Indo- intrusion by Cretaceous (128 Ma) diorite referred to above (Section
Burman Ranges on the Sagaing Fault. 2.a). A minimum age of Cretaceous for migmatites in the Scarps is
Granites of SE Asia’s Western Tin Belt (Fig. 7), the Inner supported by the 72 Ma age of the Nattaung granite (Mitchell et al.
Magmatic Arc of Barber et al. (2017), lie within the Slate Belt in 2012), replicated by Gardiner et al. (2018), and an early Palaeocene
the Shan Scarps, Tanintharyi and southwestern Thailand. minimum age is indicated by the 59 Ma Bilin Quarry dyke north of
Granite emplacement and mineralization were probably accompa- Kyaukse (Fig. 1) dated by Mitchell et al. (2012) and Searle et al.
nied by magmatism in the Popa–Loimye magmatic arc in its (2007). We note that at Kyitaukpauk in the Shante gold district
restored pre-middle Tertiary position west of the Tin Belt as argued (Mitchell et al. 1999) between Mogok and Mandalay, recent surface
by Mitchell & Garson (1981). The more than 400 formerly oper- and underground mapping have established that sulphide-rich tel-
ating tin and tungsten mines include Mawchi that in 1939 pro- lurium-bearing quartz-gold veins cut through the western limb of a
duced 8% of the world’s wolframite and more than half of regional synform in which sillimanite-bearing migmatites at least
Myanmar’s tin (Clegg, 1944). Recent isotopic dating has con- 400 m thick pass up through calc-silicates with marble, schist and
firmed the conclusion of Chhibber (1934b, p. 336) that the tin- bands of diopside-phlogopite rock into several hundred metres of
bearing granites, since shown to be predominantly peraluminous, spinel-bearing dolomite marble. Adularia (Tin Aung Myint et al.
reduced and fractionated, and commonly with two-phase textures 2014), vein textures, hydrothermal breccias and chalcedonic quartz
(Cobbing et al. 1992), are very largely latest Cretaceous to Eocene veinlets in the marble (Kyaw Min Htun & Myint Thein Htay, 2018;
(44–72 Ma) in age. There are few Cretaceous granites older than Mitchell, 2017, p. 243) indicate, and the high telluriium content
75 Ma (Aung Zaw Myint, pers. comm., 2020; Mao et al. 2020) suggests, that the Kyitaukpauk gold veins are low sulphidation epi-
in the Slate Belt and no granites in the 44–90 Ma age range east thermal. We note that the 21–68 Ma metamorphism reported by
of the belt. Searle et al. (2020) in the spinel-bearing marbles and syenites at
Proposed tectonic settings during granite emplacement include Mogok has not yet been recognized in the underlying migmatites
an Andean-type environment analogous to the Bolivian tin belt at Kyitaukpauk and on migmatites elsewhere in the Shan Scarps.
(Mitchell & Garson 1981; Gardiner et al. 2015). Li et al. (2019) con- These migmatites lack alkaline intrusions, host undeformed
sider that in Tanintharyi tin granites older than 110 Ma were Cretaceous–Eocene granites and, according to our proposed tec-
intruded during subduction of their Meso-Tethys (our Neo- tonic evolution, are probably pre-Mesozoic.
Tethys), while those 60 Ma and younger were emplaced during
subduction of their Neo-Tethys (our Indian Ocean). Other pos-
9. Conclusions
sible settings are summarized in Kyaw Thu Htun et al. (2019).
We suggest that emplacement of the granites in the Slate Belt Restoration of the long-proposed mid-Tertiary to present-day
and in the adjacent Mogok Metamorphic Belt, and mineralization c. 450 km dextral offset on the Sagaing Fault, together with our
of those in the Slate Belt, took place during uplift in the footwall of inferred early Permian emplacement of the Shan Plateau succes-
the Myittha Chaung extensional fault (Fig. 2) that forms the sion over the Slate Belt to form Sibumasu, allows the following con-
eastern boundary of the Slate Belt and the tin granites. Granite gen- clusions regarding western and central Myanmar’s tectonic
eration may have resulted from decompressional partial melting of evolution and mineralization since the Early Jurassic Epoch.
crust tectonically thickened during Cretaceous crustal shortening Within this interval, the Neo-Tethys progressively closed by
on the Pan Laung Thrust. The uplift could explain erosional W-wards subduction of the Sibumasu Plate beneath a detached
unroofing of the granites and their tin–tungsten mineralization ophiolite and, following reversal in tectonic polarity, by E-wards
within the Slate Belt window (Figs 8, 9). Extensional faulting subduction of remnant Neo-Tethys beneath ophiolite and
may have been a response to retreat of the Popa–Loimye arc Sibumasu, generating the 113–128-Ma Mondaung Arc and ending
and roll-back of the subducting slab as proposed for the granite with subduction of part of the Victoria–Katha Block. The subduc-
emplacement (Sanematsu et al. 2014; Jiang et al. 2017; Li et al. tion zone then jumped to the west and, since the Albian age, the
2019), while Popa–Loimye arc magmatism continued (Fig. 4). Indian Ocean has subducted E-wards under Myanmar generating
The tin granites, present in the Slate Belt from near Mondaung the Popa–Loimye arc. Following uplift of the Indo-Burman Ranges
to beyond the Thai border at latitude 10° N (Fig. 7), are distinct on the Sin Chaung extensional fault, western Myanmar, moving

