Chapter 7: Human Memory i 2 ature of Memory/What is memory? twee to Spee from our learning, we must be able to remember it. However, if we forget what we learnt yesterday, then learning is of no use at a Hence, memory is avery important process. Memory refers to retaining and recalling information over a period of time, depending on the nature of task that is required to be performed. Thus, memory refers to what has been learnt. It consists of three separate but interrelated processes. |\® . Encoding: his is the first stage where sensory information is received, rehearsed and transformed for further processing. It is the active process of putting information into the memory by giving meaning to it. nv Storage: Most of our encoded information is necded again in the future. Thus, it is important that it is retained or stored safely. Some information is stored for a short time, ie. in our short-term memory, while some informat’ 5 ~,js stored for a long time, ie. in our long-term memory. » . Retrieval: This is the third stage of memory. When we need the encoded and stored information, we should be able to recover it. Hence, retrieval refers to bringing the stored information to an individual's consciousness so that it can be used for performing various cognitive tasks such as problem solving or decision-making. It involves recall and recognition. However, if there is any failure during any of these three processes, it leads to forgetting. Information Processing Approach: The St: Similar to a computer, human bein; it as per their needs, This anal model. ‘age Model (Atkinson and Shiffrin) Bs too register information, store it and then manipulate logy of Processing information led to the development of stage Maney] ee Sensory, Short-term and Long-term Memori cording to the Stage Model, th, = memory, the short-term memory and tre thte® Memory systems, namely, the sensory id features und performs different Racers long-term memory. Each system has differentChapter 7:Human Memory [CEH Memory: The incoming information first enters the sensory memory. Although ensory Memory registers large amounts of information, this memory is of very short tion, i.e. less than even a second. For exampis, things, shops, etc. that our eyes see sitting, in a moving car. -term Memory: Information that is attended to in the sensory memory enters into second memory level, i.e. the STM or the short-term memory. It stores small amounts ‘of information for brief intervals of time, i.e. for around 30 seconds. For example, you may repeat a new number while dialling but forget it soon after the job is done. 3. Long-term Memory: Information that survives the duration capacity and limitations of short-term memory, finally enters the long-term memory (LTM). Long-term memory has a vast capacity and is a permanent storehouse of all information. The information stored in the LTM is never forgotten because it is encoded semantically, i. in terms of the meaning that it carries. Control processes that monitor the flow of information through various memory stores: 1. Our senses register a lot of information. However, only the information that is attended to, enters the next level of the memory store, i.e. short-term memory. Thus, selective attention is the first control process that filters information. © 2. Short-term memory also has other control processes, namely, maintenance rehearsal and chunking, which may help memory travel for a bit longer in the short-term memory (STM). 3. However, if information has to travel to the long-term memory, then elaborative rehearsals (meaningful interpretations) are needed. This is known as the Stage Model of Memory. 4, Maintenance rehearsal is a process that we see in STM, ie. short-term memory. As ver its name, these rehearsals only maintain information through repetition. When the repetitions stop, the information is lost. ; _-5. Another process called chunking is used in our STM to expand its capacity: The cpacity OS of the STM is 7 + 2, but if we use chunking or grouping, we can increase that capacity For example, the number 194020012015 can be better remembered as 1940, 2001 anc 2012 as the big number is divided into three groups. : 6. If the information has to travel from the STM to the LIM, then just onal rehearsals or repetitions are not useful. The new information has to be conn ce already existing information in a meaningful way and this is done cheoush rehearsals, It consists of organising information in as many ways a possible.Psychology cessing: Craik and Lockhart Fe rae ea ei proposed that it is possible to analyse its incoming information in more than one way. Information can be analysed at its structural or phonetic lel ant it can also be analysed at a much deeper level in relation to its ae and existin associations. Naturally, if it is analysed at a deeper level, the memory for it is also better than just remembering its name or shape. One can use it for effective learning. Tt shows that just rote learning is not useful for longer retention. We remember things much better ies have understood them. Types of Long-term Memory ; ; ; Long-term memory is not unitary because it contains different types of information. This stored memory can be classified as declarative memory and procedural memory (also called