Grape varieties: flashcards

1 Principal white grape varieties...............................................................................................4

1.1 Riesling...................................................................................................................................4
1.1.1 Characteristics................................................................................................................4
1.1.2 Winemaking & maturation options................................................................................4
1.1.3 Important regions..........................................................................................................4
1.1.4 Labelling focus...............................................................................................................5
1.2 Chardonnay...........................................................................................................................6
1.2.1 Characteristics................................................................................................................6
1.2.2 Winemaking & maturation options................................................................................6
1.2.3 Important regions..........................................................................................................7
1.2.4 Labelling focus...............................................................................................................8
1.3 Sauvignon Blanc.....................................................................................................................9
1.3.1 Characteristics................................................................................................................9
1.3.2 Winemaking & maturation options................................................................................9
1.3.3 Important regions........................................................................................................10
1.4 Pinot Grigio / Pinot Gris.......................................................................................................11
1.4.1 Characteristics..............................................................................................................11
1.4.2 Winemaking options and maturation..........................................................................11
1.4.3 Important regions........................................................................................................11
1.4.4 Labelling focus.............................................................................................................12
2 Region white grape varieties.......................................................................................................13
2.1 Chenin Blanc........................................................................................................................13
2.1.1 Characteristics..............................................................................................................13
2.1.2 Important regions........................................................................................................13
2.2 Sémillon / Semillon..............................................................................................................14
2.2.1 Characteristics..............................................................................................................14
2.2.2 Important regions........................................................................................................14
2.3 Furmint................................................................................................................................14
2.3.1 Characteristics..............................................................................................................14
2.4 Gewurztraminer...................................................................................................................15
2.5 Viognier...............................................................................................................................15
2.6 Albariño...............................................................................................................................15
2.7 Cortese.................................................................................................................................16
2.8 Garganega............................................................................................................................16
2.9 Verdicchio............................................................................................................................16

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 2.10 Fiano....................................................................................................................................17
3 Principal black grape varieties.....................................................................................................18
3.1 Pinot Noir.............................................................................................................................18
3.1.1 Characteristics..............................................................................................................18
3.1.2 Winemaking & maturation options..............................................................................18
3.1.3 Important regions........................................................................................................18
3.2 Merlot..................................................................................................................................19
3.2.1 Characteristics..............................................................................................................19
3.2.2 Winemaking & maturation options..............................................................................19
3.2.3 Important regions........................................................................................................19
3.2.4 Labelling focus.............................................................................................................20
3.3 Cabernet Sauvignon.............................................................................................................21
3.3.1 Characteristics..............................................................................................................21
3.3.2 Winemaking & maturation options..............................................................................21
3.3.3 Important regions........................................................................................................21
3.3.4 Labelling focus.............................................................................................................22
3.4 Syrah/Shiraz.........................................................................................................................23
3.4.1 Characteristics..............................................................................................................23
3.4.2 Winemaking & maturation options..............................................................................23
3.4.3 Important regions........................................................................................................23
4 Regional black grape varieties.....................................................................................................24
4.1 Gamay..................................................................................................................................24
4.1.1 Characteristics..............................................................................................................24
4.1.2 Labelling focus.............................................................................................................24
4.2 Grenache / Garnacha...........................................................................................................25
4.2.1 Characteristics..............................................................................................................25
4.2.2 Important regions........................................................................................................25
4.2.3 Labelling focus.............................................................................................................25
4.3 Tempranillo..........................................................................................................................26
4.3.1 Characteristics..............................................................................................................26
4.3.2 Important regions........................................................................................................26
4.3.3 Labelling focus.............................................................................................................26
4.4 Carmenère...........................................................................................................................27
4.5 Malbec.................................................................................................................................27
4.6 Pinotage...............................................................................................................................27
4.7 Nebbiolo..............................................................................................................................28
4.8 Barbera................................................................................................................................28

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4.9 Corvina.................................................................................................................................28

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1 Principal white grape varieties
1.1 Riesling
1.1.1 Characteristics
Typical aromas & Fruit flavours vary according to the level op ripeness at the time of the
flavours harvest.
Just-ripe: green fruit (apple, pear), citrus (lemon, lime)
Extra-ripe: stone fruit (peach, apricot), tropical fruit (mango, pineapple),
dried fruit (dried apricots, raisins)
Structural Sweetness: dry to sweet
characteristics Body: light to full
Acidity: high
Harvest options Late harvest: retains acidity + builds up sugar and flavour slowly 
concentrated sugars + results in sweet wine
Botrytis + frozen grapes: concentrates sugars + well-balanced with the high
acidity

1.1.2 Winemaking & maturation options

Off-dry or medium 1. Interrupting fermentation by removing yeast: lower abv + residual sugar
style 2. Adding sterile grape juice (Süssreserve)
Sweet 1. Using extra ripe grapes: sugar so high that the fermentation stops
naturally
Fermentation Inert vessels – stainless steel: preservation of floral aromas
Ripening Can age for years/decades in the bottle: acidity preserves the freshness of
the wine while it develops tertiary flavours of honey + petrol (gasoline)

