Salale University

College of Social Sciences and Humanities

Department of English Language and Literature
Basic Writing Skills
Unit One: Writing Effective Sentences

Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
 Understand how clauses are used to identify the types of
sentences based on their grammatical structure.
 Recognize the importance of clauses in writing effective
sentences.
 Differentiate the various types of sentences based on
their structure and their function.
 Distinguish different types of sentence faults.
 Know ways of correcting a variety of faulty sentences.
 Improve the skill of writing correct sentences.
 Connect sentences using appropriate transitional words.
 Distinguish the uses of different kinds of punctuation marks.

1.1. Clauses in Writing Effective Sentences

Lead-in-Task
Answer the following questions individually and discuss your responses in
threes.
1. What are clauses?
2. What are the types of clauses? Can you give examples for each?
3. What roles do they play in writing effective sentences?

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In order to construct effective and grammatical sentences that give variety to
your writing, you need to know the necessary grammatical structure of
sentences. To identify sentence types based on their structure, it is also
important to look at clauses because sentences can be classified based on the
number and kinds of clauses they contain. Hence, this section briefly discusses
about clauses that would help you in identifying the types of sentences based
on their grammatical structure.

A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate. By learning

about clauses, you learn how to write effective sentences that clearly show the
relationship between your ideas.
For analysis, read the following short paragraph and answer the questions that
follow.
(a) Because their literature and drama club proposed to raise money for the
activities this semester, the students planned to hold a talent show in the
social science college. (b) All the students in the club are naturally talented,
but they don‟t have sufficient performing experiences and qualifications. (c)
Nevertheless, they thoroughly practiced for more than a month, and the show
is certain to be useful and entertaining.
1. What two ideas do sentence (a) present? Why did the students hold a
talent show?
2. What two ideas does sentence (b) present? What problem does this
sentence express?
3. What two ideas does sentence (c) present? How the students have solved
their problem?
In the given paragraph, you can recognize that each sentence presents two
ideas, and each idea is presented in a different clause. This shows that it is
essential to learn how clauses function and how they can be utilized to make
your writing clear.

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1.2. Types of Clauses
Clauses are primarily of two types: main clause (also called independent
clause) and subordinate clause (also called dependent clause). An independent
clause has a subject and a predicate and can stand by itself as a sentence.
Example:
Most of the guests left the party at nine, but we stayed to help clean up.
(„Most of the guests left the party at nine.‟ and „We stayed to help clean up.‟
are both independent clauses and they can stand as independent sentences)
A dependent clause has a subject and a predicate, but it cannot stand by
itself as an independent clause but has to depend on another clause for the full
meaning of the sentence. Dependent clause usually begins with subordinate
conjunction or relative pronoun.

Example:
Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928 while he was growing some
cultures of common germs. („Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928‟ is
an independent clause. „While he was growing some cultures of common
germs.‟ is dependent clause.)
Task 1
Read the following sentences carefully and identify the dependent and the
independent clauses in each of them.
1. Although traditional Chinese medicine is an ancient science, many
westerners are unfamiliar with its principles.
4. Western medicine differs greatly from Chinese medicine which is rooted in
eastern culture and philosophy.
5. Although everyone wonders about the future, no one can predict it with
complete accuracy.
6. The player, who scored a hat trick, got a reward.
7. If people begin to live healthier, longer lives, they may choose to have several
different careers in one lifetime.
8. My friends spoke to the couple who lived in a little cottage.

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 9. Jabir and Martha went to the cafeteria after they had finished studying.
10. When Marie Curie was hired to teach physics and chemistry at the
Sorbonne, she became the first woman to teach there.
11. The singer could not go on to the stage last night because his voice was
hoarse.
12. All persons present should stand respectfully at attention while the flag is
being raised.

1.3. Sentence Types Based on Their Structure

In order to write effective and meaningful sentences, you have to know the
required grammatical structures of sentences. If you are familiar with the
patterns of construction on which different types of sentences are based, you
can feel confident of expressing your ideas clearly to others. You can also vary
the sentence types that you use in your essays and reports to avoid
monotonous series of sentence structures. This means, if you consistently vary
simple sentences with other, more complicated sentence structures, you
provide your readers with variety and maintain their interest. This section
makes you familiar with the four basic sentence types that may help you
achieve this quality in your writing.
1.3.1. Simple Sentence and Compound Sentence

A simple Sentence
A simple sentence can be described as a sentence structure that consists of
only one independent clause. In a simple sentence we may have a compound
subject, a compound predicate or both.
1. My brother reads magazines. (Simple sentence with a single subject)
2. Abebe and Gutema read fictions. (Simple sentence with compound subjects)
3. Dr. Kemal cleaned the patient‟s teeth and examined them. (Simple sentence
with compound predicate)
4. Almaz and her brother listened carefully but missed the announcement.
(Simple sentence with compound subjects and compound predicate)

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5. My father, mother and sister came to the school play, applauded the
performers and attended the party afterward. (Simple sentence with three
subjects and three predicates)
It is important to recognize that a simple sentence can be as short as one word
such as „Devour!’, ‘Remember!’ and ‘Stop!‟ However, a simple sentence is
usually quite long since adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, appositives,
verbal phrases and complements are used to expand its subject and predicate.
See these examples:
1. The boy devoured pasta.
2. The boy from North America with the funny earring in his left ear devoured
a dish of delicious Italian pasta.
3. Hawa remembered the story of a murderer.
4. Hawa remembered the story of a murderer watching a drama showing a
murder on the stage and confessing his guilt.
As you can see from these examples, you can easily understand that it is a
mistake to tell a simple sentence from a compound or complex sentence simply
by looking at its length.
A Compound Sentence
A compound sentence is a sentence that contains two or more independent
clauses that are joined by coordinating conjunctions: and, but, nor, or, for or
yet. In other words, Compound sentences are formed by linking simple
sentences. When forming compound sentences, a comma is usually placed
before coordinating conjunction.
A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a sense of
balance or contrast between two or more equally important pieces of
information in your writing. Examples:
1. I looked for Merry and her sister at the bus station, but they arrived at the
station before noon and left on the bus.
2. Kansa rang the bell door several times, but no one answered.
3. She took dance classes, but she had no natural grace or sense of rhythm,
so she eventually gave up the idea of becoming a dancer.
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4. The sun was setting over the mountains, and the shadows were growing
long.
A compound sentence has also independent clauses joined by conjunctive
adverbs such as therefore, otherwise, nevertheless or semicolon.
Examples:
1. Nuclear accidents can happen; therefore, nuclear power plants should
have strict safety control.
2. Always go to other peoples funerals; otherwise, they won‟t go to yours.
3. Sustainable development would require industry to reduce pollution
output and resource use; as a result, technical innovation will be
stimulated.
4. All sentences in a paragraph must support the main point of the
paragraph; all paragraphs in an essay must support the thesis of the
essay.
Task 2
Combine each of the following related sentences into one compound
sentence. Use the appropriate coordinating conjunctions or conjunctive
adverbs and punctuations
1. Anthropologists discuss cultural materials with informants. Anthropologists
examine actions in cultural context.
2. In most societies, the family is the unit that regularly eats together. In some
societies, men and women eat separately.
3. Money can buy a bed. It cannot buy a good night's sleep.
4. In the 1960s, many young American men wore their hair long as a symbol of
opposition to authority. These days long hair is not a form of protest at all.
5. Newzealand lies in the Pacific Ocean, 1,600km to the east of Australia.
Newzealand consists of two large islands and a number of smaller ones.
6. Solar energy is clean and unlimited. We must turn to the sun to solve
energy needs.
7. Sun, wind and water are renewable energy sources. They do not cause
pollution.
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 8. History is not merely a record of past events. History is an important
connecting link between the past and the present.
9. Many university students have some computer skills. They often lack the
typing skill and equipment needed to produce clean, professional-looking
term papers.
10. Using chlorofluorocarbon as aerosol propellants has a devastating effect on
the environment. In 1978, the United States government banned the use of
chlorofluorocarbon as propellant.
1.3.2. Complex Sentence and Compound Complex Sentence

A complex Sentence
A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses. A complex sentence often has a subordinator such as
because, since, after, although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that,
who, or which.
Examples:
a. Because of the diversified climatic condition of the country, Ethiopia hosts
many important varieties of plants.
This is a complex sentence because it is constituted from one independent
clause and one dependent clause.
„Because of the diversified climatic condition of the country,‟ is dependent or
subordinate clause.
„Ethiopia hosts many important varieties of plants.‟ Independent or main
clause
b. The story that was told us by a little boy and that seemed almost
unbelievable turned out to be true on enquiry.
This is a complex sentence because it is constituted from one independent
clause and two dependent clauses.
„The story turned out to be true‟ is independent or the main clause.
„That was told us by a little boy‟ is dependent or subordinate. It is an adjective
clause qualifying the noun „story‟ in the main clause.