non-declarative memory). These are explained as follows: 1. Declarative Memory: It consists of facts, dates, names, etc., e.g. Delhi is the capital of India, It can be verbally expressed. Tulving has further classified declarative memory into episodic and semantic memories. (* (a) Episodic Memory: It deals with individual personal experiences and events that take place in one’s life. It is time ahd space relative. It has emotional value attached to it, e.g. the first day of college. (2) Semantic Memory: It is an organised set of knowledge that one has acquired and stored. It is neither time and space related nor emotional in nature. However, it is rarely forgotten and can be easily recalled. - Procedural Memory: It is a memory of action. It refers to memories related to skills and actions required to perform various tasks. Thus, procedural memory can be defined as the way in which we remember how things are done. It cannot be described in words, eg. driving, playing a song on the guitar, etc, nv Knowledge Representation and Organisation in Memory Since large amounts of information is stored in the memory, very important. Memory is organised in a hierarchical mann and efforts, therefore its organisation is ‘er which saves a lot of time 1. Concepts: These are the mental c: representation in the long-term the concept of a chair, 2. Schemas: These are the the next level, e.g. the sch ategories are at the lowest level, Concepts are units of memory. They are organised in different categories, e.g. ara and our knowledge about the world which are at ema of a drawin, i ct a drawing room to be a room that has a sofa on 8S 8 Pesult of this schema, we expe 3. Nodes: Allen Collins and 4 sofa, a centre table, etc, ; Nodes: Allen Collins and Ross Quill : ; hierarchically in a network Sa Proposed that knowledge is organised des are the elements of this structure. Forexample, if we have to give different concepts like living thereby finally arriving at ow Chapter 7: Human Memory the name of a bird that doesn't fly, beings, animals, birds, and then bir answer, 4. Cognitive Economy: We neatly store all knowledge at a certain the members of a Certain category so that repetition of informati lower levels of the hierarchy. This assures co memory very efficient, e.g. if we use the con it can fly, etc. We quickly go through ds that fly and don’t fly, level that applies to all Hi ion is not needed at the gnitive economy and makes the long-term cept of a bird, we know it will have a beak, 5. Mental Models: ‘These refer to images or visual memories which help us organise the manner in which our environment is structured. There are several everyday tasks that require mental models, e.g. following a roadmap to locate places such as our school library. 6. Dual Coding Hypothesis: The object-related knowledge can be encoded both verbally as well as visually. This is known as dual coding hypothesis. It was proposed by Paivio. According to this hypothesis, concrete nouns and the information related to them are encoded and stored in the form of images. On the other hand, information which is related to abstract concepts assume a verbal and a descriptive code. Thus, if we encode information in two ways, i.e. in the form of images as well as verbal descriptions, it can be recalled in a better manner. Memory as a Constructive Process 3 : Ebbinghaus and his followers proposed that memory is just a reproduction of stored information and if something is missing, then it is an error and a case of memory failure. However, Bartlett challenged this proposition and suggested that memory is not a passive process but an active one. It is not like a cupboard. Some activity is always going on in the memory storage. We are constantly changing information according a a Bee deleting unnecessary information, etc. Hence, retrieval isa coset Eo a a = reproduction. We encode and store information according to our unders I> > motivations and expectations. 1. Serial Reproduction: Bartlett tried to understand how our memory gets affected by our i in which the participants motive: wi jal Reproduction method in s, knowledge etc. He used Seri n the Be : Sis the memory at varying time intervals. He analyzed their erat and found that we wledge, when we reproduce it. change the text according to our knowledge, : a : ee 2. Schema refers to an activ ‘cation of our past experiences and know! ledge. active organisation fs ience ey : infl ee ee, we interpret, store and later retrieve incoming information. influen: i i ed an Nature and Causes of Forgetting bothered us, Ebbinghaus conduct is tion that has always | , is nine hours of Why do we forget ia ese ging ms Bs -xperime!Psychology s i then it slows down. Based on his experi a ee ec nema alwaysa sharp drop in memory ang ae ieee s dawnt happens gradually. Some of the theories that can be = as explain the causes of forgetting are as follows: é 1. Forgetting due to the Trace Decay Theory or the Disuse be a traces cay be defined as the modifications in the central nervous system which are ike physi changes in the brain. According to the trace decay theory, when memory traces are not used for a long time, they simply fade away, ie. we forget. Honea this theory challenged as we don't forget when we sleep after memorising. In fact, more forgetti is observed when we remain awake after memorising: Hence, this theory cannot be considered as a good explanation for forgetting. 