1.1.3 Important regions

Germany Climate: cool

1. Mosel: lighter body, medium sweetness, high acidity, steep slopes on the
banks of Mosel River, stony soils reflect sunlight from river
2. Rheingenau: north of bank of River Rhine, drier in style, more body
3. Pfalz: dry, medium body
France Climate: cool, driest + sunniest wine-producing region FR
Best vineyards: east/south-east foothills, benefiting morning sun
1. Alsace AOC: dry, pronounced aroma and flavour intensity, ripe citrus +
stone-fruit flavours, blossom aromas
Structural characteristics: medium body, high acidity
Grands crus: decade bottle aging, tertiary flavours (honey + dried fruit)
Sweeter styles: vendanges tardives (late harvest)
Australia Climate: moderate (high altitude)
1. Eden Valley + Clare Valley: dry, pronounced aromas of lime, peach,
blossom, petrol

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1.1.4 Labelling focus

Landwein Protected Geographical Indication

Light body
Style: light body + dry to off-dry
Qualitätswein Protected Designation of Origin
Wine needs to come from one of the 13 German wine regions (Mosel,
Rheingenau)
Higher levels of grape ripeness
Style of wine: more intense in flavour + fuller in body
Prädikatswein Protected Designation of Origin
Higher level of sugar is required than for Qualitätswein
Grapes must come from a single region
Kabinett, Spätlese, Auslese: made from grapes in various stages of ripeness
Sweet + dryer in style

Beerenauslese, Trockenauslese, Eiswein: all sweet wines, grape sugars must

be concentrated in the vine
Yeast cannot ferment such high levels of sugars into alcohol  naturally low in
alcohol and sweet
Category 1:
Kabinett Lightest + most delicate
Style: light body + delicate green-fruit (green apple) +
citrus fruit (lime) flavours + floral aromas (blossoms)
Spätlese Late harvest (late rhymes with spät)
Style: more concentrated flavours + fuller body than
Kabinett from the same region + ripe citrus (lemon,
lime) + stone fruit (peach) flavours
Auslese Extra ripe grapes
Style: stone fruit (apricot), tropical fruit (mango),
dried fruits

Category 2
Beerenauslese (BA) Botrytis
Aromas: fresh stone fruit (apricot), tropical fruit
(mango), dried fruit & honey
Trockenbeerenauslese Botrytis
(TBA) Aromas similar to BA, but more intense
Trocken: refer to dried grapes used to make this wine
Riesling Eiswein Grapes frozen on the vine
Aromas: vibrant fresh stone fruit (peach, apricot),
tropical fruit (mango, pineapple) flavour

No botrytis / specific weather conditions do not occur

every year to create Eiswein
Labour intensive to produce, yields are very small
High prices

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1.2 Chardonnay
1.2.1 Characteristics

Cool climate Moderate climate Warm climate

Aromas & Green fruit (apple, pear) + Lemon Stone fruit (peach),
flavours citrus (lemon, lime) + wet Stone fruit (peach) tropical fruit (pineapple,
stones Tropical fruit (melon) banana)
Structural Acidity: high Acidity: moderate Acidity: medium
characteristics Body: light-to-medium Body: medium-to-full Body: full

1.2.2 Winemaking & maturation options

Acidification Adding more acidity to warm-climate Chardonnay to balance the

alcohol + body of the wine

Fermentation
Malolactic fermentation Common to taste secondary flavours Optional: some winemakers
in Chardonnay: butter, cream, soften prefer not to add any
harsh acids secondary flavours, since they
Lees contact Add body + flavours of bread, biscuit can overwhelm the lightly
Oak barrel Add body + flavours (smoke, vanilla, flavoured wines
fermentation/maturation coconut)
Some winemakers use chips/staves They use inert vessels and
(lower costs) may avoid malolactic
Oak barrel Add body + flavours (smoke, vanilla, fermentation + lees contact
fermentation/maturation coconut)
Some winemakers use chips/staves
(lower costs)

