FIP State of Art Report:

Foundations of concrete gravity

structures in the North Sea

Fédération Internationale de la Précontrainte

FIP COMMISSION ON CONCRETE SEA STRUCTURES

Chairman: J.A. Derrington, UK

Members:
E. Wulff, Denmark A.A. Denton, UK
L. Plislcin, France T. Ridley, UK
P. Xercavins, France H. Haynes, USA
P.F. Daly, Republic of Ireland E. Hognestad, USA
J.G. Bodhe, India K.H. Runge, USA
M. Caironi, Italy C. Finsterwalder, FRO
J.A. van Loenen, Netherlands A. G.F. Eddie, Australia
J.C. Slagter, Netherlands D. J. Lee, UK
E. Gjglrv, Norway S. Shiraishi, Japan
S. Hafskjold, Norway S. Inomata, Japan
K. Hove, Norway D.K. Mzareulov, USSR
D. Alfredo Paez, Spain I . Foss, Norway
K. Christenson, Sweden B. Contarini, Brazil
K. Eriksson, Sweden G.E.B. Wilson, New Zealand
K.H. Brittain, UK J. Rutledge, New Zealand

Technical Secretary: W.F.G. Crozier, FIP

15.706

ISBN 0 7210 1150 0

Published, designed and printed for the Fédération Internationale de la Précontrainte by the
Cement and Concrete Association, Wexham Springs, Slough SL3 6PL.

First pubhshed 1979

Although the Fédération Internationale de la Précontrainte does its best to ensure that any
information it may give is accurate, no hability or responsibihty of any kind (including
habihty for negligence) is accepted in this respect by the Federation, its members, its servants
or agents.
FIP S T A T E O F A R T R E P O R T : F O U N D A T I O N S O F C O N C R E T E G R A V I T Y S T R U C T U R E S
I N T H E N O R T H SEA.

FOREWORD

This State o f tlie A r t report details w i t h the experience f r o m the foundations o f the concrete
gravity o i l or gas platforms w h i c h have recently been installed i n the N o r t h Sea. The report was
prepared b y a Working Group f o r m e d i n November 1976 b y the FIP Commission on Concrete
Sea Structures. Members o f the group represent a cross-section o f the f o u n d a t i o n engineering
interests w h i c h have been involved i n this recent experience.

By a number o f w o r k i n g sessions and the preparation o f original papers the Working G r o u p

has distilled the state o f the art i n t o f o u r main themes:

Geotechnical investigations

Design procedures

Installation methods

Operational experience.

The benefit o f this w o r k has been considerable f o r those involved i n its preparation and FIP has
published the report f o r general i n f o r m a t i o n to other engineers who may be interested i n this
experience.

Since the installation o f the E k o f i s k concrete o i l storage tank by Phillips Petroleum i n 1973,
there has been a rapid development o f design and construction technology in applying concrete
structures to other locations i n the N o r t h Sea. I n dealing w i t h these offshore locations there have
been many severe problems t o resolve, chiefly arising f r o m the severity o f the w i n d and waves i n
this area. F o r the f o u n d a t i o n engineers this has particular problems due t o the innovative
concepts o f design and their location on deep water unprepared seabed sites f o r w h i c h there
was l i m i t e d experience o f soils response t o this type o f structure.

The soil conditions at the sites, consisting o f s t i f f clays and dense sands, are being observed to be
capable o f supporting the loads introduced b y concrete gravity platforms. I t is satisfactory to be
able t o report that the foundations o f all the concrete structures are p e r f o r m i n g w i t h o u t
difficulty.

The highhghts o f the conclusions contained i n this report relate to the f o l l o w i n g points:

The quality o f i n f o r m a t i o n obtained f r o m geotechnical investigation techniques under severe

offshore conditions has improved w i t h the development o f new equipment.

Many o f the theoretical analyses o f the geotechnical design problems related to the f o u n d a t i o n
behaviour have been c o n f i r m e d b y observed experience.

The rehability o f installation procedures has been demonstrated, and careful m o n i t o r i n g has
obtained f u r t h e r data w h i c h has improved p r o d u c t i o n methods.

The interaction between the foundations and the instaUation o f operational p l a t f o r m equipment
f o r conductor and well drilling has been observed, w i t h methods devised to attempt t o minimise
the disturbance t o seabed f o u n d a t i o n soils.

The report has been divided i n t o sections and each section has been w r i t t e n b y individual
members together w i t h the collaboration o f colleagues i n their organizations. The complete
report has been reviewed b y all members o f the Working Group who have endorsed i t in the f o r m
to be published. The Chairman wishes to acknowledge the considerable voluntary e f f o r t made by
all concerned. Their co-operation i n dealing w i t h the preparation o f original w o r k f o r this report
has led to a significant advance i n pubhshed i n f o r m a t i o n being made available to others f r o m
the unique experience they have gained i n the N o r t h Sea.
Technische Hogeschool
Bibliotheek
T o m Ridley
Afdeling: Civiele Techniek
Chairman, Working Group on Foundations
^ Stevinweg 1
j postbus 5048

O
CONTENTS Page

1 FOUNDATIONS O F CONCRETE G R A V I T Y STRUCTURES IN

T H E N O R T H S E A Tom Ridley 5
1.1 Introduction 5
1.2 Concrete gravity structures i n the N o r t h Sea 5
1.2.1 E k o f i s k tanlc 7
1.2.2 Beryl'A'Platform 7
1.2.3 Brent'B'Platform 7
1.2.4 FriggCDPl Platform 7
1.2.5 Frigg TP 1 P l a t f o r m 7
1.2.6 Frigg M C P O l P l a t f o r m 7
1.2.7 Brent'D'Platform 7
1.2.8 Statfjord'A'Platform 7
1.2.9 Dunlin Platform 7
1.2.10 Frigg TCP2 P l a t f o r m 14
1.2.11 Ninian P l a t f o r m 14
1.2.12 B r e n t ' C ' P l a t f o r m 14
1.2.13 Cormorant P l a t f o r m 14
1.3 Summary o f the state o f the art 14
1.3.1 Background i n f o r m a t i o n 14
1.3.2 F o u n d a t i o n design problems 14
1.3.3 Site investigations 15
1.3.4 Design procedures 15
1.3.5 Installation methods 16
1.3.6 Operational performance 16
1.4 Conclusions 17
1.5 References 17

2 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION PRACTICES

Richard A. Sullivan 20
2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Planning o f investigation 21
2.2.1 PreHminary area survey 21
2.2.2 Detailed f o u n d a t i o n investigation 21
2.2.3 Position f i x i n g 21
2.3 Geophysical survey 22
2.3.1 Bathymetry 22
2.3.2 Seafloor topography 22
2.3.3 Continuous sub-bottom r e f l e c t i o n p r o f i l i n g 23
2.3.4 Shallow penetration sampling 23
2.4 Geotechnical investigation 24
2.4.1 Rotary drilhng and wirehne sampling 24
2.4.2 Cone penetrometer testing 25
2.4.3 Other i n situ testing 27
 2.5 Laboratory testing 27
2.5.1 Shipboard testing 27
2.5.2 Onshore testing 27

2.6 Evaluation o f design soil parameters 28

2.6.1 I n situ testing 28

2.6.2 Laboratory testing 29

2.7 Conclusions 30
2.8 References 31

3 FOUNDATION DESIGN METHODS F O R G R A V I T Y STRUCTURES

Ivar Foss and Rune Dahlberg 33
3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 Design principles 33
3.3 Stability 36
3.3.1 Problems 36
3.3.2 Analytical methods 37
3.3.3 Soil properties 39
3.4 Long-term d e f o r m a t i o n 40
3.4.1 Problems 40
3.4.2 Analytical methods 40
3.4.3 Soil properties 42
3.5 D y n a m i c motions 44
3.5.1 Problems 44
3.5.2 A n a l y t i c a l methods 44
3.5.3 Soil properties 45
3.6 Penetration resistance 46
3.6.1 Problems 46
3.6.2 A n a l y t i c a l methods 47
3.6.3 Soil properties 48
3.7 Reaction forces on base structure 49
3.7.1 Problems 49
3.7.2 A n a l y t i c a l methods 50
3.7.3 Soil properties 50
3.8 Effects o f repeated loading 51
3.8.1 Problems 51
3.8.2 Basic mechanism o f soil behaviour 51
3.8.3 A n a l y t i c a l methods 53
3.9 Centrifuge m o d e l tests 54
3.10 Summary 54
3.11 References and bibliography 55

4 INSTALLATION OF CONCRETE PLATFORMS

Ove Eide and Oddvar Kjekstad 60
4.1 Introduction 60

4.2 Installation manual 60

3
 4.3 Touch down 60
4.4 Skirt penetration 62

4.4.1 D i f f e r e n t i a l water pressure across skirts 62

4.4.2 Skirt penetration resistance 62
4.4.3 Skirt and soil capacity f o r horizontal loads 63
4.5 Base contact 64
4.6 Grouting 65
4.7 Installations t h r o u g h the base slab 66

4.8 Data aquisition system 66

4.9 References and bibliography 67

5 OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE O F CONCRETE PLATFORMS

K.L. Taylor 68
5.1 Introduction 68
5.2 Conductor installation 68
5.3 Foundation performance 68
5.4 Use o f instrumentation f o r performance m o n i t o r i n g 69
5.5 Seabed scour 69
5.6 Operational records 69
5.7 References 76

4
1 FOUNDATIONS O F CONCRETE G R A V I T Y STRUCTURES IN T H E NORTH SEA

1.1 Introduction
Thirteen large concrete structures have been installed since 1973 on the seabed i n the N o r t h Sea.
The experience gained f r o m the site investigations and design o f the foundations f o r these
structures can n o w be reviewed, together w i t h the installation and initial performance over the
last f o u r years. These structures have the f u n c t i o n o f providing offshore platforms f r o m w h i c h
the various operations o f drilling, p r o d u c t i o n , storing and transportation o f o i l or gas can safely
take place.

A l l o f the structures being used have adopted the same type o f f o u n d a t i o n concept. This
consists o f the elimination o f u p l i f t forces b y the provision o f structural selfweight and ballast
using large caisson-type foundations. This weight provides continuous contact w i t h the seabed
and resists the very large forces generated b y the w i n d and waves i n offshore water depths vary-
ing f r o m 70 t o 153 metres.

The f o u n d a t i o n loading is transferred f r o m the structure at the seabed interface, and this takes
the f o r m o f vertical load, bending moments and shear forces. High local forces can also arise
during installation, due t o local highspots on the seabed. These can combine w i t h the temporary
d i f f e r e n t i a l water pressures on the p l a t f o r m walls and base w h i c h exist during immersion o f the
structures t o cause critical soil and structure f o u n d a t i o n loading. Projecting skirts have usually
been provided below the f o u n d a t i o n structure t o increase the efficiency o f transfer o f forces to
the underlying seabed soils. These also prevent undermining o f the f o u n d a t i o n due to scour
action and are convenient compartments f o r sub-base grouting.