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„That seemed almost unbelievable‟ is also dependent or subordinate. It is an
adjective clause qualifying the noun „story‟ in the main clause. It is coordinate
to the subordinate clause „that was told us by a little boy.‟
c. If you work hard to gain sufficient knowledge and skill in your field of study
while you are still at university, you will effectively serve your nation when you
leave the university.
This is also a complex sentence because it is constituted from one independent
clause and three dependent clauses.
„If you work hard to gain sufficient knowledge and skill in your field of study,‟
„While you are still at university‟ and „When you leave the university‟ are all
dependent or subordinate clauses.
„You will effectively serve your nation‟ is the independent or main clause.
A compound Complex Sentence
A compound complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses
and one or more dependent clauses.
a. Ocean currents contain a great deal of energy, and they will produce
electricity once we learn to harness them.
This is a compound complex sentence because it is constituted from two
independent clauses and one dependent clause.
Ocean currents contain a great deal of energy. (Independent clause)
They will produce electricity. (Independent or main clause)
Once we learn to harness them. (Dependent or subordinate clause)
b. Even though my friend prefers to eat with a fork, he chooses to use
chopsticks in Chinese restaurants; however, they aren't easy to use.
This is also a compound complex sentence because it is constituted from two
independent clauses and one dependent clause.
He chooses to use chopsticks in Chinese restaurants (Independent or main
clause)
They aren't easy to use. (Independent or main clause)
Even though my friend prefers to eat with a fork, (Dependent or subordinate
clause)
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Task 3
Write whether the following sentences are simple, compound, complex or
compound complex sentences. Give reasons for your answers.
1. Headaches, fever, exhaustion, loss of weight, bad cough and spitting
blood are symptoms of tuberculosis.
2. Although Africa is economically backward, African scientists have
become widely known all over the world.
3. Unless pollution is controlled, skies will become smoggy, and cities will
be dirtier.
4. If tourists from Addis wish to visit Omo National Park, they may have to
travel by car, but the trip may last more than a day.
5. Energy sources have been classified as renewable or non-renewable; a
renewable energy sources can never be depleted.
6. The demand for energy in America has been doubling nearly every twenty
years.
7. Unless you practice speaking as much as possible, you will not develop
confidence in your oral skills.
8. Some scientists and environmentalists oppose the use of nuclear power.
9. The car ran off the road, but fortunately no one was hurt.
10. Dr. Daniel Hale Williams, the first successful heart surgeon, practiced
medicine in the nineteen century
11. After the storm was over, we decided to go home, but the snow had
blocked the drive away.
12. If someone wants to be effective public speaker, he/she is advised to
have things carefully planned and organized.
13. Patrick Henry stirred the colonists to revolt, Winston Churchill bolstered
the spirits of the British during World War II, and Martin Luther King
demanded equality for all.
14. Though Mogess prefers watching horror films, he rented the latest spy
thriller, and he enjoyed it very much.

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15. Scientists and environmentalists are studying global warming and
reporting on its impact.
16. We submitted our calculations, and we included several drawings even
though both types of information were not required.
17. Because Mr. Adugna was a talented instructor, he was voted teacher of
the year, and his students prospered.

1.4. Sentence Types Based on Their Function

In the preceding section you have seen how sentences are classified according
to the number and kinds of the clauses they contain. In addition to thinking
about their clause structures, it is also very useful to know the function
sentences perform. Broadly speaking, it is possible to classify sentences as
fitting into one of the four categories: declarative, interrogative, imperatives and
exclamation.
1.4.1. Declarative Sentence

A declarative sentence is used to make a statement. It always ends with a

period. Examples:
a. The lab samples will be ready on Wednesday.
b. The western style of education has gained popularity all over the world.
c. The calf and its mother lifted their heads and bellowed.
1.4.2. Interrogative Sentence

An interrogative sentence is used to ask questions. It always ends with

question mark. Examples:
a. What is the primary purpose of a research?
b. When do you finish writing your assignment?
1.4.3. Imperative Sentence

An imperative sentence gives anything from a command or order, to a request,

direction, or instruction. If the command or the request is mild, the sentence
ends with period. If the command or the request is strong the sentence ends
with the exclamation mark. Examples:
a. Stop right there!

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b. Submit the revised specifications of your plan by Friday.
c. Please turn out the lights.
d. After separating them from the yolks, beat the whites until they are light and
fluffy.
Notice that imperative sentences begin with a verb. The subject „you‟ is implied.
Notice too that imperative sentences are used when describing steps in a set of
instructions.
1.4.4. Exclamatory Sentence

An exclamatory sentence is used to express strong feeling. It often begins with

the modifier „what‟ or „how‟. An exclamatory sentence always ends with
exclamation mark. Examples:
a. What a wonderful day!
b. How beautiful is it!
c. Here comes the parade!
Notice that scientific and technical writers should avoid this type of sentence
for the most part because it violates a preference for dispassionate logic.
Task 4
Label each of the following sentences as Declarative, Interrogative,
Imperative, or Exclamatory. Put the correct punctuation mark at the end
of each sentence.
1. Aren‟t you sorry that you didn‟t go for a field trip
2. What a miserable day for a recreation
3. Slowly and cautiously, the rabbit emerged from its hiding place
4. How happy you look
5. The Magna Charta was signed in 1215, and it is considered the most
important document in the history of England
6. Return all the books that you have borrowed from the library, please
1.5. Faulty Sentences

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 1.5.1. Subject Verb Agreement Errors
When the agreement between the subject and a verb, a pronoun and its
antecedent and a number of the subject and a verb is not maintained it results
in faulty agreement. Examples:
a. Every scrap of soil and photo scan were analyzed for signs of past life on
Mars. (Faulty)
b. Every scrap of soil and photo scan was analyzed for signs of past life on
Mars. (Correct)
a. Almaz and her cousin has been studying mechanical engineering. (Faulty)
b. Almaz and her cousin have been studying mechanical engineering.
(Correct)
In order to write correct and effective sentences, you are therefore expected to
make your subjects agree with the verbs. This section may help you to write
sentences free from agreement errors.
1.5.1.1. Singular and Plural Nouns and Pronouns

If a noun or personal pronoun in your sentence refers to one person, place,

thing or idea, it is singular in number and takes a singular verb. If a noun or
personal pronoun refers to more than one person, place or thing, or idea, it is
plural in number and takes plural verb.
Examples:
a. He teaches technical report writing. (The singular pronoun „He‟ and the
singular verb „teaches‟ agree in number)
b. Children need frequent changes of activity. They need activities which are
exciting and stimulating their curiosity. (The plural noun „children‟ or the
plural pronoun „They‟ and the plural verb „need‟ agree in number)

1.5.1.2. Words of Amount and Time as Subjects

If the plural subject denotes a definite amount or quality taken as a whole, the
verb is usually singular. Examples:

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a. Ten dollars is too much to pay for dues. (Ten dollars is considered one
amount of money)
b. Three months is needed to complete the assignment. (Three months, in this
sentence, is one period of time.)
c. One hundred thousand light years is an extremely long time. (One hundred
thousand light years, in this sentence, is one period of time.)
Note that when such subjects refer to a number of individual units, they are
plural.
a. Ten dollars were tucked in the mattress. (In this sentence, ten dollars is
considered to be ten individual dollars and not a single unit)
b. Three months have passed since the assignment. (In this example, three
months is considered to be three individual months and not one period of time)
If we want to write fraction or percent we need to make the verb agree with the
preceding noun.
Examples:
a. One-third of this article is taken up with statistical analysis.
b. One-third of the students have graduate degrees.
c. Fifty percent of the job is routine.
d. Fifty percent of those children have psychological problems.
e. Three fourths of his salary goes to taxes.
f. Three fourths of the juniors are going to the dance.
1.5.1.3. Titles and Names as Subjects
The title of a book, story, play, movie, television program, musical composition,
or magazine refers to one work. Even if a noun within the title is plural, a title
is always singular and takes a singular verb. Examples:

a. The three Musketeers is an exciting novel by Alexandre Dumas.

b. Arsenic and Old Lace was performed last year by both the local community
theater and the high school‟s drama club.
c. Problematical Recreations is a collection of mathematical puzzles.
1.5.1.4. Many a, Every, and Each with Compound Subjects

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When many a, every, and each precedes a compound subject, the subject is
considered singular.
a. Many a writer, painter and musician knows disappointment.
b. Every child and adult enjoys the performances of the entertainers.
c. Each dolphin and its trainer is in the pool.

