Image Processing Lecture 6

Filtering in the spatial domain (Spatial Filtering)

refers to image operators that change the gray value at any pixel (x,y)
depending on the pixel values in a square neighborhood centered at (x,y)
using a fixed integer matrix of the same size. The integer matrix is called
a filter, mask, kernel or a window.
The mechanism of spatial filtering, shown below, consists simply
of moving the filter mask from pixel to pixel in an image. At each pixel
(x,y), the response of the filter at that pixel is calculated using a
predefined relationship (linear or nonlinear).

Figure 6.1 Spatial filtering

Note:
The size of mask must be odd (i.e. 3×3, 5×5, etc.) to ensure it has a
center. The smallest meaningful size is 3×3.

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Image Processing Lecture 6

Linear Spatial Filtering (Convolution)

The process consists of moving the filter mask from pixel to pixel in an
image. At each pixel (x,y), the response is given by a sum of products of
the filter coefficients and the corresponding image pixels in the area
spanned by the filter mask.
For the 3×3 mask shown in the previous figure, the result (or response),
R, of linear filtering is:

= (−1, −1) ( − 1, − 1) + (−1,0) ( − 1, ) + ⋯

+ (0,0) ( , ) + ⋯ + (1,0) ( + 1, ) + (1,1) ( + 1, + 1)

In general, linear filtering of an image f of size M× N with a filter mask of

size m× n is given by the expression:

( , )= ( , ) ( + , + )

where a = (m - 1)/2 and b = (n - l)/2. To generate a complete filtered

image this equation must be applied for x = 0,1, 2,..., M-1 and y = 0,1,
2,..., N-1.

Nonlinear Spatial Filtering

The operation also consists of moving the filter mask from pixel to pixel
in an image. The filtering operation is based conditionally on the values
of the pixels in the neighborhood, and they do not explicitly use
coefficients in the sum-of-products manner.
For example, noise reduction can be achieved effectively with a
nonlinear filter whose basic function is to compute the median gray-level
value in the neighborhood in which the filter is located. Computation of
the median is a nonlinear operation.

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Image Processing Lecture 6

Example:
Use the following 3×3mask to perform the convolution process on the
shaded pixels in the 5×5 image below. Write the filtered image.

0 1/6 0 30 40 50 70 90
1/6 1/3 1/6 40 50 80 60 100
0 1/6 0 35 255 70 0 120
3×3 mask 30 45 80 100 130
40 50 90 125 140
5×5 image

Solution:
1 1 1 1 1
0 × 30 + × 40 + 0 × 50 + × 40 + × 50 + × 80 + 0 × 35 + × 255
6 6 3 6 6
+ 0 × 70 = 85
1 1 1 1 1
0 × 40 + × 50 + 0 × 70 + × 50 + × 80 + × 60 + 0 × 255 + × 70
6 6 3 6 6
+ 0 × 0 = 65
1 1 1 1 1
0 × 50 + × 70 + 0 × 90 + × 80 + × 60 + × 100 + 0 × 70 + × 0
6 6 3 6 6
+ 0 × 120 =
1 1 1 1 1
0 × 40 + × 50 + 0 × 80 + × 35 + × 255 + × 70 + 0 × 30 + × 45
6 6 3 6 6
+ 0 × 80 = 118
and so on …

30 40 50 70 90
40 85 65 61 100
Filtered image = 35 118 92 58 120
30 84 77 89 130
40 50 90 125 140

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Image Processing Lecture 6

Spatial Filters
Spatial filters can be classified by effect into:
1. Smoothing Spatial Filters: also called lowpass filters. They include:
1.1 Averaging linear filters
1.2 Order-statistics nonlinear filters.
2. Sharpening Spatial Filters: also called highpass filters. For example,
the Laplacian linear filter.

Smoothing Spatial Filters

are used for blurring and for noise reduction. Blurring is used in
preprocessing steps to:
§ remove small details from an image prior to (large) object
extraction
§ bridge small gaps in lines or curves.
Noise reduction can be accomplished by blurring with a linear filter and
also by nonlinear filtering.

Averaging linear filters

The response of averaging filter is simply the average of the pixels
contained in the neighborhood of the filter mask.
The output of averaging filters is a smoothed image with reduced "sharp"
transitions in gray levels.
Noise and edges consist of sharp transitions in gray levels. Thus
smoothing filters are used for noise reduction; however, they have the
undesirable side effect that they blur edges.

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Image Processing Lecture 6

The figure below shows two 3×3 averaging filters.

1 1 1 1 2 1
1 1 1 1 1 2 4 2
× ×
9 16
1 1 1 1 2 1
Standard average filter Weighted average filter
Note:
Weighted average filter has different coefficients to give more
importance (weight) to some pixels at the expense of others. The idea
behind that is to reduce blurring in the smoothing process.

Averaging linear filtering of an image f of size M× N with a filter mask of

size m× n is given by the expression:

To generate a complete filtered image this equation must be applied for

x = 0,1, 2,..., M-1 and y = 0,1, 2,..., N-1.

Figure below shows an example of applying the standard averaging filter.