2. Forgetting due to Interference: According to this theory, we learn and memorise a lot of information all the time that involves forming associations between various objects which remain in our memories, ‘Thereafter, we keep obtaining several such associations and each of them stays in our memories independently without any mutual conflict, However, at the time of. retrieval, the various associations of stored information compete forgetting about them. ‘There are two kinds of interferences: (a) Proactive Interference: It refers to the process in which earlier learning affects the recall of later learning, e.g. learning task A today affects the learning of task B the next day. (6) Retroactive Interference: It refers to the process in which later learning affects the recall of previous learning, e.g. learning of task B affects the recall of the previously learnt task A. » - Forgetting due to Retrieval Failure: Forgetting can also be a result of the absence of retrieval cues. Such cues are aids that help us in recovering information stored in the memory, 8. someone smiles at you but You fail to recognize him/her. rfowever, when he/she reminds you that both of you had met at a Particular party, the memory comes back. In this example, the party acts as a Tetrieval cue to Place the stranger. Enhancing Memory Everybody is interested in improving their memories, ‘This can be done with the help of ich Teorganisation of the learnt material, 1. Mnemonics using Images: ‘This refers to i material that is to be remembered. Two maj as follows;—~ 1s, 2. Mnemoni Enhancing Memory by using Knowledge Since mnemonics using images and organisati Chapter 7: Human Memory US )) ‘Ihe Method of Loci: It helps to remember items in a serial order. In this method, we visualise objects in a specific sequence and it is like taking a mental walk along ; specific route. For example, if we have lost our key, we mentally go to all the places uhere we had been since morning. oe ics using Organisation: This refers to organising the material that we want to remember in a certain way so that retrieval becomes easy. Two major mnemonic devices which use organisation are as follows: (@) Chunking: In the process of chunking, a large unit is divided into smaller units based on some organisational principle so that it becomes easy to remember the combined large unit. For example, it is easier to remember 198020102016 in three small chunks like 1980, 2010 and 2016. (b) First Letter Technique: In this method, we try to remember the fir: word and arrange them to form another word or a sentence in order to remember all the points. For example, remembering the order of the names of the Mughal rulers as BHAJSA, ie. Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. The first letter of the name of each king is combined to remember their order of succession easily. st letter of every ‘on are too simplistic, we also need strategies using comprehensive application of knowledge for memory enhancement. These strategies are as follows: 1. Deep Level Processing: Knowledge has to be understood and associated with the previous knowledge meaningfully for better retention. Deep level processing refers to understanding the meaning of information and then processing it instead of just focusing on its surface features. Asking questions about the information, keeping in mind its meaning and understanding its relationship with the existing knowledge framework, increases the chances of remembering the information. 2. Minimising Interference: Since interference is a primary reason for forgetting, things that add to the confusion during retrieval should be avoided by taking regular rest periods, not studying similar topics together, etc. . Giving enough Retrieval Cues: For easily recalling information, that are easier to remember as compared to the entire content. The r the content and cues should be clear in order to smoothen the process of retri information. PQRST Method: This method was given by acronym stands for Preview, Question, Read, Self-recitation and having a general overview of the chapter and questioning refers to into a question, the answers to which can be found by seeking in think of retrieval cues lationship between eval of 2 Thomas and Robinson for students. The Test. Preview refers to turning each heading the chapter. This is -EEE Psychology napter to find answers and then sean to check followed by reading the chap roperly. ‘The last step is rewriting what we haye Feane e eee eingle method for improving memory. Many 818s like mot However, there is no ate a role in memory enhancement. An individual m x strategy for he wad Questions from NCERT Textbook 1. What are the meaning of the terms ‘encoding; ‘storage’ and ee Ans. If we are to benefit from our learning, we must be able to remem er it, Memo is the basis for our thinking too. In absence of memory, there will be NO continuity 9, identity in our lives. Memory refers to the process of remembering what has been learnt or experienced. It consists of three separate but interrelated Processes which are as follows. i (#) Encoding: This is the first stage where senscry information is received, rehearsed and transformed for further Processing, It refers to the active process of Putting information into the memory by giving meaning to it, (ii) Storage: Most of our encoded information is needed again in the future. Thus, it is important that it is retained or stored safely. Some information is stored for a short time, ie. in our short-term memory while some information is stored for a long time, i. in our long-term memory. (ii) Retrieval: When we need the encoded and stored information, we should be able to recover it. This process is called retrieval and it may involve recall or recognition. If there is any failure during any of these three Processes, it leads to forgetting. 