1.5.1.5. Indefinite Pronouns as Subjects

In English, some indefinite pronouns are singular, some are plural, and some
can be either singular or plural, depending upon the noun they refer to. In
order to make your sentences effective and meaningful, you are therefore
required to determine whether the indefinite pronoun is singular or plural, and
make the verb agree.

Indefinite pronouns
Always plural Singular or
Always singular plural
each everyone nobody several Some
anything either everybody a few most
nothing someone neither few More
everything anyone somebody many plenty
one no one anybody All
something none
Enough

a. Examples:
Everyone in the class wants to read Romeo and Juliet. No one wants to
read King Lear.
Either is an appropriate answer.
Everybody was hoping for a victory.
b. Examples:
Few are expected for refreshment.
Both were good choices.
c. Examples:
Some of the meat was overcooked.

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 Some of the students were absent from the class.
All of her relatives are coming from California.
All of the sugar has been used.
1.5.1.6. Compound subjects joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’

when or or nor( either…or or neither…nor) connects a compound subject made

up of a singular subject and a plural subject, use a verb form that agrees in
number with the subject that is closer to the verb in the sentence.
1. A calculator or an adding machine is needed for this job.
2. Neither the students nor their college dean was represented at the
assembly. (The singular noun dean is closer to the verb and it agrees
with it)
3. Either my sister or her classmates are making public speaking. (The
plural subject classmates is closer to the verb and it agrees with it)

Although these sentences are grammatically correct, they sound awkward and
may make the readers have trouble in understanding the meaning clearly.
Thus, you are advised to rewrite such sentences to eliminate the awkwardness
as follows:
1. The students were not represented at the assembly, nor was their college
dean.
2. Either my sister is making public speaking, or her classmates are.
1.5.1.7. Intervening Expressions

The number of a subject is not affected by phrases or expressions such as

together with, as well as, accompanied by, in addition to, plus, with and along
with. Although expressions such as these have a meaning that is similar to
that of the conjunction „and‟ they do not create a compound subject. However,
if one of the two subjects happens to be plural, the verb agrees with the former
of the two. Examples:
1. The department head, with his children, has been attending the
graduation ceremony.

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2. The children, with their father, have been attending the graduation
ceremony.
3. Hanna‟s job, in addition to her school work, takes her spare time.
4. The processing unit, together with all of its types of memory, forms the
heart of the machine
1.5.1.8. Intervening Prepositional Phrases

When the prepositional phrase that modifies the subject usually comes
between the subject and the predicate, make sure that the verb agrees with the
actual subject of the sentence and not with the object of the preposition. That
means you should not mistake a word in a prepositional phrase for the subject
of the sentence. Examples:
1. The bowl of raw vegetables looks appetizing. (The singular noun, bowl, is the
subject. The plural noun, vegetables, is the object of the preposition, of. The
verb, looks, agrees with the subject of the sentence, not with the object of
the preposition.)
2. The books on that shelf are biographies. (The plural noun, books, is the
subject. The singular noun, shelf, is the object of the preposition, on. The
verb, are, agrees with the subject of the sentence, not with the object of the
preposition.)
Task 5
Write the verb in parenthesis that agrees in number with the subject of
each of the following sentences.
1. Beams of coloured light (has, have) passed through the prism without
creating a rainbow pattern.
2. A term paper with many mistakes (does, do) not make a good impression.
3. Neither the directions on the package nor the brochure (explain, explains)
how to play.
4. Most people know when a computer system or program (work, works)
properly, and they can usually do minor repairs themselves.
5. Two hundred miles (is, are) a long ways to go on a bicycle

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 6. The bark of some trees (have, has) been used for years by herbalists to treat
certain diseases.
7. Many readers of Shakespeare believe that King Lear (is, are) his best play.
8. Every man, woman and child (remember, remembers) that cold winter.
9. Meron, together with her teammates, (present, presents) a formidable
opponent on the basketball court.
10. Three months sometimes (seem, seems) like three years.
11. Twenty-five years (is/are) the length of time during which Gilbert and
Sullivan collaborated on their operas.
12. France, as well as other European countries, (has, have) a tip-included
policy.

1.5.3. Avoiding Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not contain a subject or a
verb or both. This indicates that a fragment is an incomplete sentence. Hence,
you need to avoid sentence fragments when you write.
Examples:
a. Last Monday, walked to the class in the rain. (Subject is missing)
Revised: Last Monday, my dorm mate walked to the class in the rain. (Subject
is added)
b. Our instructor on techniques of paragraph development. (The verb is
missing)
Revised: Our instructor lectured on techniques of paragraph development.
(Verb is added)
A common kind of sentence fragment is a phrase. It is separated sentence part
that does not express a complete thought. In other words, it is usually an
additional idea that has been incorrectly cut off from the sentence to which it
belongs. This kind of fragment is often corrected by including the phrase in a
related sentence. Examples:
a. I saw the two friends. Running along the main road. (Fragment)
Revised: I saw the two friends running along the main road.

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b. Injibara University offers many majors in Business Economics. Such as
Management, Accounting, and Hotel Management. (Fragment)
Revised: Injibara University offers many majors in Business Economics such
as Management, Accounting, and Hotel Management..
Another common type of sentence fragment is the subordinate clause. This
kind of fragment can be fixed by combing the clause with a related sentence.
Examples:
a. John wants to visit Australia. Because his ancestors came from there.
(Fragment)
Revised: John wants to visit Australia because his ancestors came from there.
b. Although Henson received little formal education. He wrote a book about his
adventure. (Fragment)
Revised: Although Henson received little formal education, he wrote a book
about his adventure.
Task 7
Rewrite the following items, correcting all the sentence fragments. Supply
suitable subjects and predicates where they are needed
1. There is our new windmill. Which provides part of the electricity for the
house.
2. The tiger lily is a tall garden flower. That originally grew in Asia.
3. Was born in Addis Ababa but grew up in Injibara.
4. The equator is an imaginary line. That divides the earth into the northern
and southern hemisphere.
5. With great distinction from the department of management.
6. If you want to improve your confidence in making effective public speech.
You need to focus on the meaning you want to express.
7. While reading the book yesterday evening after dinner.
8. Although it happened several years ago. One news story stays in my mind.
9. Where did you camp last night? We found a place on an island in the
middle of the lake. Where there was a prepared camping spot.
10. Who talked to you in the corridor.
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 11. The band began to play some lively music. Which everyone enjoyed.
12. Although Jack did not study. He passed the course.
Task 8
Rewrite the following paragraphs to eliminate sentence fragments. Add or
delete words wherever necessary and be sure to check your revised
version for correct capitalization and punctuation.
Ellis Island sits. In New York City‟s harbor with one of the most spectacular
views in the United States. Visitors can see the statue of liberty and the New
York skyline. Which is a popular attraction.
The island has had an interesting past. History records show. That the Dutch
originally named it Oyster Island. The government used the island to store
weapons in the nineteen century. It became well known. As one of the major
gateways for immigrants to America. People came to America from many
places. Which include Africa, Asia and Latin America. Arriving between 1892
and 1943 .Sixteen to seventeen million immigrants first set foot on American
soil at Ellis Island.
Many immigrants were unable. To speak English when they arrived. They had
just taken a long and sometimes hazardous sea voyage. They had very little
money. In their pockets. What they did have was a sense of adventure, a strong
desire to make a new life for themselves and their families. These bold people
spread out. Across the country. Some sought communities made up of their
former compatriots. Others established new towns. Throughout the country.