The very large forces thus generated i n the seabed soils have posed formidable problems f o r the
f o u n d a t i o n engineer, requiring the rapid development o f new knowledge and techniques t o
provide judgement o f safe f o u n d a t i o n conditions. This development has been associated w i t h
the design and installation o f each o f the d i f f e r e n t structures. The operating companies are also
now beginning t o judge the performance characteristics f r o m the structures i n service i n the
N o r t h Sea.

1.2 Concrete gravity structures in the North Sea

The thirteen concrete structures w h i c h are being used i n the N o r t h Sea at this time are i d e n t i f i e d
in Table 1.1, and are given i n historic sequence o f their installation. A b r i e f description o f each
structure w i l l assist an understanding o f the general points w h i c h are made i n the rest o f the
State-of-the-Art report on their f o u n d a t i o n design principles. Their locations are indicated on
the N o r t h Sea map as shown i n Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: L o c a t i o n o f concrete structures

in the N o r t h Sea ( 1 9 7 8 ) .

5
Table 1.1: Concrete structures i n the N o r t h Sea.

Site data Base

Type Name Operator Year Water Foundation Slab Skirts Dowels

depth soil
m

Doris Ekofisk Phillips 1973 70 Dense fine sand Flat A = 7400 0.4 m concrete ribs None

Condeep Beryl A Mobil 1975 120 Dense fine sand Conical domes 3.0 m steel 3
over clay A = 6200m2 0.5 m concrete

Condeep Brent B Shell 1975 140 Stiff clay with Conical domes 4.0 m steel 3
sand layers A = 6200 0.5 m concrete

Doris Frigg CDPl Elf 1976 98 Dense fine sand Flat, ring-shaped None None
A = 5600m2

Sea Tank Frigg TPl Elf 1976 104 Dense fine sand Flat A = 5600 m^ 2.0 m concrete None
over clay

Doris Frigg MCPOl Total 1976 94 Dense fine sand Flat ring-shaped None None
A = 5600m2

Condeep Brent D Shell 1986 140 Stiff clay with Conical domes 4.5 m steel 3
sand layers A = 6300 m^ 0.5 m. concrete

Condeep Statfjord A Mobil 1977 145 Stiff clay Conical domes 3.0 m steel 3
A = 7800 m^ 0.5 m concrete

Andoc Dunlin Shell 1977 153 Stiff clay with Flat A = 10 600 m^ 4.0 steel 4
sand layers

Condeep Frigg TCP2 Elf 1977 102 Dense fine sand Conical domes 1.2 m steel 3
over clay A = 9 3 0 0 m^ 0.5 m concrete

Doris Ninian Chevron 1978 136 Stiff clay with Flat A = 15 400 m^ 3.5 m steel None
sand layers

Sea Tank Brent C Shell 1978 140 Stiff clay with Flat A = 10 300 m^ 3.0 concrete None
sand layers

Sea Tank Cormorant Shell 1978 150 Stiff clay with Flat A = 9700 3.0 m. concrete None
sand layers
1.2.1 Ekofisk Tank (Figure 1.2) ^^'^^
This 1 m i l l i o n barrel o i l storage tank was designed b y C.G. Doris and constructed i n Stavanger,
Norway, f o r the PhilUps Petroleum Company's E k o f i s k f i e l d . The tank was t o w e d i n t o position
i n June 1973 and located i n 70 m water depth. The f o u n d a t i o n base is nearly circular i n plan
w i t h a mean diameter o f 95 m , and when completed this concrete structure had a t o t a l weight
o f 215 000 t.

1.2.2 Beryl 'A' Platform (Figure 1.3)(4-10)

This was the first concrete p l a t f o r m structure t o be constructed t o the Condeep design, and is
used f o r the o i l p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t y on Mobil's B e r y l f i e l d . I t was b u i l t i n Stavanger, N o r w a y ,
and t o w e d i n t o position i n July 1975 t o be installed i n 120 m water depth. The f o u n d a t i o n
base consists o f 19 cylindrical tanks w i t h steel skirts giving a mean overall diameter o f approxi-
mately 90 m and a t o t a l p l a t f o r m weight o f 330 000 t.

1.2.3 Brent 'B' Platform (Figure 1.4)(^ ^^

This Condeep structure was also b u i l t i n Stavanger, N o r w a y , and installed i n 140 m water depth
during August 1975 f o r use b y the Shell/Esso group on their Brent o i l f i e l d as a p r o d u c t i o n
p l a t f o r m . The f o u n d a t i o n base was similar t o the B e r y l ' A ' p l a t f o r m w i t h 19 cylindrical tanks
using steel skirts giving a mean overall diameter o f approximately 90 m and a t o t a l p l a t f o r m
weight o f 330 000 t.

1.2.4 Frigg C D P l Platform (Figure 1.5)^^2, 13)

Designed b y Howard-Doris and constructed i n N o r w a y b y the Norwegian Contractors G r o u p ,

this p l a t f o r m was installed in 98 m water depth i n September 1975 and is used f o r the drilhng,
production and processing o f gas. The p l a t f o r m is a prestressed concrete structure, and closely
follows the design principles estabhshed w i t h the E k o f i s k tank. The f o u n d a t i o n base is circular
w i t h a diameter o f 102 m and the t o t a l p l a t f o r m weight (including some ballasting) is 183 000 t.

1.2.5 Frigg T P l Platform (Figure 1.5)(^4, 15)

Designed and b u i l t b y the McAlpine—Sea Tank group at A r d y n e Point i n Scotland and installed
in 104 m water depth i n June 1976. This p l a t f o r m is used f o r the retreatment o f the gas f r o m
the C D P l p l a t f o r m . I t consists o f a caisson w i t h 25 cells giving a f o u n d a t i o n base o f 72 m
square i n plan using concrete skirts and w i t h a t o t a l p l a t f o r m weight o f 176 000 t.

1.2.6 Frigg Platform M C P O l (Figure 1.6)*^^

Designed b y C.G. Doris and constructed first i n a d r y d o c k and later i n a f j o r d at Kalvic, Sweden,
this barrel structure is located some 174 kilometres f r o m the Scottish mainland in 94 m water
depth. The p l a t f o r m was installed during June 1976 and its principal f u n c t i o n is t o boost the
f l o w o f gas d o w n the pipeline "from Frigg to the St. Fergus terminal. The circular base is 102 m
in diameter and the t o t a l p l a t f o r m weight (including sand ballasting) is 183 000 t.

1.2.7 Brent 'D' Platform (Figure 1.4)^^ ^ )

This structure is v i r t u a l l y the same as the Brent ' B ' p l a t f o r m described i n paragraph 1.2.3 being
a Condeep design b u i l t i n Stavanger, Norway. I t was installed in July 1976 in 140 m water depth.

1.2.8 Statfjord 'A' Platform (Figure I J p ^ '

This p l a t f o r m is the tallest p l a t f o r m so far constructed and was installed i n a water depth of
145 m i n May 1977. I t is t o be used f o r o i l p r o d u c t i o n facilities b y the operating company,
M o b i l . Based on the Condeep design the p l a t f o r m was b u i l t at Stavanger, N o r w a y , b y Norwegian
Contractors Group. The f o u n d a t i o n base has a diameter o f 110 m and consists o f 19 c y l i n d r i c a l
tanks w i t h a t o t a l p l a t f o r m weight o f 350 000 t.

1.2.9 Dunlin 'A' Platform (Figure 1.4)(20-23)

This p l a t f o r m was designed and constructed b y the A N D O C group, using a dry-dock near
Rotterdam f o r the f i r s t stage w i t h completion o f the structure i n a f j o r d near Stavanger, N o r w a y .
It was t o w e d t o location i n 153 m water depth during May 1977 f o r use i n the Shell/Expro
D u n l i n o i l f i e l d east o f Shetland Islands. The f o u n d a t i o n base is 100m square w i t h steel skirts and
a t o t a l p l a t f o r m weight o f 250 000 t.

7
8
Figure 1.3: Beryl ' A ' p l a t f o r m ( M o b i l ) .
Figure 1.4: Concrete p l a t f o r m s used b y Shell E x p r o .
Figure 1.5: CDP-1 ( E l f ) and TP-1 ( E l f ) platforms.
Figure 1.6: TCP2 ( E l f ) and MCP-01 ( T o t a l ) platforms.
13
1.2.10 Frigg Platform T C P 2 (Figure 1.6)(4)

Designed b y the Condeep Group and b u i l t i n Aldalsnes, N o r w a y , b y the Norwegian Contractors

Group, this p l a t f o r m was located i n 102 m water depth i n June 1977. I t is used to process the
recompress gas f r o m the Frigg f i e l d . The f o u n d a t i o n consists o f 19 cylindrical cells on a hexa-
gonal base slab, w i t h a t o t a l p l a t f o r m weight (including sand ballasting) o f 306 000 t.

1.2.11 Ninian Platform (Figure 1.2)(24-26)

This p l a t f o r m was designed b y the Howard-Doris group and was completed at their L o c h
Kishorn site i n Scotland f o r installation i n 136 m water depth during the summer o f 1978. I t is
the largest concrete structure to be b u i l t t o date f o r N o r t h Sea use, and w i l l have a t o t a l p l a t f o r m
weight (including ballasting) o f 600 000 t. The p l a t f o r m w i l l be used b y Chevron f o r the o i l
p r o d u c t i o n facihties on the Ninian o i l f i e l d east o f Shetland Islands. The f o u n d a t i o n base is
circular o f 140 m diameter and uses steel skirts.

1.2.12 Brent ' C ' Platform (Figure 1.4)^27)

This p l a t f o r m was designed and constructed b y the McAlpine—Sea Tank group at A r d y n e Point,
Scotland and is being completed near Stavanger, N o r w a y , f o r installation i n 140 m water depth.
I t w i l l be used b y the Shell/Esso group as an o i l p r o d u c t i o n p l a t f o r m f o r their Brent o i l f i e l d
east o f Shetland Islands. The f o u n d a t i o n base is 91 m square w i t h 64 cells, using concrete skirts
and a t o t a l p l a t f o r m weight o f 282 000 t.

1.2.13 Cormorant Platform (Figure 1.4)(27,28)

Similar t o the Brent 'C' p l a t f o r m this structure has been designed and constructed b y the
McAlpine—Sea Tank Group at A r d y n e Point, Scotland, and is being completed near Stavanger,
N o r w a y f o r installation i n 150 m water depth at the Shell/Esso Cormorant o i l f i e l d east o f
Shetland Islands. The f o u n d a t i o n base is 100 m square w i t h 64 cells, using concrete skirts, and
a t o t a l p l a t f o r m weight o f 343 000 t.

1.3 Summary of the state of the art

1.3.1 Background information

There is l i t t l e accumulated knowledge and experience o f the top layers o f seabed soils i n the
presently explored offshore areas o f the w o r l d . The site investigations f o r offshore sites are a
m u c h more demanding task than onshore. The quality and amount o f data w h i c h is available
t o the designer is considerably less f o r an offshore gravity structure than f o r a structure o f
similar size and importance onshore. This deficiency has t o be compensated f o r b y choosing the
design parameters on the safe side, taking i n t o account the variation i n results between borings.