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1.2.3 Important regions

France Burgundy
1. Bourgogne AOC: grapes grown anywhere in Burgundy + simple wine with
apple + lemon characteristics + high acidity
2. Chablis AOC: cool climate, dry wines, high acidity, flavours of lemon, apple,
wet stone, frost can limit Chablis production, limited to no oak flavours (inert
vessels)
3. Cote d’Or: moderate – ripe fruit flavours (peach, melon)
- Côte de Beaune: Meursault AOC, Puligny-Montrachet AOC – good to
outstanding quality Chardonnay
- oak barrel aging + aging in contact with lees: complexity + body
4. Mâconnais: fruity, mostly unoaked + simple flavours (lemon, peach, melon)
- Mâcon AOC + Pouilly-Fuissé AOC: stone fruit + tropical flavours, oak barrel
fermentation and/or maturation: complexity + body
USA California: warm + dry climate
1. Inland Central Valley
High yields for high-volume brands + no GI  label California
Flavours: peach + pineapple
Acidity: medium
Body: medium
Oak flavours: chips or staves (not likely to come from oak barrel)
2. Closer to the coast: intensely flavoured + well-balanced Chardonnay
Coastal influences moderate the climate: longer, slower ripening season
- Northern California
- Carneros, Sonoma
- Napa Valley: full body, tropical fruit flavours, vanilla and spice from
new oak
- Central Coast
- Santa Barbara County: styles similar to Côte de Beaune through to
more tropical fruit flavoured with higher alcohol + more pronounced
flavours from new oak
Oregon: moderate climate
Refreshingly high acidity
Flavours: citrus fruit (lemon) + tropical notes (melon) – small production in
comparison to California
Australia 1. South Eastern Australia: made from grapes in a very broad area – often from
warm, irrigated inland vineyards
Blended with other grape varieties (Semillon): helps achieve balance
2. Adelaide Hills (South Australia) + Yarra Valley (Victoria): moderating
influences: longer growing season
Flavours: ripe stone fruit flavours (peach) + tropical fruit (pineapple, banana) +
carefully balanced oak flavours
Acidity: high
3. Margaret River (Western Australia): consistently high quality
Climate: warm but cooling breezes elongate the growing season
Medium to full body
Flavours: ripe stone fruit (peach) + tropical fruit flavours (pineapple) + vanilla
and spice (oak)
New-Zealand 1. Marlborough: cool to moderate – ripe lemon, peach, melon, high acidity +
subtle oak flavours
2. Hawke’s Bay: moderate climate – full body, high acidity, pronounced stone
fruit, vanilla & spice (oak)
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 Chile 1. Casablanca Valley: exposed to sea breezes (cooling influences) elongate
growing season
Flavours: citrus (lemon) + stone fruit (peach) + varying levels of oak influences
2. Central Valley: range of quality levels, inexpensive high-volume brands to
outstanding examples of vineyards tot are moderated by altitude
South-Africa 1. Western Cape: hot inland dedicated to high-volume branded wine
Blends with Chenin Blanc
2. Walker Bay: coolest in South Africa due to breeze from the South
Good quality Chardonnay + high acidity + ripe stone fruit (peach) + tropical fruit
(pineapple) + oak flavours

1.2.4 Labelling focus

Grand Cru Vineyards

Highest quality Burgundian wines
Vineyards: generally small, well situated
Awarded with their own appellations: Grand Cru AOC

Premier Cru Vineyards

High quality vineyards within individual village appellations

Solely made from premier cru vineyards

Village Appellations

Villages that have their own appellations

Typically offer more flavour concentration + flavour intensity
Best ones can age in bottle
Chablis AOC

Regional Appellations

Bourgogne AOC: covers the whole of Burgundy

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1.3 Sauvignon Blanc
1.3.1 Characteristics

Aromas & Aromatic grape variety

flavours Primary flavours vary according to ripeness: from green fruit (apple,
gooseberry) + wet stones to tropical fruit (passion fruit)
Herbaceous
Characteristics Pronounced herbaceous aromas: grass, green bell pepper/capsicum, asparagus
herbaceous Floral aromas
notes
Structural Dry
characteristics Body: light to medium
Acidity: high
Blending Complexity by blending grapes from different vineyards with varying degrees of
options ripeness

1.3.2 Winemaking & maturation options

Blending Single-varietal wine

options Blending partner: Semillon
Fermentation/ Inert vessels
maturation No oak: herbaceous notes can easily be overwhelmed by the oak
Bottle aging No, intended to drink young
Even outstanding examples can lose their fresh aromas within a couple of years
of the vintage (development of unattractive vegetal notes)

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1.3.3 Important regions

France 1. Loire: cool climate

- Sancerre AOC + Pouilly-Fumé AOC = both appellations face each other across the
Loire Valley: dry wines, herbaceous notes (grass, asparagus) and sometimes wet
stones
- Touraine AOC: fruity, inexpensive
2. Bordeaux
- Bordeaux AOC: simple, fresh aromas of grass and green apple
- Graves AOC + Pessac-Léognan AOC: more complex and concentrated
- typically blends of Sauvignon Blanc + Sémillon (adds body + helps aging)
- very good to outstanding wines often matured in oak (honey + nuts in
the bottle)
New Zealand Marlborough: moderate climate
More pronounced characteristics than Loire
Made by blending across different sites, grapes harvested at different ripeness
levels = broad range of fruit flavours: lemon, peach, passion fruit, green bell
pepper, asparagus
Australia 1. Margaret river (Western Australia): single varietal + blend with Semillon
Concentrated herbaceous aromas (grass)
2. Adelaide Hills: fresh + fruity wines ranging from citrus to tropical fruit
Some blended with Semillon to make fuller bodied wine with greater aging
potential
Chile Casablanca Valley
South Africa 1. Constantia: refreshing with ripe tropical fruit and herbaceous aromas
2. Elgin: cooled by altitude, coolest wine region in S-A, green-fruit flavours (apple)
and sometimes aromas of wet stones
USA California too warm to produce fresh, herbaceous style of Sauvignon Blanc
Early harvest to retain their characteristic acidity and herbaceous aromas
Napa Valley

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1.4 Pinot Grigio / Pinot Gris
1.4.1 Characteristics