1.5.4. Avoiding Run-on Sentences

A run on sentence has two or more complete sentences that are written as
though they were one sentence. A run on sentence lacks correct punctuations,
so it can be confusing to readers as it does not show where one idea ends and
the next idea begins.
Run on sentences are of two types. They are fused sentences and comma
splice. A fused sentence consists of two or more complete sentences that are
not separated by correct punctuation at all. Examples:

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a. Most of those computers in the Learning Assistance Center are broken
already this proves my point about American computer manufacturers.
b. The physicist Marie Curie discovered radium she won two Nobel prizes.
The second type of run on sentence is a comma splice. The comma splice
consists of two independent clauses that are separated by only comma, but
without coordination.
a. Copper is far more malleable than steel, it can easily be shaped by
hammering or pressing.
b. There are different kinds of radio telescopes, all of them have antennas and
receivers.
You have seen how run-on sentences hamper the clarity of meaning in your
writing. Thus, you need to fix them to be able to express your thoughts
effectively. To do so, here you have some important ways of correcting run-on
sentences.
1.5.4.1. Using a period/full stop (.)

The simplest way to correct a run-on sentence is to separate the improperly

joined sentences by using a period.
Run-on: My friend from chemistry department visited me yesterday we talked
until midnight.
Revised: My friend from chemistry department visited me yesterday. We talked
until midnight.

1.5.4.2. Using a semicolon (;)

If you want to encapsulate your two ideas in one sentence rather than two, you
had better use a semicolon rather than a period. A semicolon is probably the
most important remedy when there is the logical connection between the two
independent clauses is already clear and when the idea represented in the two
clauses are very closely related.
a. Run- on: The great white shark supposedly eats humans research shows
that most white sharks spit them out after the first bite.

20
Revised: The great white shark supposedly eats humans; research shows that
most white sharks spit them out after the first bite.
b. Run-on: He got up late this morning he didn‟t have time for breakfast.
Revised: He got up late this morning; he didn‟t have time for breakfast.
1.5.4.3. Using a comma and a coordinating conjunction

Join the independent clauses with a comma and coordinating conjunction. Like
the semi colon, a conjunction allows you to combine your two ideas in a single
sentence, but it has the added advantage of allowing you to indicate the logical
relationship between the two ideas.
a. Run on: In western cultures, black is the colour of mourning, in much of
Asia, white is worn at times of death and mourning.
Revised: In western cultures, black is the colour of mourning, but in much of
Asia, white is worn at times of death and mourning.
b. Run on: Every living creature gives off a weak electrical charge in the water
special pores on the shark‟s skin can detect these signals.
Revised: Every living creature gives off a weak electrical charge in the water,
and special pores on the shark‟s skin can detect these signals.
1.5.4.4. Using subordinating conjunctions

Change one of the independent clauses to a subordinate clause, adding a

subordinating conjunction.
a. Run on: I have never been comfortable with public speaking in my life, I
decided to take some advanced speech courses.
Revised: Because I have never been comfortable with public speaking in my
life, I decided to take some advanced speech courses.
b. Run on: The rain stopped, we went for a walk along the beach.
Revised: When the rain stopped, we went for a walk along the beach.
1.5.4.5. Using conjunctive adverbs

Join the two independent clauses with a semicolon followed by a conjunctive

adverb and a comma.

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a. Run on: A social group such as a clan may be represented by different
symbols a totemic animal may represent the clan.
Revised: A social group such as a clan may be represented by different
symbols; for example, a totemic animal may represent the clan.
b. Run on: He is a very weak president, most people support him.
Revised: He is a very weak president; nevertheless, most people support him.
Notice that it is also possible to correct those sentences in the following way:
 A social group such as a clan may be represented by different symbols. For
example, a totemic animal may represent the clan.
 He is a very weak president. Nevertheless, most people support him.
Task 9
Read the following run-on sentences carefully and rewrite them so that
you make them into good sentences
1. The annual football banquet of our University will take place on Saturday,
all plans are now complete, Kasa, the star player of the 2011championship
team, is coming from Hawasa and he will give the main address.
2. At the next meeting of the Dramatic Club, six new students will be initiated
into the organization, four of them are seniors and two are juniors so the
total membership in the club will be increased to twenty.
3. Two new sports have been added to the school athletic program, they are
tennis and golf, great interest is being shown and it is hoped that the next
year there can be an intramural tournament in each of these sports.
4. Albert Einstein is one of the greatest thinkers of the twentieth century he
changed the way people view the universe.
5. Buying or leasing a car is a matter of individual preference, however, it‟s
wise to consider several points before making a decision.

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Task 10
The following text contains both fragments and run-on sentences. Rewrite
the text by eliminating sentence fragments and correcting the run-on
sentences
The large, hollow organs of the digestive tract contain a layer of muscle. That
enables their walls to move. The movement of organ walls can propel food and
liquid through the system food moves from one organ to the next through
muscle action called peristalsis. Peristalsis looks like an ocean. Wave traveling
through the muscle. The muscle of the organ contracts to create a narrowing
and then propels the narrowed portion slowly down the length of the organ
these waves of narrowing push the food and fluid in front of them through each
hollow organ.
The first major muscle movement occurs. When food or liquid is swallowed.
Swallowed food is pushed into the esophagus. Which connects the throat above
with the stomach below. At the junction of the esophagus and stomach, there
is a ring like muscle, called the lower esophageal sphincter as food approaches
the closed sphincter, the sphincter relaxes and allows the food to pass through
to the stomach.
The stomach has three mechanical tasks, first, it stores the swallowed food and
liquid. To do this, the muscle of the upper part of the stomach relaxes. To
accept large volumes of swallowed material. The second job is to mix up the
food, liquid, and digestive juice. Produced by the stomach. The lower part of the
stomach mixes these materials by its muscle action the third task of the
stomach is to empty its contents slowly into the small intestine. Several factors
affect emptying of the stomach. Carbohydrates, for example, spend the least
amount of time in the stomach. While protein stays in the stomach longer, and
fats the longest. As the food dissolves into the juices from the pancreas, liver,
and intestine, the contents of the intestine are mixed and pushed forward to
allow further digestion.

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 1.5.5. Misplaced Modifiers
Misplace modifiers are different from dangling modifiers in that nothing has
been left out from the sentence. However, the modifiers are simply in the wrong
place modifying the wrong word or group of words. In order to produce
coherent and meaningful writing, you are therefore required to use modifying
words, phrases or clauses in a sentence where they clearly describe what they
are intended to describe. Examples:
a. Our instructor could not drive to home in his small new car with a broken
leg. (Misplaced)
Revised: With a broken leg, our instructor could not drive to home in his
small new car.
b. My brother nearly studies for five hours every day. (Misplaced)
Revised: My brother studies nearly for five hours every day.
c. My friend‟s mother held the ticket tightly in her hand that I gave her.
(Misplaced)
Revised: My friend‟s mother held the ticket that I gave her tightly in her
hand.
d. Only capacitors and inductors become good conductors when a frequency
reaches a certain level. (Misplaced)
Revised: Capacitors and inductors become good conductors only when a
frequency reaches a certain level.
Task 12
The following sentences have misplaced modifiers. Rewrite them correctly
1. 1. I placed the television in the corner of the room that I had recently
purchased.
2. Many towns are likely to have an AIDS problem which is on a major road or
water transport route.
3. Malaria is common in warm areas which is a serious health problem.
4. My brother managed to play without any training the guitar.
5. The lady whom we greeted last Monday in front of the registrar office from
Germany offers Introduction to Basic Electronics.

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6. Henry Rose Perot ran for the United States presidency in 1992 an American
business executive.
7. I experienced after jogging ten miles in the afternoon sun extreme fatigue.
8. A woman passed by leading a Springer spaniel in a long black dress.
9. When a sound system is working properly, the speaker nearly produces the
same vibrations that the microphone originally recorded and encoded on the
tape or CD.
10. Professor WangariMaathai won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004, with the
Nobel committee citing "her contribution to sustainable development,
democracy and peace who was known for establishing Green Belt
Movement.