A n o t h e r factor is the problem involved i n placing a large structure, about 100 m i n diameter,
on an unprepared seabed site. Local variations i n soil conditions and b o t t o m topography have
to be taken i n t o account. I t is also an advantage, f r o m the operator's p o i n t o f view, that the
design o f the structure is s u f f i c i e n t l y adaptable t o allow installation on several d i f f e r e n t sites.
This arises f r o m the possibihty that the reservoir appraisal indicates that the o p t i m a l p l a t f o r m
position is d i f f e r e n t f r o m the one first envisaged. The requirements f o r l o c a t i o n f l e x i b i l i t y are
thus very i m p o r t a n t .

The actual dimensions o f the base structure are n o t o n l y decided b y the f o u n d a t i o n engineer.
More than f o r most other structures he wiU w o r k hand i n hand w i t h the structural engineer and
other members o f the design team. Considerations influencing the base dimensions include
requirements f o r hydrostatic stability i n relation t o deck load during t o w - o u t , the need f o r o i l
storage, the structural system selected f o r the caisson and the admissible d r a f t i n shallow water
along the tow-out route, as well as the geotechnical considerations n o r m a h y applied.

This means that the f o u n d a t i o n engineer must w o r k very closely w i t h the other designers
during all stages o f the design programme, so that there is c o n t i n u i t y o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f all
factors arising f r o m the seabed soil conditions and their behaviour during the installation and
w o r k i n g hfe o f the structure.

1.3.2 Foundation design problem

The basic requirement f o r the f o u n d a t i o n o f an offshore concrete p l a t f o r m is similar t o that f o r

any landbased structure, i.e., a s u f f i c i e n t factor o f safety against u l t i m a t e failure and no

14
 intolerable settlements or movements under the applied loads. However, the offshore conditions
and operational use o f the p l a t f o r m structures means that there are special problems arising
w h i c h combine w i t h the placing o f these structures on unprepared seabed sites to require new
f o u n d a t i o n procedures t o be introduced. As the economics o f the structure depend greatly o n
the design o f the f o u n d a t i o n , i t is clear that unnecessary conservatism must be avoided.

In deahng w i t h the offshore conditions the f o u n d a t i o n engineer has t o face severe l i m i t a t i o n s

based on existing knowledge f o r the f oho wing reasons:
(1) For the extreme loading f r o m wave forces there are m u c h larger horizontal forces t h a n are
typical f o r land based structures, and the failure modes to be considered are therefore
d i f f e r e n t f r o m normal experience.
(2) The dynamic nature o f the wave loading introduces the special problem o f the effects o f
repeated loading on the geotechnical properties o f the soils.

Most structures are equipped w i t h skirts designed t o penetrate a certain depth i n t o the seabed.
Unless the submerged weight o f the structure is sufficient to achieve the required penetration
depth, the safety o f the foundations may be less than required. I f , on the other hand, a larger
penetration is obtained local high spots or hard points on the seabed may introduce excessive
local loads o n the base structure. N o r m a l l y , these loads govern the design o f the base slab.

The skirts also provide protection t o the f o u n d a t i o n f r o m the effects o f seabed scour, and skirt
lengths o f 1 t o 5 m are used depending on the structure and soil conditions. The l a y o u t o f the
skirts must be chosen t o aUow the submerged weight o f the structure t o provide adequate
penetration i n t o the soils during installation. T o achieve this result may require a number o f
innovative design features such as c u t t i n g edges, j e t t i n g locating dowels and grouting o f the
underside o f the base slab.

1.3.3 Site investigations

A comprehensive site investigation f o r a concrete structure i n the N o r t h Sea can cost a p p r o x i -
mately £ 5 0 0 000 o f w h i c h about 10-15% relates t o geophysical survey. This means that soils
i n f o r m a t i o n is obtained progressively during the early stages o f a project, and a detailed geo-
technical survey is n o t usually carried out u n t i l the result o f preliminary feasibility surveys is
completed.

To undertake the f o u n d a t i o n design requires measurement o f soil properties to a d e p t h below

seabed o f about 150 m . Under offshore conditions this has considerable practical d i f f i c u l t y i n
planning and executing site investigations. The interpretation o f results f r o m i n situ tests and
laboratory tests needs m u c h skill, judgement and experience to allow the evaluation o f design
parameters t o represent soil conditions during installation and the w o r k i n g life o f the structure.

Successful offshore site investigation involves the use o f a large number o f techniques f o r
investigating various aspects such as regional and local geology, seabed topography, soil types,
their genesis and variation, and the mechanical properties o f the ground under static and cyclic
load. The measurement and interpretation o f all these features is far f r o m straightforward. F o r
example, the characteristic i n situ static strength o f a given stratum is a f u n c t i o n o f many
factors, such as soil fabric, structure, stress history and imposed stress changes, and may d i f f e r
significantly f r o m the strength derived f r o m routine laboratory tests. These and may other
d i f f i c u l t i e s and limitations must be bourne i n m i n d at all times during the design o f the
foundations and other elements o f an offshore structure.

Using a seafloor jack, push sampling can be carried out t o obtain better quality samples.
Operationally reliable i n situ testing equipment, such as the cone penetrometer and remote
vane, have been developed and have proven t o be o f value. Better quahty high-resolution
geophysical data can be obtained and integrated w i t h geotechnical data t o provide c o n f i d e n t
site i n f o r m a t i o n .

1.3.4 Design procedures

The main geotechnical problem.s associated w i t h the f o u n d a t i o n design f o r offshore concrete
structures are:

Penetration o f skirts
Lateral forces during penetration

15
 Local base contact stresses

Stability
Settlements

D y n a m i c displacements
Effects o f cyclic loading o n soils
Hydraulic behaviour on soils
Scour action on seabed

The l i m i t state m e t h o d is n o w being accepted f o r the f o u n d a t i o n design o f concrete structures,

the most i m p o r t a n t checks being on stability i n the ultimate Hmit state and displacement i n the
serviceability l i m i t state.

The effects o f repeated loading lead to i m p o r t a n t changes i n the stress—strain—strength properties

of b o t h sand and clay, which have t o be accounted f o r i n stability analysis as well as calculations
o f dynamic motions and settlements. I n a d d i t i o n t o a conventional quasi-static stability analysis,
the risk o f failure i n cyclic loading has t o be considered as a separate failure mode i n the ultimate
l i m i t state. Empirical guidehnes and simple methods o f analysis using laboratory specimens as
representative o f average stress conditions are widely used t o assess the effects o f repeated load-
ing on the soil properties. Finite element methods f o r complicated cases and centrifuge m o d e l
tests f o r studying mechanisms and behaviour are valuable supplementary tools.

Analyses o f penetration resistance o f dowels and skirts, as well as reaction forces on the base
structure t o be expected during installation, are i m p o r t a n t considerations i n the design o f a
concrete structure. The methods o f analysis developed f o r these purposes, usually relying on soil
data f r o m cone penetration tests, appear t o give results i n reasonable agreement w i t h f i e l d
observations.

Analysis o f settlements may be based on laboratory consoHdation tests, b u t f o r the sands and
s t i f f clays most c o m m o n i n the N o r t h Sea i t appears that empirical relations between settlement
parameters and the index properties o f the soils produce equally good results.

1.3.5 Installation methods

The f o u n d a t i o n design must pay particular a t t e n t i o n t o the critical installation phase as the
concrete structure touches d o w n , penetrates, makes base contact and yet preserves the f o u n d -
ation soils. D u r i n g penetration o f the skirts the structure can experience large eccentric soil
resistance forces w h i c h must be compensated b y eccentric ballasting moments w i t h i n the
caisson t o m a i n t a i n a vertical position. The prediction o f these forces is therefore an i m p o r t a n t
part o f the geotechnical design problem, and methods have been f o u n d w h i c h give good
correlation w i t h the experience obtained f r o m presently installed structures.

In dealing w i t h the contact pressures experienced b y the base during installation i t has been
necessary t o introduce load-measuring instruments so that the calculated pressures are n o t
exceeded. Reasonably good agreement has been observed between measurements and pre-
dicitions. G r o u t i n g o f the space between seabed and the base o f the structure has been
successfully carried out i n order t o :

Keep the p l a t f o r m level

A v o i d piping below the structure

A v o i d overstressing
A v o i d f u r t h e r skirt penetration
Secure an even soil reaction.

The experience to date has c o n f i r m e d that this t y p e o f concrete structure can be installed w i t h -
out serious d i f f i c u l t y , and each structure has taken o n l y a f e w hours t o achieve its seabed
f o u n d a t i o n t o provide f o r f i x e d stability w i t h good locational accuracy.

1.3.6 Operational performance

A l l structures are reported t o be p e r f o r m i n g their f u n c t i o n s satisfactorily f o l l o w i n g some i n i t i a l
difficulties i n the installation o f oil-well conductor pipes where they have been needed. Since all

16
the concrete structures are on hard or dense f o u n d a t i o n soils, i t has been f o u n d necessary t o
install conductor pipes b y a combination o f drilling a pilot hole and driving the conductor pipe.
Each operator has evolved d i f f e r e n t techniques t o minimise the disturbance o f the f o u n d a t i o n
soils.

None o f the structures has suffered critical settlements t o date. As an example, the settlement
of the E k o f i s k p l a t f o r m f r o m the installation i n 1973 to 1977 has been 26 cm. I t experienced
the m a j o r i t y o f its settlement during the f i r s t year, including a movement o f 4 cm during one
day, before reaching the maxiimum value.

Assumptions about f o u n d a t i o n behaviour made i n design are being c o n f i r m e d relating t o

stability, soil f o u n d a t i o n pore pressures and dynamic motions w i t h extension i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n
installed on virtually all concrete platforms. A l t h o u g h wave forces equivalent t o only 45% o f
the m a x i m u m N o r t h Sea design conditions (100-year storm) have so far been experienced,
observations indicate that pore pressure have been well w i t h i n allowable limits.

Conclusions

The state-or-the-art o n the various engineering aspects o f the design and construction o f safe
foundations f o r concrete gravity structures i n the N o r t h Sea has advanced over the last f e w years
to give confidence using current procedures.

There are clearly many requirements t o be met before b o t h safe and economic design solutions
can be f o u n d f o r each location. This leads t o each structure relying on considerable i n n o v a t i o n
i n its development f o r use, and a close l i n k is needed between all o f the skills i n the design team.
It is essential f o r the f o u n d a t i o n engineer t o be included at all stages o f the project to give
c o n t i n u i t y o f interpretation on f o u n d a t i o n problems.

The rapid period over w h i c h these very large structures have proceeded f r o m concept t o
execution has led t o considerable demands f o r technological development being imposed on all
concerned. This phase o f the N o r t h Sea o i l and gas offshore activity has given an unparalleled
o p p o r t u n i t y t o demonstrate that concrete sea structures do provide rehable offshore p l a t f o r m s
f o r drilling, p r o d u c t i o n and storage o f o i l or gas.

The reliability o f these concrete p l a t f o r m structures wiU continue t o depend on their f o u n d a t i o n

performance. Predictions o f long t e r m behaviour w i l l be c o n f i r m e d f r o m the data obtained
during m o n i t o r i n g i n use.