Comment Produces 2 distinct styles of wine, determined principally by grape-growing &

harvesting choices
Early harvest Most common style
Acidity: high
Flavours: simple – apple and lemon
Finish: short
Acceptable to good quality
Italy = Pinot Grigio
Delayed harvest Controlled yields
Riper grapes: higher in sugar + lower in acidity + more pronounced flavours
Powerful, full bodied wine, medium acidity + flavours of lemon, stone fruit
(peach, tropical fruit (mango)
France = Pinot Gris

1.4.2 Winemaking options and maturation

Fermentation Inert vessels to preserve its flavours

Light style: fermented to dryness
Riper, full-bodied style: s/t interrupt fermentation by removing yeast to retain
an off-dry or medium level of sweetness
Consumption Pinot Grigio: best while fresh
Pinot Gris: can develop notes of ginger, honey over time in bottle

1.4.3 Important regions

Italy Simple, unoaked

Body: light
Veneto Region: delle Venezie DOC or Veneto IGT
Inexpensive, high-yield, early-picked grapes
Flavour: apple + lemon
Finish: short
Acceptable to good quality
Friuli-Venezia Giulia
More complex and full bodied style
France Alsace AOC
Picked later in the season
Acidity: medium + greater sugar ripeness and flavour complexity
Sweetness: dry to medium
Body: medium to full
Flavours: peach, mango, ginger + notes of honey in bottle
Best wines: grand cru vineyards

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1.4.4 Labelling focus

Vendanges tardives

VT: Late Harvest

Labelling term can only be used in Alsace
medium to sweet
Eligible for labelling VT: Pinot Gris + Riesling + Gewurztraminer
Both Alsace + Alsace Grand Cru wines can be labelled VT

Alsace Grand Cru

Specific vineyards: mostly on steeply sloped foothills of Vosges mountains, facing

east/south-east
Receive more sunlight, wine riper in flavour and fuller in body
Eligible for grand cru status: Pinot Gris + Riesling + Gewürztraminer

Alsace Appellations

Regional appellation: covers entire area

typically labelled with their grape variety

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2 Region white grape varieties
2.1 Chenin Blanc
2.1.1 Characteristics

Climate Cool – moderate – warm

Flavour Vary according to ripeness from green fruit (apple) and citrus (lemon) to
characteristics stone fruit (peach) and tropical fruit (pineapple, mango)
Structural Acidity: high
characteristics Susceptible to noble rot
Dry – sweet
Unoaked + oaked
Winemaking + High acidity: suitable for late harvest + potential to age in the bottle for many
maturation years
Oaked + unoaked wines

2.1.2 Important regions

France Loire – Vouvray AOC: Chenin Blanc is only permitted varietal in the AOC
Wide range of styles: dry, off-dry, medium, sweet, and sparkling
Dry Vouvray: fresh apple
Off-dry or medium: demi-sec
Sweet: extra ripe or botrytis affected grapes
- Stone fruit or tropical fruit
Unoaked to retain fresh fruit characteristics
Age in bottle: honey + dried fruit
South Africa South-Africa’s most planted white grape variety: praised for retaining high
acidity in warm climate
Quality: varies
- High-volume brands typically use grapes from warmer inland areas
and often blended with Chardonnay
- Dry, medium body, flavours: peach, pineapple, s/t vanilla from oak
chips or staves
Old vines: small quantities of concentrated grapes, very good to outstanding
quality
Aromas: tropical fruit (pineapple, mango), often notes of vanilla + smoke
from oak maturation

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2.2 Sémillon / Semillon
2.2.1 Characteristics

Climate Moderate – warm

Flavour Simple primary flavours: apple, lemon, grass

characteristics Tertiary notes: honey, nuts

Structural Acidity: medium – high

characteristics Body: light – full
Depending on level of ripeness

2.2.2 Important regions

France Bordeaux
Bordeaux AOC
Style: dry and sweet
Blends: Sauvignon Blanc
Can provide aging potential, very good wines are often matured in oak + can
develop in the bottle for many years
Sauternes AOC
Sub-region of Bordeaux – Sauternes: sweet white wine made from grapes
affected by Botrytis (particularly susceptible for noble rot)
Style: sweet, medium to high in alcohol, full body with balancing high acidity.
Flavours of stone fruit (apricot), smoke + vanilla (oak maturation)

Australia Often blended with other varieties: Sauvignon Blanc

Production of botrytis sweet wines + dry wines in different styles
Hunter Valley
Dry, single-varietal Semillon, light body and low alcohol
Warm climate: early harvest – low levels of sugar + high acidity
Inert vessels + bottled when young
First: neutral flavours / after years of bottle age: pronounced + complex
flavours of honey + nuts
Barossa Valley
Similar to ones made in Hunter Valley + others that are full bodied + oaked

2.3 Furmint
2.3.1 Characteristics

Region Hungary – Tokaji Aszú

Often blended with other local grape varieties to add complexity

Flavour Primary: stone fruits, citrus fruits

characteristics Secundary:
Tertiary: caramel, vanilla

Structural Botrytis: sweet wines

characteristics Colour: amber
Sweetness: sweet / Body: full / Acidity: high / Finish: long + intense
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2.4 Gewurztraminer
Region France – Alsace AOC
Alongside Riesling + Pinot Gris