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Image Processing Lecture 6

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)
Figure 6.2 Effect of averaging filter. (a) Original image. (b)-(f) Results of smoothing with
square averaging filter masks of sizes n = 3,5,9,15, and 35, respectively.

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Image Processing Lecture 6

As shown in the figure, the effects of averaging linear filter are:

1. Blurring which is increased whenever the mask size increases.
2. Blending (removing) small objects with the background. The size
of the mask establishes the relative size of the blended objects.
3. Black border because of padding the borders of the original image.
4. Reduced image quality.

Order-statistics filters
are nonlinear spatial filters whose response is based on ordering (ranking)
the pixels contained in the neighborhood, and then replacing the value of
the center pixel with the value determined by the ranking result.
Examples include Max, Min, and Median filters.

Median filter
It replaces the value at the center by the median pixel value in the
neighborhood, (i.e. the middle element after they are sorted). Median
filters are particularly useful in removing impulse noise (also known as
salt-and-pepper noise). Salt = 255, pepper = 0 gray levels.
In a 3×3 neighborhood the median is the 5th largest value, in a 5×5
neighborhood the 13th largest value, and so on.
For example, suppose that a 3×3 neighborhood has gray levels (10,
20, 0, 20, 255, 20, 20, 25, 15). These values are sorted as
(0,10,15,20,20,20,20,25,255), which results in a median of 20 that
replaces the original pixel value 255 (salt noise).

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Image Processing Lecture 6

Example:
Consider the following 5×5 image:
20 30 50 80 100
30 20 80 100 110
25 255 70 0 120
30 30 80 100 130
40 50 90 125 140
Apply a 3×3 median filter on the shaded pixels, and write the filtered
image.

Solution
20 30 50 80 100 20 30 50 80 100
30 20 80 100 110 30 20 80 100 110
25 255 70 0 120 25 255 70 0 120
30 30 80 100 130 30 30 80 100 130
40 50 90 125 140 40 50 90 125 140
Sort: Sort
20, 25, 30, 30, 30, 70, 80, 80, 255 0, 20, 30, 70, 80, 80, 100, 100, 255

20 30 50 80 100
30 20 80 100 110
25 255 70 0 120
30 30 80 100 130
40 50 90 125 140
Sort
0, 70, 80, 80, 100, 100, 110, 120, 130

20 30 50 80 100
30 20 80 100 110
Filtered Image = 25 30 80 100 120
30 30 80 100 130
40 50 90 125 140

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Image Processing Lecture 6

Figure below shows an example of applying the median filter on an

image corrupted with salt-and-pepper noise.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 6.3 Effect of median filter. (a) Image corrupted by salt & pepper noise. (b) Result of
applying 3×3 standard averaging filter on (a). (c) Result of applying 3×3 median filter on (a).

As shown in the figure, the effects of median filter are:

1. Noise reduction
2. Less blurring than averaging linear filter

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Image Processing Lecture 6

Sharpening Spatial Filters

Sharpening aims to highlight fine details (e.g. edges) in an image, or
enhance detail that has been blurred through errors or imperfect capturing
devices.
Image blurring can be achieved using averaging filters, and hence
sharpening can be achieved by operators that invert averaging operators.
In mathematics, averaging is equivalent to the concept of integration, and
differentiation inverts integration. Thus, sharpening spatial filters can be
represented by partial derivatives.

Partial derivatives of digital functions

The first order partial derivatives of the digital image f(x,y) are:

= ( + 1, ) − ( , ) and = ( , + 1) − ( , )

The first derivative must be:

1) zero along flat segments (i.e. constant gray values).
2) non-zero at the outset of gray level step or ramp (edges or
noise)
3) non-zero along segments of continuing changes (i.e. ramps).

The second order partial derivatives of the digital image f(x,y) are:

= ( + 1, ) + ( − 1, ) − 2 ( , )

= ( , + 1) + ( , − 1) − 2 ( , )

The second derivative must be:

1) zero along flat segments.
2) nonzero at the outset and end of a gray-level step or ramp;

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Image Processing Lecture 6

3) zero along ramps

Consider the example below:

Figure 6.4 Example of partial derivatives

We conclude that:
• 1st derivative detects thick edges while 2nd derivative detects thin
edges.
• 2nd derivative has much stronger response at gray-level step than 1st
derivative.
Thus, we can expect a second-order derivative to enhance fine detail (thin
lines, edges, including noise) much more than a first-order derivative.

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Image Processing Lecture 6

The Laplacian Filter

The Laplacian operator of an image f(x,y) is:

∇ = +

This equation can be implemented using the 3×3 mask:

−1 −1 −1
−1 8 −1
−1 −1 −1
Since the Laplacian filter is a linear spatial filter, we can apply it using
the same mechanism of the convolution process. This will produce a
laplacian image that has grayish edge lines and other discontinuities, all
superimposed on a dark, featureless background.
Background features can be "recovered" while still preserving the
sharpening effect of the Laplacian operation simply by adding the
original and Laplacian images.
( , )= ( , )+∇ ( , )
The figure below shows an example of using Laplacian filter to sharpen
an image.

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Image Processing Lecture 6

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 6.5 Example of applying Laplacian filter. (a) Original image. (b) Laplacian image.
(c) Sharpened image.

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