REFERENCES

1. M A R I O N , H . and M A H F O U Z , G.
Design and construction o f the E k o f i s k artificial island. Proceedings of the Institute of
Civil Engineers, V o l . 56, Part 1, November 1974.

2-. MARION, H.A.

E k o f i s k storage tank. Proceedings of the R.I.N. A. Symposium on Ocean Engineering,
Teddington, 1974. pp. 83-94.

3. F E R R Y M A N , P.J.
E k o f i s k I's new role i n the N o r t h Sea. Paper OE-75 212 presented t o Offshore Europe
Conference, Aberdeen, 1975.

4. G E R W I C K Jr., B E N , C.
C o n d e e p - i n 400 f t water concrete caisson requires no piles. Civil Engineering, ASCE,
Vol 46, N o . 4, A p r i l 1976.

5. BLOCK, M.L.etal
Beryl ' A ' M o b i l chooses concrete f o r B e r y l field p l a t f o r m . Petroleum International 14, ( 4 ) ,
A p r i l 1974. pp. 73-75.

6 ANON
M o b i l B e r y l ' A ' the real pioneer. Noroil V o l . 3, N o . 7, July 1975. pp. 37-43, 4 5 , 4 7 , 93.

17
7. ATTFIELD, K.
B e r y l ' A ' beats problems t o land on the coast. Offshire Engineer, August 1975. p p . 43-44.

8. ANON
K e y component i n $350-million complex installed i n N o r t h Sea. Ocean Industry. 10 ( 8 ) ,
August 1975. pp. 44-47.

9. ANON.
Concrete giant Beryl ' A ' begins N o r t h Sea service. Gas World, 180, ( 4 6 7 8 ) , August 1975.
pp. 412-415.

10. GANSEAL,E., etal

Concrete offshore structures, strains measured o n f u l l scale shells. Paper 2435 presented t o the
Offshore Technology Conference, H o u s t o n 1976.

11. E I D E , O V E . T. and L A R S E N , L E I F . G.
InstaUation o f the Shell/Esso Brent ' B ' condeep p r o d u c t i o n p l a t f o r m . Paper 2 4 3 4 presented
to the Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, 1976.

12. F R I G G C O N S O R T I A .
The Frigg Gas Story. Frigg Consortia 1977. ( T o t a l , E l f Aquitaine, Norske H y d r o and
Statoil.)

13. M I C H A E L , D . and H A M A R D , J.C.

Frigg CDPl—The intermediate p l a t f o r m f o r Frigg. I n d . Petrol. Europe Cas-Chim. 42
(3), March 1974. pp. 49, 5 1 .

14. D E R R I N G T O N , J.A.
TPl—The construction o f gas treatment p l a t f o r m N o . 1 f o r the Frigg Field f o r Elf-Norge
A / S . The Structure Eitgineer, V o l . 55, N o . 2, February 1977. pp

15. D E R R I N G T O N , J.A.
TPl—Construction o f M c A l p i n e sea tank gravity platforms at A r d y n e Point, A r g y l l .
Paper presented at Conference on Design and Construction o f Offshore Structures.
L o n d o n , 1976. pp. 121-130.

16. ANON.
MCP-01 Special Report: Frigg: tears and t r i u m p h . Noroil, V o l . 5, N o . 10, October 1977.
pp. 57, 59, 6 1 .

17. ANON.
Brent ' D ' platform—Second concrete p l a t f o r m set i n U K ' s largest o i l f i e l d . World Oil,
183, ( 4 ) , September 1976. pp. 74, 76.

18. ANON.
S t a t f j o r d A - T h e largest ever. Noroil, V o l . 5, N o . 1 1 , November 1977.

19. ANON.
S t a t f j o r d group fights f o r single p l a t f o r m approach. Offshore Engineer, September 1977.
pp. 69-74.

20. ANON.
D u n l i n P l a t f o r m . Noroil, V o l . 3, N o . 7, June 1975.

21. ANON.
D u n l i n P l a t f o r m : float-out i n R o t t e r d a m . Noroil, V o l . 3, N o . 7, July 1975. pp. 5 1 , 53.

22. ANON.
Scotland may miss out on D u n l i n deck placing. Offshore Engineer, September 1975. p p . 1 1 .

23. ANON.
D u n l i n Concrete P l a t f o r m - s t a r t to finish. Petroleum Review, V o l . 3 1 , N o . 3 6 7 , July 1977.
pp. 10-12.

18
24. ANON.
Ninian C e n t r a l - N i n i a n Central P l a t f o r m to be the world's largest concrete gravity structure.
Oil and Gas Journal, V o l . 74, N o . 26, June 1976. pp. 133-138.

25. ANON.
Howard-Doris carve niche at K i s h o r n . A^ew^ Civil Engineer, February 1976.

26. M U T C H R.
Ninian F i e l d : w i t h delays aside, the central p l a t f o r m awaits t o w i n g hook-up. Offshore
Engineer, V o l . 37, N o . 11. October 1977. pp. 66-70.

27. D E R R I N G T O N , J.A.
Construction o f McAlpine/Sea Tank Gravity Platforms at A r d y n e Point, A r g y l l . Paper
presented at the I C E Conference o n Design and Construction o f Offshore Structures,
L o n d o n 1976.

28. ANON.
Tallest p r o d u c t i o n p l a t f o r m s set f o r N o r t h Sea. Oil and Gas Journal, V o l . 72, N o . 2 1 ,
May 1974. pp. 34.

19
2 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION PRACTICES

2.1 Introduction

Offshore concrete structures, resting on the seafloor, rely u p o n the underlying soils to provide
adequate support against f o u n d a t i o n instability,- and t o undergo small deformations so that
horizontal and vertical structure movements are w i t h i n tolerable operating limits. I n a d d i t i o n to
investigating geologic stratification o f the supporting soil and rock strata, geotechnical
properties o f the strata must be determined f r o m i n situ testing and laboratory testing o f core
samples, i n order to predict soil-structure response under anticipated structural and environ-
mental loads.

The E k o f i s k o i l storage tank was the first concrete gravity p l a t f o r m t o be installed i n deep
water i n the N o r t h Sea i n the summer o f 1973 (Marion, 1974). The water depth is 70 m and
the near circular structure is 90 m tall and about 93 m i n diameter. The base w i d t h o f concrete
gravity platforms generally ranges f r o m 75 to 125 m , so that soil and rock conditions should be
explored to penetrations o f about 150 m . These large and heavy structures have been placed i n
the N o r t h Sea on strong overconsohdated clays and dense sands to minimize potential structure
deformations.

I n the Pleistocene glacial period, the northwest continental glacier advanced and retreated
several times across the N o r t h Sea continental shelf ( L o k e n , 1976). The moving ice sheets
eroded irregular surfaces i n t o the underlying sediments that were i n f i l l e d w i t h glaciomarine and
fluvioglacial sediments during interglacial periods, while m u c h o f the southern N o r t h Sea
remained above sea level. The repeated advances and retreats o f the glaciers produced complex
sequences o f glacial, marine and fluvial sediments w h i c h are overconsohdated f r o m the weight o f
the ice sheets. Since the end o f the Pleistocene period, the N o r t h Sea basin has been submerged
below sea level and Holocene deposits o f silts, clays and fine sands are relatively t h i n , except f o r
i n f i h i n g o f erosion depressions remaining f r o m the last glacial retreat. The Holocene sands are i n
a dense c o n d i t i o n f r o m the compacting effect o f ocean wave induced pressures o n the seafloor
(Bjerrum, 1973) that have no beneficial effect u p o n the strength characteristics o f clays. Figure
2.1 shows typical soil conditions i n water depths greater than 150 m i n the n o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea
and i n the central N o r t h Sea where water depths are about 75 m .

Undrained shear Undrained shear

strength l<N/m^ strength kN/m^

200 400 600 0 200 400 600

1
Dense
Very fine
stiff to sand
hard

1
silty 25
clay CO Hard
(0
sandy
0) clay
E
Dense uT
O
8 silt O
^50- «50-
0) CO Dense
I

i
o fine
Hard CD
XI sand
sandy
CL
clay
g75- ^75-
1
Hard
Dense clay
sand
100- 100- 1

(a) Northern North Sea (b) Central North Sea

Figure 2 . 1 : Typical soil profiles.

20
2.2 Planning of investigation

A comprehensive f o u n d a t i o n investigation o f a gravity p l a t f o r m site i n the N o r t h Sea might

cost between £ 4 0 0 000 and £ 6 0 0 000, o f w h i c h 10 to 15% relates t o the geophysical survey
Consequently, the investigation o f a potential site is generally undertaken i n progressive
stages, so that structural concepts can be developed w i t h due regard to soil conditions. The
shallow geological environment o f the area is examined f r o m a geophysical survey, together
w i t h one or t w o soil borings f o r correlating stratigraphic boundaries interpreted f r o m the
seismic p r o f i l l i n g data. The geotechnical investigation is ideally delayed u n t i l the results o f
the shallow geophysical survey have been studied and the actual p l a t f o r m location has been
selected, w i t h due consideration to the development o f the o i l or gas f i e l d .

2.2.1 Preliminary area survey

The feasibility o f placing a concrete gravity p l a t f o r m on the seabed is f r e q u e n t l y assessed
while exploration drilling o f the prospective f i e l d is still in progress. I n a d d i t i o n to gathering
bathymetric data and topographic i n f o r m a t i o n o f the seafloor, the shaUow seismic survey
yields data f o r mapping o f geologic stratification and features such as buried channels
i n f i l l e d w i t h materials o f d i f f e r i n g compressibility, faults across w h i c h d i f f e r e n t i a l displace-
ments might occur, and areas o f seafloor slides (Milling, 1975).

Geotechnical properties o f soils and rocks are n o t determinable f r o m acoustic measurements,

w i t h the result that soil properties f o r use in feasibihty studies must be developed f r o m
laboratory tests o n samples recovered f r o m one or t w o borings, drilled t o penetrations o f
about 100 m . Seismic survey vessels are highly manoeuverable w i t h o u t anchoring capabihties
to stay on location, so soil borings must be drilled w i t h larger anchored coring vessels or b y
placing a mobile rotary drilling rig o n the jack-up or semi-submersible oil well p l a t f o r m
during exploration drilling.

2.2.2 Detailed foundation investigation

Development o f soil parameters f o r analysing p l a t f o r m stability, skirt penetration and soil-
structure response usually involves drilhng and sampling o f f o u r or more borings, t o pene-
trations o f 100 to 150 m and conducting 10 t o 15 cone penetrometer tests, o f w h i c h f o u r
or five tests should penetrate t o about 30 m or less depending u p o n stratigraphy and the
remaining tests to shallower penetrations o f about 10 m . The areal extent o f weak surface
soils can be examined rapidly b y additional cone penetrometer tests. Other types o f i n situ
testing such as gamma logging, plate loading, and pressure meter have been attempted at
N o r t h Sea sites t o improve soils i n f o r m a t i o n f o r f o u n d a t i o n design.