1.5.6. Dangling Modifiers

To modify means to qualify or limit the meaning of a word, phrase, or a clause.
Thus in grammar, a modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that qualifies or
limits other words, phrases, or clauses. When the modifier occurs at the
beginning of the sentence, readers usually expect it to modify the subject of the
sentence. When it doesn‟t logically do that, the modifier is said to dangle. A
dangling modifier, a specific case of which is the dangling participle, can
change the intended meaning of the sentence dramatically, which makes
readers have to slow down in order to sort-out the meaning.
Examples:

a. While driving on greenwood avenue yesterday afternoon, a tree began to fall

toward Almaz‟s car. (It sounds like the tree was driving.)
Revised: While Almaz was driving on greenwood avenue yesterday afternoon, a
tree began to fall toward her car.
b. Rolling around in the slop, kumsa watched the stone. (Rolling modifies
„Kumsa‟ not „stone‟)
Revised: Kumsa watched the stone that was rolling around in the slop.
c. Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed. (The logical
doer of the action is left out from the main clause)

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Revised: Having arrived late for practice, the captain of the team needed a
written excuse.
Task 11
The modifiers in the following sentence are dangling. Read the sentences
carefully and write their correct versions
1. Listening carefully, still could not understand what the instructor was
saying.
2. Walking through the cemetery, many new graves were found.
3. After studying so hard, the final examination seemed easy.
4. Driving fifty miles over the speed limit, the dog was hit by the car.
5. Reading Faulkner‟s short story “A rose for Emily,” the ending surprised us.
6. Driving on the NechSar National Park Road at dusk, the beautiful zebras
were foraging for food.
7. After reading the original research, the findings remain unconvincing.
8. Walking down the main street, a snake startled him.
9. Having been thrown into the air, the dog caught the ball.
10. Climbing up the ladder carefully, the frightened cat was brought down from
the tree.
1.5.7. Faulty Parallelism

Parallel construction or structure is the use of similar structure in a pair or

series of successive expressions in a sentence. Parallelism helps the flow of a
sentence and emphasizes the relationships of the ideas in parallel elements.
This means, it keeps a sentence balanced by making these elements
grammatically equal: nouns are paired with nouns, verbs with verbs, and the
like.
Faulty parallelism occurs when two or more parts of a sentence are parallel in
meaning, but not parallel in form.
1.5.7.1. With lists after a colon or lists in series

When listing a series of things, ideas, or actions, make sure that all the
elements in a list have the same grammatical structure.

26
a. The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings,
pronunciations, correct spellings and looking up irregular verbs.(Non- parallel)
Revised: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word
meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings and irregular verbs.
b. The faculty dean went to the hairdresser‟s, visited the butcher shop, and
stopped off at the movie theater. (Non-parallel)
Revised: The faculty dean went to the hairdresser‟s, to the butcher shop, and
to the movie theater.
c. The students want to learn how to write with simplicity, clearly and logically.
(Non-parallel)
Revised: The students want to learn how to write with simplicity, clarity and
logic.
1.5.7.2. With coordinating conjunctions

When joining two words or word groups by the coordinating conjunctions, each
word or word group must have the same grammatical functions.
a. He enjoys playing football and to read different fictions. (Non-parallel)
Revised: He enjoys playing football and reading different fictions.
b. My friend blocked well, but tackles unskillfully. (Non- parallel)
Revised: My friend blocked well, but tackled unskillfully. Or My friend blocks
well, but tackles unskillfully.
c. His mother kept the store clean and she made it conveniently arranged.
(Non- parallel)
Revised: His mother kept the store clean and conveniently arranged.
1.5.7.3. With correlative conjunctions

These includes: either…or, neither…nor, not only….but also, both…. and,

need to have the same or balanced patterns both before and after the half of
the pair.
Examples:
a. This book is not only broader, but also the most difficult one. (Non- parallel)
Revised: This book is not only broader, but also more difficult. Or

27
This book is not only the broadest, but also the most difficult one.
b. That man is either a thief or robbing the bank. (Non- parallel)
Revised: That man is either a thief or a robber.
c. Either you must grant his request or incur his ill will. (Non- parallel)
Revised: You must either grant his request or incur his ill will.
1.5.7.4. Comparison with ‘than’ or ‘as’

When comparing people or things using „than‟ or „as‟, you have to make parallel
comparison.
a. The girls in Ontario are prettier than California.(Non- parallel)
Revised: The girls in Ontario are prettier than the girls in California.
b. Joan does not like basketball as much as she seemed to like football.(Non-
parallel)
Revised: Joan does not like basketball as much as she likes football.
Task 13
The following sentences have errors in parallelism. Identify their problems
and write their correct version
1. Her new friend enjoys working hard, getting paid well, and to achieve a
sense of satisfaction.
2. My little brother hates to get up early in the morning, to brush his teeth
and combing his hair.
3. The computer system has multiple functions such as correcting spelling
mistakes, checking for grammatical errors, and can check paragraph
structure.
4. The drummer kept the beat, the guitarist played the melody and the
singing was done by the piano player.
5. Martha likes walking, mountaineering, swimming and she likes reading.
6. My instructor warned me to revise my essay and that I should pay close
attention to parallel structures.
7. The committee members attended the meeting, reflected their views and
they were going back to their hometown.

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 8. As soon as I entered the dorm, I greeted my friends, placed my exercise
books in the locker, and I was running quickly to the cafeteria.
9. The movie we saw was not only too long but was also extremely violent.
10. He wanted three things out of college: to learn skill, to make good
friends, and learning about life.
Task 14
Read the following paragraph carefully and revise any underlined sections
for parallel grammatical structure.
Many college courses require students to write essays as part of the class
curriculum. An academic essay for a college course should contain a thesis,
body, and to conclude. It is important for students to perform some type of
pre-writing or to cluster before they start typing on the computer. Pre-writing
will usually help students to find and expand new ideas for the paper. After
pre-writing, students should type a rough draft using their previous
cluster. Students are always nervous in writing the rough draft and started the
paper. It is better for students to write to the end of the rough draft than
stopping every few sentences to check the grammar. If students do not expand
their rough draft, the essay will not only be short but will be also
disorganized. Revising the essay for a strong thesis, organization, and proper
supporting is the most important part of the writing process. This is what
separates the strong writers from the weak writers. The final step in writing a
college paper is editing. This is where students will check the paper for
grammatical errors, proper punctuating, and spelling errors. A strong writing
process will allow students to write a proper college essay.

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Two: Writing Effective Paragraphs
1. What is a paragraph?
2. What is a topic sentence?
3. What are the supporting sentences?
4. What about the concluding sentence?
A paragraph is a combination of sentences that deal with a distinct unit developing one
major idea or a topic sentence. A paragraph can be written for any of several purposes, but all
paragraphs have one thing in common: each sentence logically relates to the same topic. In
other words, a group of unrelated sentences is not a paragraph. A good paragraph is well
organized, properly linked and adequately developed. From the definition you can generally
understand that a paragraph:
 Is a group of sentences;
 The sentences are logically related;
 All sentences deal with the single main idea or topic sentence giving detailed and relevant
information. In other words, this is to mean that an effective paragraph has unity,
coherence, and adequate development or completeness.
1.1. Basic Structure of a Paragraph
Most of the paragraphs have three basic structures: the introduction, the body, and the
conclusion. That means most paragraphs are made up of a topic sentence, a series of detailed
or supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence.
1.1.1. The Introduction
The introduction is the first section of a paragraph which includes a topic sentence. The topic
sentence is used to express the central or controlling idea of a paragraph. It is called so
because it is that idea or topic alone which is developed and explained in the rest of the
paragraph.
1.1.2. The body
The body of a paragraph is the section that follows the introduction and contains the detailed or
supporting sentences. The body is the main part of a paragraph which is developed sequentially.
The detailed or supporting sentences in the body explain or discuss the controlling idea stated in
the topic sentence by providing enough and specific supporting details, using facts, arguments,
analysis, examples, and other information. They should be strong convincing points on which the
topic sentence can rely upon and be clear evidence that what the topic sentence says is
trustworthy.
1.1.3. The conclusion
The conclusion is the final section which summarizes the connections between the information
discussed in the body of the paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea through the
concluding sentence. The concluding sentence reminds the readers of what they have to value by
summing up what the topic sentence and the supporting details talk about.