2. How is information memory systems? Ans. There are three mel different functions Processed through the sensory, short-term and long-term mory systems, Each system has different features and performs - The different memor systes 3 () Sensory Memory; ‘The j ing infor a Although the SensoryChapter 7: Human Memory EEA es the duration capacity and finally enters the long-term memory arsal helps in organising the information ‘as a vast capacity and is a permanent ‘mation. storedin the LTMisnever forgotten Le. in terms of the meaning that it carries, 3. How are maintenance rehearsals different from elaborate rehearsals? ‘Ans. Short-term memory involves the process of maintenance rehearsal to retain information. As the name suggests, this kind of rehearsal simply maintains information through vocal repetition. When such repetition is discontinued, the information is lost. If the information has to travel from the short-term memory to the long-term memory, it has to go through elaborative rehearsals. Elaborative rehearsals connect the new information to the already existing information in a meaningful way. They involve analysis and organisation of new information in as many ways as possible, 4, Differentiate between declarative and procedural memories. Ans. Long-term memory can be classified into declarative and non-declarative (also called procedural) memories. All information related to facts, meanings, names, dates or concepts are a part of declarative memory, e.g. the meaning of rose, ostrich is a bird that doesn't fly, your friend’s birthday, etc. Such memories can be easily verbalised. On the other hand, procedural memory is the memory of action. It consists of memories relating to various procedures and stimulus-response connections that are needed to perform different skills like playing a song on guitar, swimming, riding a bicycle, etc. Such memories cannot be described in words. One has to play a song on the guitar to show how it is played as words cannot explain the process properly. Describe the hierarchical organisation in long-term memory. Ans. Long-term memory holds a large amount of information and we use it with such efficiency that mostly, the right information is available at the right time. This shows that information stored in the LTM is highly organised. Collins and Quillian suggested that knowledge is hierarchically organised in the LTM and it assumes the structure of a network. The elements of this structure are called nodes. Nodes are concepts which form the base of information, e.g. the concept of a home. At the next level are connections between the nodes called labelled relationships. They indicate category membership or concept attributes or schema, e.g. the concept of a drawing room and our knowledge of all that it contains. According to this view, we can store all knowledge at a certain level without having to repeat that information at the lower levels in the hierarchy, It ensures cognitive economy which means optimum. use of the LTM with minimum redundancy. 6. Why does forgetting take place? : Ans. Forgetting refers to the failure to remember learnt information or experience. It may (iii) Long-term Memory: Information that surviy limitations of short-term memory, (LTM). The process of elaborative rehe: meaningfully. Long-term memory h storehouse ofall information. The infor: because it is encoded semantically, “Psychology rocesses. Some of. oad «any failure in the three memory p' Be determing ea Ans, Se » Memo occur if there is : follows: ion is not interpret of forgetting are as fo "ow: If the information is n Preted op Pro, g B re: @ a Tas obviously lost and not How for the future, Many ie Dciterattenton is also a major cause of forgetting, d fe 7 a = a Failure: When the memory traces are not used for a long time, g ‘ii) tors . h y , th imply fade away and become unavailable. Hence, i is also known a¢ thes si eon (iii) oe fe Failure in the process of retrieval can be due to two things ws: i Tees eee Interference is one of the main reasons Which Tesul in forgetting. Interference can be Proactive which means what you have lear earlier interferes with the recall of later information. It can also be Tettoactive which means there is difficulty in recalling what you have earnt eatler because of learning new material. + Encoding Specificity or Cue Dependent Memory: Sometimes, informations stored along with a retrieval cue which helps us in remembering it. However if this cue is missing, the information becomes inaccessible and we forget about it. How is retrieval-related forgetting