Detailed topographic data on an intended p l a t f o r m location are generally obtained w i t h smaU

submarines (Hitcliings et al, 1976), f i t t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t i a l pressure sensing devices and having
a surface support vessel. Topographic maps can be developed to vertical accuracy o f ± 10 c m
and seafloor features such as bolders and marine debris are recorded o n videotape and
photographic f i l m .

2.2.3 Position fixing

Marine surveys demand accurate navigating o f seismic vessels along pre-selected survey Unes
and positioning o f anchored coring vessels on soil boring and i n situ testing locations. For
ocean navigation, vessels are equipped w i t h some t y p e o f l o w frequency shore-base radio
positioning system, such as Omega, b u t this is n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y accurate f o r survey w o r k
( M c Q u i l l i n and Ardus, 1977). Positioning o f geophysical vessels is usually achieved b y one o f
the several m e d i u m frequency chains (Decca-Hi-Fix, Toran, or L o r a n ) having an accuracy
between 5 and 30 m or b y the more accurate microwave system (Trisponder, A u t o t a p e or
Hydrodist) when w i t h i n radio line o f sight o f fixed reference points.

Positioning o f coring-vessels is usually controlled b y an array o f f o u r acoustic transponders

laid on the seafloor providing relative accuracy o f ± 3 m . Laying o f the transponders is done
w i t h a vessel positioned b y one o f the m e d i u m frequency chains, w h i c h can be operated w i t h
satelhte navigation giving an accuracy better than 10 m when the vessel is held stationary f o r
a period o f about 24 hours.

21
2.3 Geophysical survey

Sub-bottom geologic features are explored w i t h a multi-sensor acoustic system o f t o w e d

devices having d i f f e r e n t frequency responses (McQuillin and Ardus, 1977), and other acoustic
devices record simultaneously bathymetric data and seafloor topography. A t y p i c a l array o f
t o w e d devices is illustrated i n Figure 2.2. Survey vessels i n the N o r t h Sea are t y p i c a l l y 45 t o
55 m long, driven b y a slow revolving single screw t o minimize acoustic noise and having t w o
conventional b o w anchors. Deck winches and an A frame are required f o r handling the
various seismic t o w devices over the stern, and one or t w o 3 t cranes f o r lowering shallow
penetration sampling devices on the side.

Radio positioning

Figure 2.2: Diagram o f t o w e d seismic devices.

Geology o f the area surrounding a prospective p l a t f o r m site is generally explored over an

area o f 2 to 4 k m on a coarse spacing o f survey lines at 300 t o 500 m apart i n b o t h n o r t h -
south and east-west directions. More detailed i n f o r m a t i o n on geologic features w i t h i n the
immediate location o f a p l a t f o r m is obtained b y reducing the grid spacing to 75 or 100 m
in one survey direction to f o r m an area o f 1 k m by 1 k m . Seismic data gathered along the
survey lines are r o u t i n e l y interpreted t o construct maps showing b a t h y m e t r y , shallow
geologic features, shallow sediment isopachs, and construction hazards at, or slightly below,
the seafloor.

2.3.1 Bathymetry

Water depth is n o r m a l l y measured b y a high precision echo-sounder e m i t t i n g high frequency

acoustic signals o f about 40 k H z that are reflected back to the transducer as an echo. A n
echo-sounder is generally m o u n t e d on a seismic survey vessel t o produce a seabed c o n t o u r
map o f the area, or on an anchored drilling vessel t o measure water depth and t i d a l
variations. Echo-sounders operating at higher frequencies up t o 200 k H z are used t o detect
gas seeps at the seafloor.

2.3.2 Seafloor topography

A side scan sonar fish w i l l provide a sonar picture o f irregularities at the seafloor and •
augments bathymetric data acquired along track lines. The f i s h transmits high frequency
pulses o f 50 t o 200 k H z i n a t h i n , fan-shaped pattern i n a plane perpendicular t o its t o w

22
 path, and receives echoes f r o m the seafloor. The acoustic beam can scan as far as 500 m t o
each side o f the fish b u t is h m i t e d t o about 150 m when the fish is t o w e d f r o m 20 m t o
40 m above the seafloor to achieve good resolution. Steel or iron objects ranging f r o m
sunken ships, pipelines, anchor, and telephone cables can be detected w i t h a marine p r o t o n
magnetometer bottle w h i c h measures the t o t a l magnetic f i e l d intensity i n gammas along the
t o w line.

2.3.3. Continuous sub-bottom reflection profiling

High resolution seismic p r o f i l i n g i n rough sea states that prevail f o r long periods i n the N o r t h
Sea, requires deep t o w i n g o f the t o w fish to minimize m o t i o n o f the sound source and
receiving sensor, otherwise seismic p r o f i l i n g operations are l i m i t e d to relatively calm sea states.
The deep-towing technique also reduces acoustic noise f r o m the vessel and loss o f acoustic
energy f r o m absorption and divergence i n deep sea water, and improves resolution o f t h i n soil
strata. The raw seismic data are preferably digitised and recorded o n magnetic tape on the
vessel or recorded i n analog f o r m f o r processing to improve vertical resolution and t o minimize
multiples at the seafloor. Data f r o m deep seismic surveys f o r o i l and gas e x p l o r a t i o n can be
used t o complement the high resolution data i n better understanding the geologic environment.

A n appropriate seismic p r o f i l i n g system depends u p o n the required depth o f penetration the

desired degree o f resolution, and the acoustic opaqueness o f the shallow formations. Seismic
survey vessels usually carry t w o or three types o f sound sources i n order to provide a broad
range o f frequencies, and selection o f this equipment is made o n the advice o f an experienced
geophysicist. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f soil and rock materials cannot usually be made based o n sub-
b o t t o m reflection p r o f i l i n g alone so one or t w o soil borings are required f o r geologic
correlation o f the seismic data.

Table 2 . 1 . High resolution p r o f i l i n g systems.

Acoustic Source Energy Frequency Resolution Penetration

Joules Hz m m

Stacked sparker 4000-10 000 80-200 ± 10 350-900

Sparker 20-200 500-1200 3-4 15-100

Deep t o w sparker 200-800 1000-3000 0.5-1.5 15-60

Multi-electrode sparker 200-1000 300-3000 1.5-3 15-120

Boomer 500-1000 300-3000 2-4 30-120

Deep t o w boomer 400-600 800-1000 0.5-1.5 15-60

Precision boomer 100-500 400-15 000 0.5-1 15-75

Microprofiler 1-100 2000-12 000 ± 0.5 max. 30

Generally l o w frequency, high energy systems produce deep penetration w i t h l o w resolution

whereas high frequency systems yield l i m i t e d penetration w i t h high resolution. The c o m m o n
types o f seismic p r o f i l i n g systems used i n the N o r t h Sea are listed i n Table 2.1 together w i t h
typical operating characteristics such as energy, frequency, resolution, and penetration. High
energy systems used i n engineering surveys are operated at frequencies between 100 and 400
Hz. capable o f producing penetrations o f 200 to 300 m w i t h resolution i n the order o f 6 m
below penetration o f 10 t o 20 m . Higher frequency multi-electrode sparkers achieve less
penetration to about 150 m w i t h improved resolution o f 3 m while boomers operating at
about 2 k H z can penetrate 50 to 75 m w i t h resolution o f 1 to 1.5 m . L o w energy micro-
profilers and pingers e m i t t i n g a sound pulse w i t h a frequency o f 5 k H z give resolution o f
about 0.5 m and can penetrate about 25 m into soft clay b u t only a f e w metres into dense
sand and gravel.

2.3.4 Shallow penetration sampling

Seabed sampling w i t h gravity corers f r o m seismic survey vessels produces soil samples
suitable f o r classification testing t o map shallow soil stratigraphy, b u t generaUy unsuitable

23
 f o r providing reliable soil shear strength data. Piston or open-barrel gravity corers are
lowered to the seafloor o n a wireline and the samplers f r e q u e n t l y have a triggering weight,
so that the sampling tube falls freely over a pre-determined distance before penetrating the
seafloor (Noorany, 1972). The diameter o f the sampling tube o f these one-shot devices
ranges f r o m 50 t o 150 m m , and penetrations greater than 5 m are seldom achieved i n soft
to f i r m clays. The length o f undisturbed clay samples recovered i n a sampling tube is
restricted t o 15 t o 20 times the inside diameter o f the sampler, while i n sands the ratio is
only about 10. C o n s e q u e n Ü y , when the penetration o f a 75 m m sample exceeds about
1.25 m , the recovered samples suffers some disturbance.

A n o t h e r shallow penetration technique is t o drive a thick-wall tube, w h i c h can range f r o m

100 t o 270 m m i n diameter, into the seafloor w i t h a vibratory hammer. The vibro-corer is
lowered on a steel cable t o the seafloor w i t h a tether line f o r f l o w o f compressed air to the
mechanical vibrator. Penetration ranges f r o m 8 m i n s o f t - t o - f i r m clays and loose sands to
only 0.5 t o 2 m i n t o strong clays, because o f damping o f the vibratory energy b y the
surrounding clay.

A remote controUed seabed sampling device, designed to carry out push sampling t o 10 m ,
has undergone sea trials i n the N o r t h Sea. The seabed unit consists o f a r o t a r y drilling device
w h h a rotating supply disc carrying 10 sampling tubes o f 55 m m diameter and 90 cm long.
A tube is pushed f r o m the seafloor, retracted and stored i n the supply disc, and then the
unit drihs a hole to 0.9 m before another sample tube is pushed f r o m 0.9 t o 1.8 m . This
push sampling and drilling sequence is contintied t o penetration o f 9 m .

2.4 Geotechnical investigation

Vessels f o r drilhng borings and conducting i n situ testing must be capable o f remaining i n
position f o r periods o f several days i n moderate sea states. These vessels are usually 65 to
75 m long, driven b y t w i n screws w i t h a bowthruster so that three b o w anchors and three
stern anchors can be laid w i t h o u t assistance f r o m an anchor handling boat. A n c h o r i n g i n
200 m o f water requires at least 1750 m o f wireline attached to each 3 t anchor and the
d r u m o f the anchor winches should h o l d about 2250 m o f wireline. The vessels have a
4 m b y 4 m m o o n pool t h r o u g h w h i c h seafloor devices are lowered and raised, and are
f i t t e d w i t h a permanent drilling derrick and draw works.

2.4.1 Rotary drilhng and wirehne sampling

The N o r t h Sea vessels utilize 115 to 130 m m drill pipe w i t h d r i l l collars and an open-centre
drag b i t at the b o t t o m o f the string, and the t o p o f the string is connected t o the m o t i o n
compensator i n the crown o f the derrick so that the d r i l l string is constantly held i n tension.
The drih string is internal flush o f 100 m m internal diameter, allowing wire line tools up to
90 m m i n diameter t o be r u n t h r o u g h the d r i l l pipe. Borings are advanced by r o t a t i n g the
d r i l l pipe w i t h a power swivel or power tongs and the drih remains i n the drilled hole u n t i l
the boring is completed. The drilling procedure shown i n Figure 2.3 requires a continuous
re-supply o f drilling m u d o f desirable viscosity and fluid weight f o r stability o f the borehole,
since all the drilling fluids exist f r o m the hole at the seafloor. Drihing and sampling oper-
ations are generally closed d o w n when vertical vessel m o t i o n approaches 3 m .