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Sample Paragraph
There are a number of steps to take if you are stung by a bee or a hornet. The first thing to do is
remove the stinger. A stinger contains venom. It will continue to release venom as long as it is
contact with skin. When the stinger is removed, put ice on the wound. This will reduce the
swelling. Then, apply a small amount of baking soda. It contains enzymes that will weaken the
venom. Finally, look for signs of an allergic reaction such as difficulty in breathing. People have
died from strong allergic reactions to stings. When such a reaction occurs, the victim should be
taken to the hospital for treatment.
2.2. Characteristics of Good Paragraph
Writing good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on track during your drafting and revision
stages.
2.2.1. Unity
You have seen that a topic sentence is used to express the central or controlling idea of a
paragraph. It states the main idea of a paragraph. When all of the detailed or supporting
sentences in a paragraph are directly related to the main idea that is stated in the topic sentence,
the paragraph has unity. Thus, Unity is the quality of sticking to one idea from start to finish,
with every sentence contributing to the central purpose and main idea of that paragraph.
Read carefully and notice how the detailed or the supporting sentences in the following
unified paragraph develop the main idea.
All insects have three main body parts. These are the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. The
head has a pair of antennae, and a pair of compound eyes. The thorax is the middle region of the
body, and it bears the legs and wings. The abdomen contains many body organs, such as the
heart, respiratory system, digestive system and reproductive system. Even though there are many
different sizes, shapes, and colors of insects, they all have the same body.
In this model paragraph, all of the detailed or supporting sentences discuss the topic sentence
which is the three main body parts of insects and thus form a unit of thought-oneness of ideas in
the paragraph.
In order to write a unified paragraph, you are thus required to consider the following
points:
 Make sure that your paragraph focuses on a single controlling idea and state that idea in your
topic sentence.
 Check whether you have put your topic sentence effectively within your paragraph or not.
 Stick to one idea from start to finish by making your paragraph's evidences. Avoid any
sentence that does not support or develop the idea stated in your topic sentence.
 Check whether the purpose of your paragraph and the natures of your supporting evidence
guide you or not.
 Explain the relationship between your evidence and your idea clearly and effectively.
2.2.2. Completeness or Adequate Development
Completeness or adequate development is another important element in paragraph writing. If
every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained and supported through

31
evidence and details that work together to explain the paragraph’s controlling idea, we can say a
paragraph is Well-developed or adequately developed. See the model paragraph used under the
topic paragraph unity.
Sample paragraph
There are plenty of things to do tonight besides watching a television. We can invite the
neighbors over and play gin rummy. We can catch up on some reading we have been putting off.
We can build a fire in the fireplace, roast marshmallows and popcorn. We can get out the old
monopoly board and play a few hours. We can even get out the paintbrushes and repaint the
hallway as we have been threatening to do for months.
2.2.3. Coherence
1. What is coherence in paragraph writing?
2. Do you think that a unified paragraph is coherent? Why?
3. Can lack of coherence affect the quality of a paragraph? How?
You have discussed that unity is an important element in developing a paragraph. However, a
unified paragraph can be incoherent when the continuity of thought in it is not maintained. In
order to make your paragraph coherent, you should arrange your sentences in a logical manner
and in a way that follow a definite plan for development. You can achieve this through the
following ways.
A. Using transitional words or phrases
Skill in using transitional words or phrases is vital to coherent writing. Transitional words or
phrases are words and phrases that point out the exact relation between one idea and another, one
sentence and another. Words like therefore, however, for example, and finally are signals that
guide the reader from sentence to sentence. Without them, even orderly and well-written
paragraphs can be confusing and hard to follow.
Transition words allow readers to move from one detail to another. They show how details relate
to one another. Especially, transitions can:
a. Show the order in which actions, steps or thoughts take place.
b. Show the relationship that one thought or action has to another.
c. Help introduce a number of details or thoughts on the same subjects. Transitions help move
the reader smoothly through a paragraph and they serve as sign post to guide the reader from
one thought to the next.
Example
I have so many things to do when I get home today. First, I have to take my dog, Othello, for a
432 walk. Next, I should do my homework for my sociology class and study the chapter on
franchise for Business. After that I should do some laundry, since my sock drawer is empty.
Then, my brother is coming over to fix the tailpipe on my car. Afterward, we will probably order
a pizza for speedy dinner.
Transitional words are sometimes called signal words. These signal words help the writer to
show the direction of his/her so that the reader can easily grasp the idea of the writer.

32
If you read the following paragraph carefully, you will recognize that all the supporting
sentences talk about the main idea stated in the topic sentence. This means the paragraph
has unity. However, the paragraph is incoherent because the appropriate linking words or
phrases are not used.
Everybody catches cold. Cold causes a lot of inconvenience to the sufferers. Some people may
see a doctor with the complaint. Some persons may take inhalation. Some brave persons may
ignore it. They would put up with a running nose. They must keep in their person two
handkerchiefs. They should not blow their nose noisily in a group. They must use the
handkerchiefs to collect the phlegm. They must use the handkerchiefs to collect the phlegm. The
phlegm is infectious. Other may catch cold with your phlegm.
Now, read carefully and check how the above incoherent paragraph is improved to achieve
coherence.
Everybody catches cold. Thereupon, it causes a lot of inconvenience to them. As a result, some
may see a doctor with the complaint. And a few may take inhalation. And yet, a Small number of
brave ones may ignore it completely. Consequently, they would put up with a running nose.
However, such persons must keep with themselves two handkerchiefs. Next, they should not blow
their nose noisily in a group. Furthermore, they must use the handkerchiefs to collect the
phlegm. They must use the handkerchiefs to collect the phlegm. Incidentally, is infectious. Other
may catch cold with your phlegm.
2.3. Paragraph Organization
1. What is paragraph organization?
2. What are the methods used to organize a paragraph?
This section deals with the following methods of paragraph organization that help you achieve
coherence in your paragraphs.
A. Spatial Order
Spatial organization utilizes the concept of space. Spatial organization is frequently used in
descriptions where the writer moves in an orderly manner from one feature to the next.
Model paragraph:
My room is a nice comfortable place. As you enter the room, you will see my desk on the right.
Next to my desk, there is a wide fireplace with a chimney on the top of it. As you pass the fire
place you will see my bed. Now you will have to make a left turn. As you pass along my bed, on
the wall you will notice a window that opens to a beautiful garden. When you get to the foot of
my bed, you will have to make another left turn; otherwise, you will bang against the wall in
front of you. After you have made the turn, you will see my computer table in the corner in front
of you. On this table you will find my computer and all of its peripherals. Then you should make
your last turn and move along the wall to get to the door; one step further, and you will be in the
hall.
B. Chronological Order (Time Order)
Chronological order can suit different rhetorical modes or patterns of exposition. It naturally fits
in narration, because when we tell a story, we usually follow the order in which events occur.

33
Chronological order applies to process in the same way, because when we describe or explain
how something happens or works, we usually follow the order in which the events occur.
Model paragraph:
Geologists divide much of the earth’s history into periods of time called Eons. The first period,
the pre-Archean period, includes the phase from the origin of the earth to 3.8 billion years ago.
The second, the Archean Eon includes the period from 3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago. It marks a
time in which the structure of the earth underwent many changes and the first life form appeared
on the earth. During the Proterozoic Eon, the third period, the earth was partially covered by
shallow seas and ice sheets. This period refers to 2.5 billion to 570 million years ago. During
this phase, life advanced from the most basic organisms to plants and animals that looked like
some of the species alive today. The most recent eon of the earth is the Phanerozoic Eon which
includes 570 million years ago up to now. During this Eon, the earth and life on it gradually
changed to their present state.
When organizing a paragraph using a chronological order, notice that you have two choices:
1. beginning from past and moving towards present, or
2. beginning from present and moving towards past.
There is no serious difference between these two methods. It is a matter of choice. Many writers
prefer to follow the course of events as they actually occurred in history. Some writers, however,
prefer to flash back. They go from present to past, or technically move in the direction opposite
to history.
The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three distinct eras. The most recent era of this Eon is the
Cenozoic Era. It began 65 million years ago, and is still going on. The second era of this Eon is
called the Mesozoic Era. This era is older than the Cenozoic Era. It refers to stretch of time
which began 240 million years ago and ended 65 million years ago. Finally, the oldest era is
called the Paleozoic Era. It began 570 million years ago. The Paleozoic Era ended 240 million
years ago.
An analysis of this model paragraph will read as follows:
General Class: Eras of the Phanerozoic Eon
Class Members: Third era: 65 million years ago to present
Second era: 240 to 65 million years ago
First era: 570 to 240 million years ago

2.4. Types of paragraphs

Basically there are four types of paragraphs namely: Descriptive, Expository, Narrative and
persuasive paragraphs.
2.4.1 Descriptive Paragraph
A description is a form of writing that gives a picturesque of a topic. It shows the reader what a
person, a place, a scene, a thing, or an emotion is like. Thus, when you write a description, you