Flavour Floral aromas (rose) + stone fruit (peach, apricot), tropical fruit (lychee)
characteristics Can develop tertiary aromas: dried fruit + honey

Structural Body: full

characteristics Acidity: low – medium
Alcohol: high (high levels of sugar during ripening – fermented to dryness
resulting in high alcohol)

2.5 Viognier
Region Northern Rhône – Condrieu AOC
Single-varietal

Flavour Floral aromas (blossom)

characteristics Stone fruit (apricot, peach)

Structural Acidity: low – medium

characteristics

Winemaking Inert vessels to preserve floral notes

Unusually for an aromatic variety, some oak-aged Viogniers are made

2.6 Albariño
Region Spain – Rías Baixas DO
Cooler, wetter + cloudier than Spain’s other wine-producing regions

Flavour Citrus fruit (lemon, grapefruit)

characteristics Stone fruit (peach, apricot)

Structural Acidity: high

characteristics Body: medium

Winemaking Unoaked + s/t small amount of lees contact to add complexity + body

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2.7 Cortese
Region Italy – Gavi DOCG (Piemonte)

Flavour Floral aromas: blossom

characteristics Green fruit (apple, pear)
Citrus (lemon)

Structural Dry
characteristics Body: light
Acidity: high

Winemaking Fermentation: inert vessels

No oak maturation
Ready to drink on release – not intended to age

2.8 Garganega
Region Italy – Soave DOC + Soave Classico DOC
Recioto di Soave DOCG

Flavour Green fruit (apple, pear)

characteristics Citrus fruit (lemon)
Stone fruit (peach)
Honey + almonds in the bottle

Structural Dry
characteristics Acidity: high
Body: medium

Winemaking Fermentation: inert vessels

No oak maturation
Drink young & fresh
Recioto di Soave: appassimento

2.9 Verdicchio
Region Italy – Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi DOC (Marche)

Flavour Green fruit (apple, pear)

characteristics Citrus fruit (lemon)
Herbal nots (fennel)

Structural Dry
characteristics Acidity: high
Body: medium

Winemaking Simple fruit, not intended for aging

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2.10 Fiano
Region Italy – Fiano di Avellino DOCG (Campania)

Flavour Stone fruit (peach)

characteristics Tropical fruit (melon, mango)
Secondary from contact with the lees or smoke (oak)

Structural Dry
characteristics Acidity: medium
Body: medium - full

Winemaking Inert vessels

Drink young

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3 Principal black grape varieties
3.1 Pinot Noir
3.1.1 Characteristics

Colour Pale to medium

Structural Acidity: high

characteristics Tannins: low to medium

Flavour Red fruit: strawberries, raspberry, red cherry

characteristics Ripeness of the fruit at time of harvest will influence freshness / how
cooked the fruit flavours in the wine will be

3.1.2 Winemaking & maturation options

Winemaking Single-varietal wine – exception: Champagne

Maturation Oak-maturation: old + larger barrels to not overwhelm PN delicate fruit
flavours – flavours of smoke + cloves
Aging Bottle-aging: very good examples
Tertiary flavours: mushrooms, forest floor

3.1.3 Important regions

France Burgundy
Bourgogne AOC – Cote d’Or: Cotes de Beaune, Cotes de Nuits
- Villages Gevrey-Chambertin AOC
- Villages Nuits-Saint-Georges AOC
- Pommard AOC

USA California + Oregon (Carneros + Sonoma + Santa Barbara County)

Chili Casablanca
South Africa Walker Bay
Australia Yarra Valley + Mornington Peninsula
New-Zealand Martinborough + Malborough + Central Otago

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3.2 Merlot
3.2.1 Characteristics
Structural Tannins: medium
characteristics Acidity: medium
Just-ripe Body: low to medium  little need for extended maturation
Riper Body: full to medium  benefit from oak maturation
- Warm climates
- Later harvest in moderate climates

Flavour Red fruit: strawberry, red plum

characteristics – Green: green bell pepper/capsicum
just ripe
Flavour Black fruit: blackberry, black plum
characteristics -
riper

3.2.2 Winemaking & maturation options

Winemaking Single-varietal
Blends: cabernet sauvignon (higher in tannins + merlot makes them ready
to drink earlier)
Maturation Oaked: fuller bodied style – soften + gained flavour complexity
Unoaked: lighter style
Aging Bottle aging: dried fruit + tobacco