The most c o m m o n l y used sampling technique is percussion sampling. Percussion samphng,

illustrated i n Figure 2.3 is accomplished by driving a 75 m m thin-wall tube into the soü
below the b o t t o m o f the boring b y blows o f a 130 k g hammer dropped approximately 1.5 m_.
The sliding hammer is attached t o the sampler and is operated o n a wire line. The technique
is fast and effective i n procuring samples, but produces significant disturbance o f clay samples
and no quantitative measure o f the i n situ condition o f sand samples. Sample disturbance is
reduced b y push sampling b u t is restricted t o relatively calm sea conditions, because the drih
pipe produces the necessary reaction load. This technique involves latching the sample tube
i n t o the d r i l l b i t that is pressed into the ground b y reducing the tension load i n the drih
string.

ControUed push sampling i n s t i f f clays and sands has been conducted i n N o r t h Sea borings t o
penetrations o f 125 m , w i t h the seafloor jacking unit o f Stingray. The 20 t seafloor jacking u n i t
has hydraulically operated horizontal clamps, w h i c h grip the driU pipe and the vertical
hydraulic rams, having a stroke o f 1 m , push the latch-in 75 m m sampling tube into the soil.
The weight o f the seafloor jack prevents vessel m o t i o n being transferred to the sampling tube.

24
 > Prepared
"^drilling fluid

in1/

Wire-line
•sampler and jars

2'/2in.O.D.
thin-wall tube
Full-hole bit 2in
with blade reamer

® (D (D
Drilling Before sampling Sampling

Figure 2.3: Wire-line percussion sampling.

The t w o l i f t i n g lines t o the seafloor unit serve as a guide system to lead the b i t t h r o u g h the jack
and back i n t o the driUed b o r i n g , thereby facilitating replacement o f the open-centre drag b i t
w i t h a r o c k b i t , whenever r o t a r y rock coring is necessary. B y using a wire line core barrel
latching i n t o the drill b i t , cores o f 40 to 50 m m i n diameter can be recovered inside a plastic
liner.

Push sampling has been successfully p e r f o r m e d w i t h Stingray i n strong, over consohdated N o r t h

Sea clays w i t h undrained shear strength approaching 500 k N / m ^ . Percussion wire line sampling
was also conducted i n the same clays and revealed that the sampling technique had no marked
effect u p o n the shear strength, b u t the solid stiffness was reduced b y 25 t o 50% (Sullivan, 1978)
Comparative sampling tests i n a moderately sensitive clay, w i t h undrained shear strength
increasing f r o m 40 to 100 k N / m ^ , have shown that percussion sampling produced sufficient
disturbance t o lower the strength b y 25 t o 40% below strengths measured on push samples
( E m r i c h , 1970). Push sampling provides better quality samples, thereby allowing greater c o n f i d -
ence in selecting design soil parameters that i n t u r n reduces conservatism i n f o u n d a t i o n design.

Recovered pushed or hammered samples are carefuhy extruded f r o m the 75 m m sampling tube,
aUowing visual-manual i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the soils before packaging i n cardboard or plastic tubes
and selected samples can be retained and sealed i n the steel sampling tube f o r transport to an
onshore laboratory. A sample is first wrapped i n plastic f o i l , then i n a l u m i n i u m f o i l and the
annular space between the soil specimen and the tube is f i l l e d w i t h non-shrink m o l t e n wax.
Disturbance o f s t i f f soils f r o m extrusion is m i n i m i z e d b y immediate packaging i n cardboard
tubes, while samples retained i n the sampling tubes are exposed t o drilling f l u i d trapped i n the
t o p p o r t i o n o f a sample that can cause swelling o f s t i f f clay w i t h associated loss o f strength.

2.4.2 Cone penetrometer testing

This i n situ testing technique is widely used i n the N o r t h Sea t o explore soil conditions, since a
test can be performed q u i c k l y giving a continuous record o f resistance. Interpretation o f strength
and stiffness o f clay and sand f r o m cone results is based on empirical relationships and requires
mature geotechnical judgement.

The seafloor cone penetrometer u n i t Seacalf has been used considerably i n the N o r t h Sea
(de Ruiter, 1975) and a diagram o f the unit is given i n Figure 2.4. I t is a 20 t u n i t lowered to
the seafloor through the m o o n p o o l o f a drihing vessel and provides the reaction f o r thrusting a
10 cm^ cone i n t o the soil, at a rate o f penetration o f 2 cm/s. The cone test rods extend above
the t o p o f the seabed u n i t requiring support f r o m a m o t i o n compensated wire line and cone
penetration is l i m i t e d to 6 t o 8 m i n hard clays or dense sands. The Wison wire line cone pentro-
meter was developed t o conduct cone testing at a greater depths i n companion borings b y
latching i n t o the d r i l l b i t . I t relies u p o n the d r i l l string to provide reaction, w i t h the result that
the rate o f cone penetration is n o t closely controhed and cone penetration into s t i f f clays is
l i m i t e d t o about 1 m , because the reaction load f r o m the d r i l l string seldom exceeds 3 t.

25
Figure 2.4: Diagram o f seacalf.

Figure 2.5: Operation o f Stingray.

 A successful seafloor jacking device is Stingray (Ferguson et al, 1977) w h i c h has p e r f o r m e d cone
testing f r o m the seafloor t h r o u g h hard clays to 25 m penetration. Cone penetrometer testing
w i t h the versatile seafloor jacking u n i t is shown i n Figure 2.5. The vertical hydraulic rams force
penetration at 2 cm/s o f the 10 cm^ cone i n increments o f 1 m u n t i l the 5 m r o d length is f u l l y
utilized or refusal is reached. The cone and r o d are retrieved b y the wire line procedure and the
drih pipe is advanced by conventional r o t a r y drihing to a level just short o f the cone's m a x i m u m
penetration. Thereafter, the sequence o f pushing the cone and r o t a r y drihing is repeated t o any
desired depth.

2.4.3 Other in situ testing

Soil conditions are investigated w i t h other currently available i n situ testing devices. Since
continuous soil sampling i n deep penetration borings is not standard practice, gamma logging has
been used ( G u y o d , 1963) t o obtain a continuous profile o f soil stratification. The measuring
sonde is r u n t h r o u g h the d r i l l pipe since natural gamma rays f r o m clay materials have good
transmission through steel. Density and porosity logging t h r o u g h the d r i l l pipe is n o t effective
because o f the influence o f the d r i h pipe and the m u d f i h e d gap between the drih pipe and the
side o f the boring upon the transmission o f neutron-gamma and neutron-neutron rays t o the
measuring sonde.

Load testing o f a 30 cm diameter plate has been carried out o n the seafloor i n the N o r t h Sea to
assess contact stresses and penetration resistance o f domes on the b o t t o m o f the concrete base
of a p l a t f o r m . The plate loading test was performed using a remote controlled seabed device
such as the Seacalf u n i t .

A h h o u g h i n situ vane shear tests have not been conducted in the N o r t h Sea, this t y p e o f test is
c o m m o n l y used i n the G u l f o f Mexico ( D o y l e et al, 1971), to determine the undrained shear
strength o f f i r m - t o - s t i f f clays. A remote wire line vane is available that is implanted i n t o the
soils below the b o t t o m o f the boring under the weight o f the drih pipe or pushed i n t o the soil
b y the Stingray seafloor jack to measure undrained shear strengths less than 125 k N / m ^ . The
remotely controlled 65 m m diameter vane operates independently o f the drih pipe and has a set
of reaction blades positioned above the test vane t o provide the necessary torque reaction.

Pressure meter testing has been performed i n oversized driUed holes (Menard, 1957) and w i t h
devices j e t t e d or vibrated i n t o soft clays and sands. These techniques t o insert the pressure meter
i n t o soils alter the stress-strain response o f the surrounding soil due to stress relief, or disturbance,
or densification. More recently the stress-strain properties and lateral stresses in soils have been
successfully investigated o n land w i t h self-boring pressure meters (Baguelin et al, 1972) and
pressure meters pushed i n t o soil over an undersized pilot hole. These installation techniques ensure
intimate contact between the t o o l and the surrounding soil, and minimize disturbance w h i c h
influences the i n situ soil measurements. Modifications t o these devices f o r offshore investigations
are being undertaken and a successful sea trial was made in 1977 t o insert a 90 m m push type
pressure meter i n t o s t i f f clay w i t h the Stingray seafloor jack.

2.5 Laboratory testing

2.5.1 Shipboard testing

Soil testing on board the d r i l l ship is l i m i t e d t o routine classification tests and determination o f
undrained cohesive shear strength on about 25% o f recovered samples, thereby leaving ample
material f o r detailed testing at an onshore laboratory. U p o n extrusion f r o m the sample tube,
visual-manual description o f colour, plasticity, grain size, fabric and structure are recorded f o r the
sample i n a d d i t i o n to percentage o f sample recovery and b l o w count, when sampling w i t h a wire
line hammer. Natural moisture content and density determination is made on most clay samples
and the consistency is estimated f r o m hand penetrometer, miniature vane, and f a l l cone tests.
Sieve tests are performed o n selected sand samples f o r grain size i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and shear strength
o f clay samples is determined f r o m unconsohdated undrained triaxial tests.

2.5.2 Onshore testing

Testing o f samples in an onshore laboratory is directed towards evaluating soil shear strength,
soil stiffness under static and dynamic loading, loss o f shear strength under repeated wave load-
ing, and consoHdation under the weight o f a p l a t f o r m . Moisture content and density deter-
m i n a t i o n are made on ah undisturbed samples and soil macro-structure is recorded b y taking
colour photographs o f split samples. Classification tests o f l i q u i d and plastic hmits are p e r f o r m e d

27
 o n clay samples, grain size analyses are conducted o n sand samples, and b o t h l i q u i d and plastic
limits and grain size analyses are carried out on glacial clay tills. Selected sand specimens are
viewed under a microscope t o describe grain shape and mineralogy.

Shear strength and soil stiffness (modulus) o f clays and sands are evaluated b y various types o f
triaxial tests, and simple and direct shear tests i n an e f f o r t t o reproduce i n situ stress conditions
and anticipated modes o f soil d e f o r m a t i o n beneath a p l a t f o r m . Consohdated-undrained triaxial
compression and extension tests are carried out o n 75 m m diameter specimens under conditions
o f no lateral yield ( K ^ ) and conventional testing conditions ahowing lateral sample yielding.
Pore pressure measurements are recorded so that effective stress paths can be computed and
and plotted f o r each test. Simple shear tests are conducted under undrained conditions w i t h
pore pressure measurements, while direct shear tests are restricted t o drained loading conditions.
Soil shear strength o f s t i f f b r i t t l e clays and dense sand is interpreted f r o m the m a x i m u m shear
stress whereas the shear stress associated w i t h a critical strain is o f t e n used w i t h softer soils
exhibiting significant plastic d e f o r m a t i o n . Oedometer tests are performed o n undisturbed clay
samples t o investigate soil consolidation characteristics under anticipated p l a t f o r m loading.