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arc in the Shan Scarps; the world’s most valuable jadeite veins at Miocene magmatism and metamorphism in the Mogok metamorphic belt
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comments and suggestions, and Professor Khin Zaw for valuable remarks, pro- Thant, Kyaing Sein and He Y (2020) Insight into major active faults in cen-
vision of alternative interpretations and additional reference suggestions con- tral Myanmar and the related geodynamic sources. Geophysical Research
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Minn Paing and Mavic Ulang drafted the figures. This research received no spe- Chu ZY, Wang W, Chen FK, Wang XL, Li XH and Ji JQ (2009) Os-Nd-Pb-Sr
cific grant from any funding agency or from any commercial or not-for-profit isotopic compositions of the Santaishan ultramafic rock in western Yunnan
groups. and its geological significances. Acta Petrol. Sinica 25, 3221–28 (in Chinese
with English abstract).
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Middle Jurassic Arc Reversal Victoriakatha Block and Sibumasu Terrane Collision Jadeite Formation and Western Tin Belt Generation Myanmar

Uploaded by

Middle Jurassic Arc Reversal Victoriakatha Block and Sibumasu Terrane Collision Jadeite Formation and Western Tin Belt Generation Myanmar

Uploaded by

Geological Magazine Middle Jurassic arc reversal, Victoria–Katha

Fig. 1. Sketch map of Myanmar north of 17° N

Fig. 2. Sketch map showing selected structural belts and loca-

Our proposal requires that the thrust surfaced to the west of

2. Structural belts in Myanmar

2.a. Belts east of the Sagaing Fault

fault, now rotated to near-vertical, on which Late Cretaceous uplift

4. The Sedo Granite and Payangazu cross-sections, and

96° 98° SHAN 100°

0 100 200 10°

Thanbyuzayat (Fig. 2), the 121-Ma granite of Thet Paing Kyaw

Fig. 8. Cross-section through Shan Scarps and Shan

JADE MINES SERPENTINITES

METASED. ROCKS, FLYSCH IN

Kalemyo JADE MINES, KATHA-GANGAW RA.,

& EASTERN BELT IBR

SALWIN INDO-BURMAN RANGES (IBR)

BASIN MOGOK METAMORPHIC BELT

PASSIVE MARGIN FLYSCHES

Fig. 12. Schematic cross-section from Naga

Fig. 13. Photographs in quarry at Nat Hmaw east of Chindwin

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