3.2.3 Important regions

France Bordeaux
Climate: moderate, high levels of rainfall (Atlantic Ocean)
Blends: merlot (mostly planted) + cabernet sauvignon  proportions
depend on wine style + annual weather patterns
Left Bank: Médoc + Graves + Sauternes
Right Bank: Saint-Émilion + Pomerol
AOC Bordeaux AOC or Bordeaux Supérieux AOC (merlot dominated)
- Made from vines planted anywhere throughout Bordeaux region
Saint-Émilion AOC + Pomerol AOC
- Full-bodied, pronounced aromas of black fruits and flavours from
oak maturation
- Age well in bottle: dried fruit + tobacco
South of France: single-varietal + blends (CS + Syrah + Grenache)
USA California: Napa Valley + Sonoma
Label: California – fruity, medium body
Napa Valley + Sonoma: concentrated, full-bodied
Oak-flavours: vanilla, coconut, smoke  new barrels (large volume
producers: staves, chips)
Chile Central Valley: soft, medium bodied merlot, high volume brands for
immediate consumption
Altitude: moderate effect = also fresher styles of merlot
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 South-Africa Stellenbosch: complex, age-worthy wines from Bordeaux varieties
Climate: moderate – warm
Australia Margaret River: traditionally used in blends with Cabernet Sauvignon
New Zealand Hawke’s Bay
Climate: moderate + rainfall
Styles: light and fruit – full bodied + longlived
Single-varietal + blends with cabernet sauvignon

3.2.4 Labelling focus

Regional Appellations

Bordeaux AOC + Bordeaux Supérieur AOC

Grapes grown from everywhere in the Bordeaux Region
Supérieur AOC: slightly stricter rules: yields, aging, minimum alcohol levels

Left Bank Appellations

Médoc AOC + Haut-Médoc AOC: Médoc Peninsula

Haut-Médoc: Margeaux AOC + Pauillac AOC
Graves AOC: south of the city Bordeaux
high-quality Péssac-Leognan AOC
Cabernet Sauvignon: dominant variety

Right Bank Appellations

Pomerol AOC + Saint-Émilion AOC

Saint-Émilion Grand Cru AOC
Merlot: dominant variety

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3.3 Cabernet Sauvignon
3.3.1 Characteristics

Flavour Single-varietal: black fruit (blackcurrant, black cherry), herbal (mint) or

characteristics herbaceous notes (green bell pepper)
Warm climates: cooked fruit character
Structural Thick-skinned grape – high levels of colour + flavour + tannin
characteristics Tannins: high
Acidity: high
Single-varietal: dry on the palate, medium to full body

3.3.2 Winemaking & maturation options

Winemaking Single-varietal wine

Blends: merlot – soften the high levels of tannins + acidity (particularly
important in cooler-moderate regions where it has difficulties to ripen)
Maturation Newly fermented: unpleasantly tannic
Oak: months (even years) of maturing in oak will soften the tannins (contact
with oxygen)
New oak: complex secondary flavours (vanilla, smoke, clove)
Aging Tannins + acidity = natural preservatives
Bottle-aging: dried fruits, forest floor, earth

3.3.3 Important regions

France Bordeaux – left Bank

Soil: gravel (stones), trap the heat during the day + deliver to the vines
during the night + allow the rainwater to drain away faster  helps the C.S.
to ripen
AOC Médoc AOC + Haut-Médoc AOC (Margeaux AOC, Pauillac AOC)
Graves AOC (Pessac-Léognan AOC)
South of France: more reliable ripening here – single-varietal + blends with
Merlot and other grape varieties
USA California – Sonoma & Napa Valley
Climate: warm & sunny – long growing seasons – outstanding quality
Oakville + Rutherford: full bodied – ripe black fruit flavours
Calistoga (N.V.): powerful wines, labelled Cabernet Sauvignon (but small
amounts of other grape varieties)
Label California: grapes from across the entire state – immediate
consumption – oak due to oak alternatives
Chile Maipo Valley + Colchague Valley
Single-varietal + blends (merlot + carmenère)
Herbal (mint) + herbaceous notes (green bell pepper), black fruit, oak
flavours

South-Africa Stellenbosch – high quality

Climate: moderate – warm / Styles: fresh – herbal cabernet sauvignon to
full-bodied – cooked fruits – high level of alcohol / Pinotage (Cape blend)
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 Australia Margaret River
Single-varietal + blends (merlot)
Climate: warm / flavour charact.: ripe black fruit + oak
Coonawarra: distinct herbal (mint) characters + blackcurrant + smoke &
cedar (oak)
Can develop for many years in the bottle
New-Zealand Hawke’s Bay
Blends: merlot

3.3.4 Labelling focus

Château
Indicates grapes are grown on the producer's land (not bought-in grapes)

Grand Cru Classé / Cru Classé

Classification to rank wines from best châteaux

Strong indication of quality - most expensive and sought-after wines of Bordeaux
Mature for many years (or even decades) in the bottle

Cru Bourgeois

Médoc
Mostly do not command the same price as the Grand Cru Châteaux, very good to
outstanding in quality + long aging potential

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3.4 Syrah/Shiraz
3.4.1 Characteristics

Flavour Moderate climate: fresh black fruit (black cherry, blackberry) + herbal notes
characteristics + black pepper
Region: Northern Rhône
Warm climates: ripe cooked black fruits + liquorice
Region: Australia (Shiraz)

Structural Tannins: medium to high

characteristics Acidity: medium to high
Warm climate: full body + high alcohol
Cool climate: medium body