34
use words to paint a picture for your readers. With description, you use language that creates a
vivid impression of what you have seen, heard, smelled, tasted, or touched.
2.4.2. Expository Paragraph
The purpose for an expository or explanatory paragraph is to give information about a
subject. This paragraph should explain ideas, phenomenon, gives directions, or shows a process
of how to accomplish something. Expository paragraph can be written by using a combination
of all or some of the following techniques of developing ideas: Definition, Cause and effect,
classification, process writing, comparison and contrast, illustration, identification and analysis.
A. Definition
Definition is a method of explaining words or phrases.
When you develop a paragraph through definition, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 Have a clear topic sentence that states the paragraph’s main idea
 Your topic sentence must identify the term you are defining.
 Check that all examples and details support your topic sentence.
 Check whether your transitions are appropriate for the pattern of development you use, or
to add transitions to make your paragraph more coherent.
 End the paragraph with a concluding statement that summarizes your main idea.
Model Paragraph
Imperialism is a nineteenth-century term that refers to the policy by which one country
takes over the land or the government of another country. The goal of imperialism was to
establish an empire. The imperialist country thought that it was superior to the country it
took over. It justified its actions by saying that it was helping the other country. For
instance, countries such as Germany, Belgium, Spain, and England claimed large areas
of land in Africa. The point of imperialism was to take as much out of the occupied
countries as possible. For example, in South America and Mexico, Spain removed tons of
gold from the areas it occupied. It made the natives into slaves and forced them to work
in mines. In order to protect their interests, imperialist countries often sent troops to
occupy other countries and to keep order. As a result, imperialism kept the people in
occupied countries in poverty and often broke down local governments and local
traditions. At its worst, European imperialism brought slavery, destruction, and death to
many people.
A. Exemplification
An exemplification paragraph explains or clarifies the idea in the topic sentence with specific
examples. Personal experiences, class discussions, observations, conversations, and reading (for
example, in newspapers and magazines or on the Internet) can all be good sources of examples.
When you write an exemplification paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 An exemplification paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that states the paragraph’s
main idea.
 The topic sentence is followed by examples that support the main idea.

35
 Examples should be arranged in logical order—for example, from least important to most
important or from general to specific.
 An exemplification paragraph ends with a concluding statement that sums up its main idea.
The following paragraph uses several examples to make the point that some countries
change their names for political reasons.
New Government, New Name
Often, when countries change their names, it is for political reasons. Sometimes a new
government decides to change the country’s name to separate itself from an earlier government.
For example, Burma became Myanmar when a military government took over in 1989.
Cambodia has had several name changes as well. After a coup in 1970, it was called the Khmer
Republic. Then, in 1975, under communist rule, it became Kampuchea. Gaining independence
from another nation is another reason for a country to change its name. For instance, in 1957,
after gaining independence from the Great Britain, the Gold Coast became Ghana. Another
name change occurred when the French Sudan became Mali. After gaining independence from
France in 1960, it decided to reject its colonial past. Finally, Zimbabwe gave up its former
British name, Rhodesia, several years after winning independence. These name changes can be
confusing, but they reveal the changing political climate of the countries in which they occur.
C. Cause and Effect
If your purpose for writing is to determine condition or reason and result or outcome, you should
use cause and effect method. Cause and effect analysis states the cause in the topic sentence and
then proceeds to analyze the topic by discussing the effects of the central idea. A cause is
something or someone that makes something happen. An effect is something brought about by a
particular cause. A cause-and effect paragraph helps readers understand why something
happened or is happening or shows readers how one thing affects something else.
When you write a cause-and-effect paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 A cause-and-effect paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that tells readers whether
the paragraph is focusing on causes or on effects
 The causes or effects should be arranged in some kind of logical order—for example, from
least important to most important.
 A cause-and-effect paragraph should end with a concluding statement that sums up the main
idea stated in the topic sentence.
Model Paragraph
There are many causes that make writing a research paper difficult. Too often, students postpone
work on the paper until it is too late. They also invite avoidable difficulty by their failure to find
out at the beginning of their study whether sufficient materials are available in the library.
Besides this, instead of developing a general notion of the topic before tackling it in detail, they
begin with the first convenient book and plunge into five points before they have decided what
kind of information they need. Such confused research procedures result in unnecessary wastage
of time and effort.

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D. Process
If the purpose is to explain the series of actions, stages, or procedures, then you should use
process method.
When you write a process paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 A process paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that identifies both the process
and the point you want to make about it.
 A process paragraph should describe the steps in the process, one at a time.
 A process paragraph should end with a concluding statement that sums up the point you
are making about the process.
Model paragraph
The writing process has four distinct phases. The first is invention, which is aided by any number
of techniques, including free-writing, mind-mapping and outlining. In this first stage, it’s
important for a writer not to edit but to let ideas flow and to simply get them down on paper.
After invention, comes the first draft—the stage where the ideas start to take shape. Many writers
use a sentence outline at this stage to see where they need to cut and where they need to add
material. The first draft is also where writers should develop a tentative thesis to guide the
structure of their essay. The next stage of the process is when both the second and third drafts
are done. Here, ideas and structure are refined, and the thesis is revised until it becomes the
unifying idea of the paper. Finally, comes the last stage, that of editing. Writers should take care
at this stage that all sentence structure and punctuation is correct, and they should make
corrections to documentation format as needed. Writers often repeat these four phases more than
once, or skip a phase and go back to it, making the writing process more cyclical than linear.
E. Comparison and Contrast
Comparison and contrast is a method of analyzing or examining two or more subjects according
to their similarities and differences or both.
When you write a comparison-and-contrast paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
A comparison-and-contrast paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that tells readers
whether the paragraph is going to discuss similarities or differences.
A comparison-and-contrast paragraph should discuss the same or similar points for both subjects,
one by one. Points should be arranged in logical order—for example, from least important to
most important.
 A comparison-and-contrast paragraph should end with a concluding statement that reinforces
the main point of the comparison.

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Model Paragraph 1
Eating on Campus Food trucks are a good alternative to the campus cafeteria. Eating in the
cafeteria takes a lot of time. Students have to go into a building, wait in line, walk down some
stairs, and find a table. In addition, the cafeteria usually has a limited variety of food, with only
two or three different hot meals and some prepackaged sandwiches. The food is cooked in
advance, and after sitting on a steam tray for a few hours, it is dry and lukewarm. Finally, food
in the cafeteria costs a lot. Students who are not on a food plan can easily spend more money for
dinner. In contrast, the food trucks are much quicker than the cafeteria. Most food trucks serve a
meal in less than five minutes. If the weather is nice, students can sit anywhere on campus and
eat. In addition, the food trucks offer a lot of choice. Moreover, the food from the trucks is fresh
and hot most of the time. Finally, meals from a food truck usually cost less. This is a big savings,
especially if you are a student on a tight budget. For busy students, the food trucks are often a
better choice than the cafeteria.
Model Paragraph 2
Professor John and Professor Diana demonstrate very different teaching styles in how they
operate their classes, how they give exams, and they grade us. Professor John’s classes are
highly organized; we work through the lesson every day in the same order. Professor Diana uses
an opposite approach. She creates a lesson to fit the material, which enable us to learn most.
Their exams differ too. Professor John gives standard, predictable essay exams that are based on
his lectures. Professor Diana gives both multiple choice and essay exams, so we never know
what to expect. In addition, each professor grades differently. Professor John counts class
participation as half of our grade, so if you talk in class and do reasonably well on the exams,
you will probably pass the course. Professor Diana, on the other hand, counts the exams 100
percent, so you have to do well on them to pass the course. Each professor has a unique,
enjoyable teaching style, and I am learning a great a lot from each.
F. Classification
Classification is the arrangement of information into groups or categories in order to make clear
the relationship among the members of the group. Writers need to classify, because it helps them
present a mass of material by mean of some orderly system.
When you write a classification paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 A classification paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that introduces the subject of
the paragraph. It may also identify the categories you will discuss.
 A classification paragraph should discuss each of the categories, one at a time
 The categories in a classification paragraph should be arranged in logical order.
A classification paragraph should end with a concluding statement that reinforces the main point
stated in the topic sentence.