Ocean wave loading o f f o u n d a t i o n soils can produce failure i n sand as weU as i n clay b y cyclic
loading. L i q u e f a c t i o n o f sand (Lee and Focht, 1975) is the better k n o w n phenomenon b u t a
similar failure mode may be critical f o r foundations on clay. Clays w i h also suffer reduction i n
undrained shear strength and d e f o r m a t i o n modulus (Andersen et al, 1976), before pore pressures
generated b y ocean waves are dissipated. Two-directional cycUc triaxial and/or simple shear tests
are conducted t o investigate the response o f sand and clay subjected t o sinusoidal loading. I n
cyclic load testing, the period o f ocean waves is customarily taken as about 10 s, w h i c h is an
order o f magnitude greater than periods o f 0.5 t o 1 s used i n earthquake engineering. Failure i n
cyclic loading is generahy considered to occur when accelerating shear strain develops and this
c o n d i t i o n takes place at cyclic shear stress levels m u c h less than the undrained strength o f the
SOÜ. M o d e l testing i n a centrifuge is another technique f o r investigating displacements and
failure modes o f f o u n d a t i o n soils beneath a p l a t f o r m under combined static and ocean wave load-
ing (Rowe, 1975).

The engineering properties o f f o u n d a t i o n soils vary b o t h w i t h penetration below the seafloor and
laterally across a site. Consequently i t is desirable to p e r f o r m semi-continuous sampling i n some
borings, t o provide sufficient q u a n t i t y o f representative soil f o r testing and developing correlations.
Sampling i n sands yields disturbed specimens resulting i n laboratory tests being conducted on
remoulded samples o f granular soils. Sands i n situ, as weh as clays, have fabric so the results o f
cychc testing on remoulded sands may d i f f e r f r o m the i n situ response o f a sand stratum.

2.6 Evaluation of design soil parameters

Evaluation o f design parameters f o r overconsohdated N o r t h Sea glacial soils must consider the
wide variation i n composition, fabric and stress history resulting f r o m the complex depositional
and post-depositional process. Consequently, quantitative interpretation o f the results o f small i n
situ tests and laboratory tests on smaU samples should be undertaken w i t h due regard t o the macro-
response o f the f o u n d a t i o n soils. Current practice is to select design soil parameters based
primarily on the results o f extensive laboratory testing and relying u p o n i n situ testing t o provide
supplementary data. The variability o f soil properties at a site is assessed f r o m classification
tests on soils samples, f r o m in situ testing, and f r o m geological i n f o r m a t i o n interpreted f r o m
geophysical data.

2.6.1 I n situ testing

By inserting small devices i n t o the ground, the response o f the surrounding soil to applied
vertical or h o r i z o n t a l forces can be measured. The cone penetrometer test is the most c o m m o n
i n situ test performed i n the N o r t h Sea and interpretation o f the results is based on the
empirical relationship f o r the cone factor, Nj^, w h i c h is c o m m o n l y taken as about 17 f o r
shallow overconsohdated clays. Based o n correlations between cone tests and other f o r m s o f
smah scale laboratory or field tests, i t is customary to assign a value to N j , between 15 and 20
f o r s t i f f overconsohdated clays, and a lower range f r o m 10 to 15 f o r n o r m a l l y to l i g h t l y over-
consohdated clays. However, research using the undrained shear strength determined f r o m 865
m m diameter plate tests on a s t i f f overconsohdated glacial clay, reveals that Nj^ can vary f r o m
1 to 27. Figure 2.6 (a) shows a comparison between cone resistance and bearing capacity f r o m
a large plate i n glacial clay at a U K onshore site at Redcar (Marsland, 1977) where a value o f
N]^ o f 27 is required to give the correct characteristic strength. The wide variation i n N^, is

28
 Utimate plate bearing, MN/m^ Undrained shear
cone resistance, MN/m^ strength kN/hi^
10 0 100 200 300 400
11 - Sand T" — I — T
Pressure meter tests
E
12¬

0) Cone test
•O 13¬ at 2cm/sec
c
D
O
ö) 14¬ Stiff
I boulder
clay
XI
15¬
- Plate tests
Q.
CD I Plate tests
Q
16¬
I
I

17¬

n . Marl
18-

(a) Cone Penetrometer (b) Pressure meter

Figure 2.6: Comparison o f soil strengtli f r o m d i f f e r e n t i n situ tests.

influenced b y soil composition, scale and nature o f the soil fabric at b o t h micro-and macro-
levels, the i n situ stress level i n the ground, and the speed o f cone penetration. These factors
also influence the interpretation o f vane tests which i n s t i f f fissured clays can overestimate the
undrained strength b y a factor or t w o .

Pressure meter tests i n pre-drihed boreholes i n glacial clay at Redcar indicated shear strengths
of 100 to 150 k N / m ^ w h i c h was slightly greater than strengths determined f r o m deep large
plate tests, however, the lower trend line was very close to the average shear strength f r o m the
plate load tests as illustrated i n Figure 2.6 ( b ) . Soil stiffness as measured by the shear modulus
f r o m the pressure meter, ranged f r o m 20 to 33% o f the modulus determined f r o m the large
plate tests.on the glacial clay. These results emphasise the d i f f i c u l t i e s i n f o r m i n g undisturbed
holes i n clay tills.

2.6.2 Laboratory testmg

I n a laboratory, testing is conducted o n small samples extruded f r o m t h i n waU sampling tubes
either pushed or driven i n t o the soil w i t h a shding weight. Soil fabric and structure must be
considered i n selecting characteristic strength and stiffness values, since laboratory testing o f
conventional size soil samples may significantly overestimate the i n situ strength o f s t i f f fis-
sured clays. Figure 2.7 (a) and 2.7 (b) show the comparison on undrained strength and soil
stiffness f r o m high quality 98 m m samples, w i t h the values obtained f r o m large plate tests i n
glacial clay at Redcar (Marsland, 1977). These results reveal the d i f f i c u l t y i n selecting
characteristic strength and stiffness values f r o m the results o f laboratory tests, and emphasise
the need f o r f u r t h e r research on the influence o f soil fabric, structures, and stress h i s t o r y on
the interpretation o f laboratory tests.

The undrained shear strength o f clays f o r use i n total stress analyses is usuahy determined
f r o m triaxial and simple shear tests to simulate boundary conditions along a p o t e n t i a l failure
surface beneath a p l a t f o r m . Results o f each individual strength test are interpreted f r o m stress
or strain criteria, t o produce a design strength. The characteristic strength p r o f i l e is then
selected f r o m conservatively assessed mean values o f the design strengths f o r each soil stratum.

When a p l a t f o r m is placed on the seafloor the underlying clay soils undergo elastic deforma-
t i o n , f o l l o w e d b y consolidation settlement, u n t i l the excess pore pressures are dissipated, w h e n
secondary creep may occur. The undrained Young's modulus o f the soil is interpreted f r o m
triaxial tests t o determine the immediate settlement. Consohdation settlement is the m a j o r
component o f the t o t a l settlement o f a p l a t f o r m and is computed f r o m the results o f oedo-
meter tests i n w h i c h the preconsolidation pressure o f a specimen must be determined accu-
rately. Since vertical soil stresses beneath concrete gravity p l a t f o r m s are less than the soil pre-

29
 Undrained shear
strength, l<N/m2 Shear modulus,G, MN/m^
100 200 O 5 10 15
11r 1 1 Sand T-
O)
E
12h Plate tests
I «
-O 13h O
c 1
D J
O Stift
/O
ra 14L
/° o/ boulder
clay
- O
15
Q.
O)
Q
16h Ji —Triaxia tests
17

Marl
18L

(a) Soil Strength (b)Soil Stiffness

Figure 2.7: Comparison o f results f r o m deep plate load tests and laboratory tests.

consolidation pressure, oedometer tests should include one unload and reload cycle f r o m a
pressure greater than the pre-consolidation pressure o f the test specimen because consolida-
t i o n settlement o f s t i f f clay should preferably be computed f r o m the reloading curve. Results
o f oedometer tests tend t o under predict the rate o f settlement o f structures resting o n over-
consolidated clays.

Conclusions

A f o u n d a t i o n investigation o f a concrete gravity p l a t f o r m site i n the N o r t h Sea costs about

£ 5 0 0 000, so careful planning is required i n the selection o f suitable positioning systems f o r
survey vessels, geophysical instruments t o explore shallow geology, and sampling and i n situ
testing techniques to acquire good quality geotechnical i n f o r m a t i o n . Investigations are
generally undertaken i n progressive stages so that stmctural concepts can be developed w i t h
regard to soil conditions, and the scope o f each investigational stage can benefit f r o m i n f o r m a -
t i o n already acquired at the site.

Continuous high resolution reflection p r o f i h n g across a prospective p l a t f o r m site provides suit-

able records t o map geologic stratification and features which include hazards such as faults
and shallow gas pockets. Several types o f acoustic sources have been developed over the last 20
years ranging f r o m high frequency, l o w energy systems that achieve l i m i t e d penetration w i t h
high resolution, to lower frequency and higher energy systems producing deeper penetration t o
about 750 m w i t h less resolution. Recent development o f deep-towed acoustic devices m i n i m -
ises noise f r o m a survey vessel and improves resolution o f t h i n soil strata, while digitising o f
raw seismic data permits computer processing thereby allowing greater scope i n analysis o f
the data w i t h improved interpretation o f geologic stratification and features.

Geotechnical properties o f soils and rocks t o penetrations o f 150 m are determined f r o m

laboratory testing o f recovered samples. Shahow penetration sampling, w i t h gravity corers and
vibro-corers, produces some sample disturbance w h i c h w i h impair the strength o f the soil.
Recent development o f a remotely controlled sea-bed sampling device w i l l p e r m i t recovery o f
better q u a l i t y samples to penetrations o f about 10 m . Deep penetration sampling requires
rotary drilling and wire line percussion or push sampling f r o m an anchored vessel. Push
sampling, w i t h a seafloor jacking system, improves b o t h sample q u a l i t y and length o f core
recovery. S t i f f overconsohdated clay samples removed f r o m below the sea and exposed to the
atmosphere tend t o sweU due t o stress relief b u t the e f f e c t o f stress relief u p o n the undrained
strength may be m i n i m a l because laboratory tests tend t o overestimate the characteristic
strength o f s t i f f clays; however stress rehef has a significant e f f e c t u p o n soil stiffness. E f f o r t s
should be made to develop a sampler to minimize the effects o f pressure changes o n recovered
samples.

30
Increased emphasis is being placed on in situ measurements o f soil properties b y inserting small
devices i n t o the ground, such as cone penetormeter, pressure meter and remote vane i n softer
clays. These small devices can overestimate the characteristic strength o f s t i f f boulder clays,
since they do n o t measure the macro-response, w h i c h is influenced b y soil fabric and structure,
nevertheless the pressure meter provides better estimates o f soil stiffness than values obtained
f r o m laboratory tests on recovered samples. W i t h improved analytical procedures a push-in
piezometer w i l l be needed to supplement pressure meter tests f o r evaluating i n situ effective
stress conditions. Development o f new i n situ testing equipment should recognise the need f o r
adaptabihty to operating i n a harsh marine environment otherwise the cost effectiveness o f
even the most sophisticated devices w i h quickly vanish.