different from forgetting due to interference? Interference is one of the main reasons which results in forgetting. Interference can be what you have learnt earlier because of learning new material, ‘Thus, interference comes about at the time of retrieval when Various sets of associated information compete with each other for retrieval, Forgetting is not only due to fading memory traces but also because of disuse or interference, Sometimes, information is stored along with a retrieval cue which helps us in remembering. However if this cue is missing, the information becomes inaccessible and we forget about it What evidence do we have to Say that ‘memory is a constructive Process’? e pr ner Pi say GES but an active one. When sensory ator pega Recessed at the time of encoding, it is the process Cae However, recaifte oe 1 tore even a information, reconstruction takes pl 2g is not just reproduction, It rarely an exact copy of the 0! image. It undergoes chan On our own interes es, ificati i eae ge and modifications based ds Chapter 7: Human Memory [Eggi] 9. ere eel athe te improve your own memory. ver ving their memories. This c: i fw reno intreed in improing ther memories Thiscan be don wth the ep Beer arerfion ofthe learnt material, Some mncmontecare axles ne (i) Mnemonics using Images: This refers to creating clear and aca i of the material that is to be remembered. Two major mnemonic dé eee use vivid images are as follows: aie (a) The Keyword Method: In this method, a familiar word acts as a keyword to learn new and unfamiliar words. It works much better than rote memory. For example, while learning a foreign language, an English word that sounds similar to a word of the foreign language is identified. This word then acts as a keyword and helps us in learning and remembering the word in the foreign language. (b) The Method of Loci: In this method, we visualise the objects that we want to remember such that they are arranged in a physical space in a specific sequence. It helps to remember items in a serial order and is like taking a mental walk along a specific route. For example, if we have lost our key, we mentally go to all the places where we had been since morning. (ii) Mnemonics using Organisation: This refers to organising the material that we want to remember in a certain way so that retrieval becomes easy. Two major mnemonic devices which use organisation are as follows: (a) Chunking: In the process of chunking, a large unit is divided into smaller units based on some organisational principle so that it becomes easy to remember the combined large unit. For example, it is easier to remember 198020102016 in three small chunks like 1980, 2010 and 2016. (6) First Letter Technique: In this method, we try to remember the first letter of every word and arrange them to form another word or a sentence in crder to remember all the points. For example, remembering the order of the names of the Mughal rulers as BHAJSA, i.e. Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. The first letter of the name of each king is combined to remember their order of succession easily. Similarly, VIBGYOR stands for violet, indigo, blue, green, yellows orange and red. However, such memory devices using images and organisation are very snes complicated process like memory. A more comprehensive approach using knowlee8 will involve the following techniques: (i) Engaging in Deep Level Proc: information has to be processe surface features. Knowledge ae ie ee i ‘ing for better ‘ previous knowledge meaning! he aad ands the information, keeping in min essing: Craik and Lockhart demonstrated that .d meaningfully instead of just focusing on its be understood and associated with the wntion. Asking questions about g its relationshipPsychology ork increases the chances of Temembe. , isting knowledge framew with the existing ® the information, : Since interference is a primary reason for forgen: (ii) Minimising Interference: Since ae rosie should bea ne i, things that add to the confus} Pree eee ee king ds, not studying similar topi Be h , peauley ca Be oaioes Cues: For easily recalling information, thin o eae eeu aa are easier to remember as compared to the e; aes between the content and the cues should be cle; in order to smoothen the process of retrieval of information, (iv) PQRST method: This method was given by Thomas and Robinson for The acronym stands for Preview, Question, Read, Self-recitation and Test Preview refers to having a general overview of the chapter and questioning tefers to turning each heading into a question, the answers to which can be found by seeking in the chapter. This is followed by reading the chapter to find answers and then self-recitation to check whether we have learnt the ch; er Properly. The last step is rewr iting what we have read and giving tests to confirm our learning and test our knowledge, However, although all these methods are no single specific method that can im; 5 f ntire Content ‘arly identifieg T students useful to improve memory but there is ‘prove memory instantly. Many things like motivation, interest, health, etc, also play a role in memory enhancement. We must i strategies for improving memory depending upon the nature of the memory tasks, Additional Questions Section A: Learning Checks