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Model Paragraph
Three Kinds of Shoppers
Shoppers can be put into three categories: practical, recreational, and professional. The first
category is made up of practical shoppers, those who shop because they need something.
Practical shoppers go right to the item they are looking for in the store and then leave. They do
not waste time browsing or walking aimlessly from store to store. The next category is made up
of recreational shoppers, those who shop for entertainment. For them, shopping is like going to
the movies or out to dinner. They do it because it is fun. They will spend hours walking through
stores looking at merchandise. More often than not, they will not buy anything. For recreational
shoppers, it is the activity of shopping that count, not the purchase itself. The third category is
made up of professional shoppers, those who shop because they have to. For them, shopping is a
serious business. You can see them in the mall, carrying four, five, or even six bags. Whenever
you walk through a mall, you will see all three types of shoppers.

2.5.3. Narrative Paragraph

To narrate is to tell a story that explains what happened, when it happened, and who was
involved.
When you write a narrative paragraph, you need to keep the following guidelines in mind:
 narrative paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that tells readers the point of the
paragraph—that is, why you are telling a particular story.
 Events are presented in a definite time order, usually the order in which they occurred.
 You should allow your readers to build up their emotions with your use of nouns and verbs.
You should have a sense of reality.
 You should write either from the first person point of view or from the omniscient (third
person) point of view.
Model Paragraph
When I was about five years old, I remember doing a lot of exciting things. We had a large
mango trees growing behind our house, and my sister and I climbed them in the summer. One
time I fell out of one of the trees and landed on my head, but I was not badly hurt. We also
played baseball in the backyard with the neighbor kids, and I remember we used my mother’s
dishes for home plate and the bases. We rode our bikes all over the north end of the town, and
we raced through the alleys after a train, splattering water and mud to each other. The high
school was only a block away, so we walked there in the summer, jumped the fence, and skated
around the cement corridors until a custodian chased us out. Finally, there was a big vacant lot
beside our house where we played cowboys and countrymen almost every Saturday. It seems like
I did nothing but play when I was young.
2.6.4. Argumentative
In an argument paragraph, your purpose is to persuade readers that your position has merit. You
attempt to convince people of the strength of your ideas by presenting evidence—facts and
examples.

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When you write an argument paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 An argument paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that states your position. Using
words like should, should not, or ought to in your topic sentence will make your position
clear to readers.
 An argument paragraph should present points that support the topic sentence.
 An argument paragraph should support each point with evidence (facts and examples).
 An argument paragraph should address and refute (argue against) opposing arguments. By
showing that an opponent’s arguments are weak or inaccurate, you strengthen your own
position.
Model paragraph

Some people argue that the government should provide free university education because such
education benefits the whole community. They assert that the skills that students learn at
university are important for the future social and economic development of our nation.
Therefore, so this argument goes, the government should invest money in education as it does
with other vital resources. According to this argument, when students are forced to pay for their
education themselves fewer of them will enroll in higher education courses. However, it is
undeniable fact that the government is able to invest the money it gets back into the higher
education system so that overall quality is improved. Furthermore, there is money to fund more
places for students so that in the future we will not have the shortage of places we had in the
past. Moreover, it is unreasonable to expect taxpayers to pay for students' education when those
students get well-paid professional jobs after they graduate.
Unit Three: What is an Essay?
An essay is a piece of writing several paragraphs long. It is about one topic, just as a paragraph
is. However, because the topic of an essay is too complex to discuss in one paragraph, you need
to divide it into several paragraphs, one for each major point. Then you need to tie the
paragraphs together by adding an introduction and a conclusion. Writing an essay is no more
difficult than writing a paragraph except that an essay is longer. The principles of organization
are the same for both, so if you can write a good paragraph, you can write a good essay.
The Three Parts of an Essay
An essay has three main parts: an introduction (introductory paragraph), a body (at least two or
more paragraphs), and a conclusion (concluding paragraph).
The following chart shows you how the parts of a paragraph correspond to the parts of an essay.

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1. The introductory Paragraph
 An introductory paragraph has two parts, general statements to attract
your reader's attention and the thesis statement to state the main idea of
the essay. A thesis statement for an essay is like a topic sentence for a
paragraph:
General statements
 introduce the general topic of the essay.
 capture the reader's interest.
The thesis statement
 states the specific topic.
 may list subtopics or subdivisions of the main topic or subtopics.
 may indicate the pattern of organization of the essay.

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  is normally the last sentence in the introductory paragraph.
2. Body Paragraphs
The body paragraphs in an essay are like the supporting sentences in a
paragraph. They are the place to develop your topic and prove your points. You
should organize body paragraphs according to some sort of pattern, such as
chronological order or comparison/contrast. Sometimes, depending on your
topic, you will need to use a combination of patterns.

3. The Concluding Paragraph

The conclusion is the final paragraph in an essay. It has three purposes.
1. It signals the end of the essay. To do so, begin your conclusion with a transition signal.
2. It reminds your reader of your main points, which you can do in one of two ways: You can
• summarize your subtopics.
• paraphrase your thesis.
3. It leaves your reader with your final thoughts on the topic. This is your opportunity to convey
a strong, effective message that your reader will remember.
Model Essay 1

Years ago, medical researchers identified a psychological disorder that they appropriately named
Seasonal Affective Disorder, or SAD. People who suffer from SAD become very depressed
during the winter month Doctors now understand the causes of this condition, which affects
millions of people, particularly in areas of the far north where winter nights are long and the
hours of daylight are few.·

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SAD results from a. decrease in the amount of sunlight sufferers receive. Doctors know that
decreased sunlight increases the production of melatonin, a sleep-related·hormone that is
produced at increased levels in the darks. Therefore, when the days are shorter and darker, the
production of this hormone increases. Shorter, darker days also decrease production of serotonin,
a chemical that helps transmit nerve impulses. Lack of serotonin is known as to be a cause of
depression. Depression may result from the resulting imbalance of these two substances in the
body. Also, doctors believe that a decrease in the amount of sunlight the body receives may
cause a disturbance in the body's natural clock Doctors believe that the combination of chemical
imbalance and biological clock disturbance results in symptoms such as lethargy, oversleeping,
weight gain, anxiety, and irritability-all signs of depression.

Since absence of light seems to be the cause of this disorder, a daily dose of light appears to be
the cure. Doctors advise patients to sit in front of a special light box that simulates1 natural light
for a few hours every day. An hour’s walk outside in winter sunlight may also help.

In conclusion, the depressive effect of low sunlight levels may help explain the high suicide rate
in the Scandinavian countries; more important, it may suggest a remedy: When the days grow
short, turn on the lights.

Model Essay 2

Many employers are now requiring mandatory drug testing for applicants and current employees. Drug
use has risen sharply over the past years and employers now need to take further precautions in order
to maintain a reputable work environment. I believe this extra precaution will improve the workplace
by creating a safer atmosphere, keep integrity and honesty in the staff, and eliminate many illegalities
that go along with drug use in the workplace. These qualities would be further infused if drug
screenings were mandatory.

First, drug use has been proven to alter judgment, which can create unnecessary hazards. Mandatory
drug screenings will therefore create a safer work environment by keeping employees drug free and in
an unaltered state of mind. In many jobs, even the slightest mistake could be crucial, or even fatal.
Drug use was the cause of 31 percent of all workplace-related death in the past year alone. This
percentage could decline immensely if drug use was eliminated.

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Subsequently, drug use also creates unfaithfulness between staff and employer. Drugs are an illegal
substance and would be used in a surreptitious manner, presumably without the knowledge or consent
of the company. Secretive abuse initiates lying and devious behavior. Honesty and integrity should be
a foundation; otherwise, work relations could become corrupt.

Next, there are many laws and regulations against drug use in the workplace already. If an employee is
found using drugs, there leaves reason to believe the employer did nothing to prohibit him or her to do
so. This may instigate that the company itself is not against illegal drug use, or if in the case of
accident, the company may be at risk of a lawsuit. Knowing employees are drug free completely
eliminates all chances of drug-related lawsuits a company could face.

To conclude, I strongly believe mandatory drug testing would be exceedingly beneficial in the
workplace. It would establish a safer atmosphere, keep integrity and honesty in the staff, and eliminate
many illegalities that go along with drug use in the workplace. Although a number of employers
already require drug testing, I believe it should be enforced in every workplace.

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