3.4.2 Winemaking & maturation options

Winemaking Single-varietal
Blends (Grenache): to add colour + black-fruit flavours + tannins (Rhône
Blends)
Label: Shiraz/Syrah can give consumer an idea of style of wine
Maturation Oak maturation: soften tannins + flavours of smoke + spice
Aging Good to outstanding wines: intense flavours + tannins  dried-fruit flavours
+ notes of leather + meat + earth

3.4.3 Important regions

France: Syrah Northern Rhône – only black grape variety permitted in AOC
Small river: best vines planted on steep slopes (often not accessible by
machinery)
Climate: moderate, grape ripening aided by aspect and reflected sunlight
from the river
Côte Rôtie AOC: far north of Northern Rhône – northern limit of successful
ripening Syrah – complex peppery Syrah
Tradition co-ferment Viognier: floral notes – not practiced by all producers
Hermitage AOC – further South, high-quality appellations – Crozes-
Hermitage AOC: less intense wine and complex than Côte Rôtie &
Hermitage, lower prices and lands easily mechanised
South of France:
Minervois AOC – blends with local varieties
Pays d’Oc IGP – single-varietal
Australia: Shiraz South Eastern Australia – inexpensive high volume brands
Barossa Valley – oldest Shiraz vines – low yields, very concentrated fruit –
full body – high ripe tannins – cooked black fruit (blackberry, black cherry),
black pepper, often spicy notes from oak (vanilla, coffee)
Hunter Valley – New South Wales – medium bodied – high tannins – fresh
black fruit flavours – tertiary flavours: earth and meat

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4 Regional black grape varieties
4.1 Gamay
4.1.1 Characteristics

Region Beaujolais – moderate climate

Maximize colour extraction + minimize tannin extraction
Flavour Banana + candy + red fruit flavours
characteristics
Structural Body: light
characteristics Tannin: low to medium

4.1.2 Labelling focus

Grand Cru
The best vineyards sites within a village

Premier Cru
High-quality vineyards within a village

Village appellations
High-quality vineyards within a village

Regional Appellations
Broad appellations that cover an entire region

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4.2 Grenache / Garnacha
4.2.1 Characteristics

Flavour Thin-skinned variety

characteristics Red fruit (strawberry, red plum, red cherry), spice (white pepper, liquorice)
Finest flavours when yield is controlled
Flavours of meat, earth, dried fruit

Structural Tannin: low to medium

characteristics Rosé: short maceration method – dry to medium in sweetness – typically
intended to drink chilled + young & fruity
Blends – France: Syrah / Spain: Tempranillo
Add colour + acidity + tannin
Oaked + unoaked

4.2.2 Important regions

France Southern Rhône – valley flattens out + warm climate (southern latitude)
Blends: local varieties, incl. Syrah
Côtes du Rhone AOC – medium body – red fruit flabours
Côtes du Rhone Village AOC – higher level of concentration & complexity
Châteauneuf-du-Pap AOC – full body – high alcohol – large round stones
that absorb heat (day) and radiate it back (night): helps achieve full ripeness
Bottle aging: dried fruit and caramel
Southern France: red + rosé
Minervois AOC: warm climate – red fruit flavours – blends with Syrah

Spain Rioja DOCa + Navarra DO: dry rosé

Priorat DOCa – most powerful + full bodied Garnacha – warm, dry area –
old vines – tiny yields – blends – bottle aging: dried fruits, caramel

Australia Barossa Valley + McLaren Vale

Old vines – outstanding wines – concentrated red fruit – spice flavours
Blends: Shiraz – similar in style to Châteauneuf-du-Pape AOC

4.2.3 Labelling focus

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 Hermitage ('Cru')
Most prestigious vineyards
Northern: Crozes-Hermitage AOC, Hermitage AOC, Côte Rôtie AOC, Condrieu AOC
South: Chateauneuf-du-Pape AOC
Côtes du Rhone Villages
Côtes du Rhône Village AOC
Number villages entitled to label their wine Village AOC
Style: more flavour intensity + complexity than generic Côtes du Rhône
Côtes du Rhone
Broadest regional appellation: entire Rhône Valley
grapes grown: southern Rhône
style: simple, medium-bodied intended for immediate consumption

4.3 Tempranillo
4.3.1 Characteristics

Flavour Red fruit: strawberry, red cherry

characteristics Black fruit: blackberry, black plum
Blends: long-term aging + to increase acidity and tannins

Structural Styles:
characteristics - Dry – red - fruity – inexpensive
- Ripe – complex - age worthy
Medium acidity – medium tannins
Oak maturation: new oak barrels (vanilla, smoke, cedar + soften tannins +
giving more body)
Bottle aging before release on market: mushrooms, leather, dried fruit

4.3.2 Important regions

Spain Catalunya DO: high volumes

Style: simple, fruity, light bodied to powerful and oak aged

Rioja DOCa:
climate: moderate
blends: Tempranillo dominated – Garnacha (intended for early drinking +
providing colour, tannin and acidity)

Ribera del Duero DO: warm days, cool nights – very full bodied wines with
fresh black fruit flavours

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4.3.3 Labelling focus

Gran Reserva
Highest minimum aging
most pronounced secondary + tertiary aromas
concentrated + typically higher quality

Reserva
extended periods of age before release: oak + in-bottle
softer tannins + fresh fruit flavours become cooked or dried
complex layers of primary fruit flavours + secondary oak-derived flavours + tertiairy notes (dried fruit,
mushrooms)

Crianza
oak aging prior to release
secondary oak-derived flavours: vanilla, smoke, cedar
fruit flavours
Joven

Young, fruity, early drinking

no minimum aging requirements
released in year after vintage
Primary fruit flavours derived from the grape varieties used

4.4 Carmenère
Region Chile – Central Valley
Needs sunny, warm growing seasons to fully ripen (sometimes even
struggles in Chile)

Flavour Just-ripe: pungent herbaceous characters (capsicum) + tomato leaf

characteristics Ripe: fresh black fruit (blackberry) + herbal notes (eucalyptus)

Structural Deeply colours – medium to high acidity – high tannins – full body
characteristics Oak maturation: oak barrels to soften tannins + flavours (coffee, chocolate)
Single-varietal + blends (cabernet sauvignon + merlot)

4.5 Malbec
Region Argentina - Mendoza
Adapted well to south American climate

Flavour Flavours of black fruit (blackberry, black plum)

characteristics
Structural Deeply coloured – full bodied – high tannins
characteristics Oak maturation: new oak – softness and spiciness (clove, vanilla)
Dried fruit + meat
Blend: Cabernet sauvignon and/or merlot
Single-varietal

4.6 Pinotage
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Region South Africa – Western Cape
Related to Pinot Noir

Flavour Red fruit (strawberry, raspberry, red cherry)

characteristics
Structural Range of styles:
characteristics - Fruit, medium body
- Powerful full bodied, concentrated red fruit flavours
Oak maturation: coffee + chocolate + smoke
Single-varietal
Blends: cabernet sauvignon + merlot (cape blends)

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4.7 Nebbiolo
Region Italy – Piemonte
Barolo DOCG: full body – pronounced flavours – high levels of tannin and
acidity – long aging potential
Barbaresco DOCG: north-east of Barolo DOCG – similarly powerful + long-
lived wines from Nebbiolo

Flavour Red fruit: red cherry + red plum

characteristics Dried herbs
Floral characters: rose + violet

Structural High acidity – high tannins

characteristics Oak maturation: extended period to soften tannins – new oak + old oak
Often improves with bottle age (due to high tannin + acidity): mushrooms +
tobacco, leather

4.8 Barbera
Region Italy – Piemonte
Barbera d’Asti DOCG: low tannins – enjoyable to drink in younger stage
than Nebbiolo, typically less aging potential

4.9 Corvina
Region Italy – Valpolicella (Veneto region)
Valpolicella DOC: light bodied – fruity – simple in flavour – rarely matured
in new oak – intended to be consumed young
Valpolicella Classico DOC: hillier heartland – more body – more complexity
Amarone della Valpolicella DOCG: dry to off-dry
- Partially made from grapes using the appassimento method
- Full bodied – high alcohol (+/- % abv), high tannins, pronounced
flavours of fresh fruit (red cherries) + dried fruit (prunes, raisins,
figs).
Recioto della Valpolicella DOCG: sweet red wine, from partially dried
grapes – concentrated sugars that the yeast can’t ferment them to dryness

Winemaking & Appassimento: method of creating sweet wines in Veneto region

maturation Picking grapes + drying them indoors (concentration sugars + acid + tannins
+ flavour)  Recioto di Soave DOCG (Garganega) = sweet white wine using
appassimento method
Reci
oto
dell
a
Val
poli
cell
a: della
Am arone
swe off-
Valpolicella:
dry et
wine

Valpolicella DOC and

Valpolicella DOCG: dry wines

Corvina
m ost important grape in the Valpolicella region

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4.10 Sangiovese + montepulciano
4.10.1 Sangiovese

Region Italy – chianti (central Tuscany)

Flavour Flavours of red fruit (red cherries, red plums) – dried herbs
characteristics
Structural High tannins – high acidity
characteristics
Brunello di Montalcino DOCG
powerful + full bodied
Montalcino
tannins + acidity: high
oak maturation required for extended period before release
very long aging potential
Brunello: local name for sangiovese

Chianti Classico Riserva DOCG

stricter aging requirements
may show tertiary aroma by time of release

Chianti Classico DOCG

higher altitude, longer ripening season
red fruit aromas + dried herbs notes
oak maturation: cloves, cedar
bottle aging: meat + leather
Chianti DOCG
varied quality
simple, inexpensive, not intended for aging

4.10.2 Montepulciano

Region Italy – Montepulciano d’Abruzzo

Montepulciano d’Abruzzo DOC: high volumes – inexpensive – simple –
fruity

Flavour Black fruit flavours (black plum, black cherry)

characteristics
Structural Deeply coloured – medium acidity – high tannins
characteristics

4.10.3 Labelling focus

Chianti Classico Made from grapes from the historic centre of a region – more concentrated
in flavour than those from broader region

Chianti Classico DOC or DOCG: aged for at least set number of months before release
Riserva
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 31

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