REFERENCES
A N D E R S E N , K . H . , B R O W N , S.F., POOL, J.H. and R O S E N B R A N D , W.F.
E f f e c t o f cyclic loading o n clay behaviour. Design and construction of offsliore structures,
I n s t i t u t i o n o f Civil Engineers, 1976. pp. 75-79.

B A G U E L I N , F., J E Z E Q U E L , J.F., M E E , E . L . and Le M E H A U T E , A .

Expansion o f cyhndrical probes i n cohesive soils. Journal of the Soil Mecltanics and
Foimdatioits Division, ASCE, V o l . 98, N o . SM 4, 1972. pp. 1129-1142.

BJERRUM, L .
Geotechnical problems involved in foundations o f structures i n the N o r t h Sea. Geotechnique,
V o l . 23, 1973. pp. 319-358.

DE R U I T E R , J.
The use o f i n situ testing f o r N o r t h Sea soil studies. Proceedings OffsJtore Europe '75,
Aberdeen, 1975. pp. 219. 1-219.10

D O Y L E , E . H . , M C C L E L L A N D , B. and F E R G U S O N , G . H .
Wireline vane probe f o r deep penetration measurements o f ocean sediment strength. Proceed-
ings of the Third Annual Offshore Technology Conference, V o l . 1, Houston, 1971 pp.21-32.

E M R I C H , W.J.
Performance study o f soil sampler f o r deep-penetration marine borings. Sampling of soil at2d
rock, American Society f o r Testing and Materials, STP 483, 1971. pp. 30-50.

F E R G U S O N , G.H., M C C L E L L A N D , B. and B E L L , W.D.

Seafloor cone penetrometer f o r deep penetration measurements o f ocean sediment strength.
Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Offshore Technology Confereitce, V o l . 1, Houston, 1977.
pp. 471-478.

GUYOD, H.
Use o f geophysical logs i n soil engineering. Soil exploration, American Society f o r Testing and
Materials, STP 3 5 1 , 1963. pp. 74-85.

H I T C H I N G S , G.A., B R A D S H A W , H . and L A B I O S A , T . D .
The planning and execution o f offshore site investigations f o r a N o r t h Sea gravity p l a t f o r m .
Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Offshore Technology Conference, V o l . 1, Houston, 1976,
pp. 61-74.

L E E , K . L . and F O C H T , J.A.
Liquefaction potential at E k o f i s k tank i n N o r t h Sea. Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering
Division, ASCE, V o l . 100, N o . G T 1, 1975. pp. 1-18.

L O K E N , T.
Geology o f superficial sediments i n the N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea. Proceedings of Conference on
Behaviour of Offshore Structures, V o l , 1, T r o n d h e i m , 1976. pp. 501-515.

M A R I O N , H.A.
E k o f i s k storage tank. Paper presented at the Symposium on Ocean Engineering, R o y a l I n s t i t u -
t i o n o f Naval Architects, 1974, pp. 83-90.

31
M A R S L A N D , A.
The evaluation o f the engineering design parameters f o r glacial clays. Quarterly Journal of
Engineering Geology, V o l . 10. No. 1, 1977, pp. 1-26.

M C C L E L L A N D , B.

Techniques used i n soil sampling at sea. Offshore, March 1972, pp. 51-57.

M C Q U I L L I N , R., and A R D U S , D . A .

Exploring the geology of shelf seas. Graham & T r o t m a n , L o n d o n , 1977.

M E N A R D , L.F.
Mesures i n situ des p r o p r i é t é s physiques des sols. Atviales des Fonts et Chaussées, V o l . 172,
N o . 3, 1957, pp. 351-311.
M I L L I N G , M.E.
Geological appraisal o f f o u n d a t i o n conditions. N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea. Proceedings of
Oceaitology 75, Brighton, 1975. pp. 31-319.
NOORANY, I .
Underwater soil sampling and testing. Underwater soil sampling, testing and construction
control, American Society f o r Testing and Materials, STP 5 0 1 , 1972. pp. 3-41.

ROWE, P.W.
Displacement and failure modes o f model offshore gravity p l a t f o r m s f o u n d e d on clay.
Proceedings of Offshore Europe 75, Aberdeen, 1975. pp. 218.1-218.17.

S U L L I V A N , R.A.
P l a t f o r m site investigation. Civil Etigineering. February 1978. pp. 26-33.

32
3. FOUNDATION DESIGN METHODS F O R G R A V I T Y STRUCTURES

3.1 Introduction
I n general, the f o u n d a t i o n design o f a gravity structure may be said to be the process o f selecting
the structural configuration o f the base structure, such as size, skirt configuration, slab thick-
nesses, and such like. I n this report, however, the emphasis is rather o n the considerations behind
the choice o f a particular configuration, in particular related to investigations o f the adequacy
o f a prepared design. We shaU concentrate o n the f o l l o w i n g aspects:

Specification o f geotechnical problems w h i c h must be solved during the f i n a l design o f a gravity

structure;

Assessment o f the tools available f o r solving these problems;

Assessment o f the current knowledge regarding determination o f the soil properties entering
into the various analyses.

I n a d d i t i o n t o his geotechnical skills, the engineer analysing the f o u n d a t i o n f o r a gravity

structure must also have a good understanding o f the environmental loads acting on the structure,
as weh as the structural design and the operational requirements. For the N o r t h Sea, w h i c h is
the main source o f experience f o r this c o n t r i b u t i o n , the environmental loads arise m a i n l y f r o m
wave loading, b u t f o r other areas the design may be governed earthquake loading.

I n the analysis o f the f o u n d a t i o n design i t is most c o m m o n to make use o f theoretical methods.

Accordingly, the m a j o r part o f this report concentrates o n such methods. However, m o d e l test-
ing has also proved to be a useful t o o l and these methods are considered i n Section 3.9.

The geotechnical problems related t o the f o u n d a t i o n design o f large gravity structures were
critically examined by B j e r r u m (1973a). More recent contributions to the same topic were
given b y Eide ( 1 9 7 4 ) , Y o n g , K r a f t and Focht (1976), and Hoeg ( 1 9 7 6 ) .

3.2 Design principles

I n the analysis o f geotechnical problems, the safety consideration is usually introduced i n one
o f t w o ways: (1) as an overall safety factor, normally apphed t o the shear strength o f the soil,
or ( 2 ) , as partial safety factors, n o r m a l l y apphed to loads and shear strength. The first approach
is the t r a d i t i o n a l one, and may be considered as a special case o f the second. The second m e t h o d
reflects the principles o f l i m i t state design and is therefore usually referred t o b y this name.

The l i m i t state m e t h o d o f design is widely accepted f o r concrete gravity structures and increas-
ingly also f o r their foundations. I n this m e t h o d the level o f safety o f the design is reflected i n
load factors associated w i t h characteristic loads and material factors related to the character-
istic material strengths. Thus, the partial safety factors w i l l depend o n the d e f i n i t i o n o f
characteristic loads and strengths and o n the h m i t state under consideration. The main advantage
w i t h this m e t h o d is that a u n i f o r m standard o f safety level may be achieved f o r widely d i f f e r e n t
conditions as regards geometry and load combinations. A structure or part o f a structure is
considered u n f i t f o r use when i t reaches a particular h m i t state, i n w h i c h i t infringes one o f the
criteria governing its performance or use. I n one o f the most recent rules (NPD 1977), the l i m i t
states are categorized as f o l l o w s :

The ultimate l i m i t states, ( U L S ) , related to the risk o f f a ü u r e or large inelastic displacements or

strains o f a failure character.

The fatigue l i m i t states, ( F L S ) , related t o the criteria associated w i t h the effect o f repeated
loading.

The h m i t states o f progressive cohapse, (PES), related to the risk o f failure o f the structure
under the assumption that certain parts o f the structure have ceased t o p e r f o r m their load-
carrying f u n c t i o n s .
The serviceability l i m i t states, (SLS), related t o the criteria governing n o r m a l use or d u r a b i h t y .

The D n V regulation, ( 1 9 7 7 ) , gives a similar d e f i n i t i o n o f these l i m i t states whereas F I P , ( 1 9 7 7 ) ,

considers o n l y the ultimate and serviceability h m i t states w h i c h are defined i n more detail.

33
The possible failure modes, i.e., instability o f the f o u n d a t i o n , w i t h due account to hydrauhc
effects, are to be considered f o r the U L S . The characteristic shear strength o f the soil used i n
the calculations must take i n t o account the effects o f repeated loading.

The requirements f o r partial safety factors i n the U L S according to several recent recommend-
ations and rules are given i n Table 3 . 1 .

Table 3 . 1 : Load factors and material factors i n cun'ent use.

Reference Load factors Material factors

P L D E Cohesion or Effective
undrained strength friction

FIP (1977) 1.1/0.9 1.3/0.9 1.1/0.9 1,3 1,4 1.2

D n V (1977) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.2

NPD (1977) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,3 1.3 1.2

DEng(1977) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1,0 1.5* 1.5*

Note: P = permanent load D = d e f o r m a t i o n load

L = live load E = environmental load
* - Overall factor o f safety

I n a t o t a l stress analysis the material factors f o r undrained strength w i l l apply. I n a drained or

undrained effective stress analysis, the material f a c t o r f o r cohesion applies to the cohesion
intercept (or the ' a t t r a c t i o n ' ) and the material factor f o r effective f r i c t i o n to the a tan <j)
component where a is the effective n o r m a l stress and <t>is the angle o f f r i c t i o n . Material factors
for pore pressure have n o t been defined and are n o r m a l l y assumed equal to u n i t y .

According to the FIP Recommendations, t w o sets o f load factors are given f o r extreme loading
conditions. N o r m a l l y the higher load factors given f o r P and L loads apply to foundations on
clay, whereas the lower value, 7 ^ = 0.9, apply t o foundations on sand. I n principle, however,
b o t h alternatives should be considered i n each case. For d e f o r m a t i o n loads the most unfavour-
able value is chosen i n each case.

The D n V and NPD rules are i n complete agreement w i t h respect b o t h t o load factors and
material factors, whereas the D E n g regulation gives load factors 7 |- = 1.0 f o r ah types o f loads.
This makes the material f a c t o r an overall factor o f safety.

When using partial safety factors the resulting safety level, considering b o t h the load factor and
the material factor, depends on the ratio o f horizontal to vertical load. This ratio varies w i t h
the sea state variations during the life o f the p l a t f o r m . I t is thus necessary t o consider the
transition f r o m ordinary t o extreme loading c o n d i t i o n and the resulting variation i n safety level.
I n order t o assure a m i n i m u m acceptable safety level f o r the entire range o f environmental
loading conditions a load f a c t o r y = 0.7 combined w i t h 7|- = 1,3 f o r P and L loads and 7 ^ ==
1,0 f o r D loads. I n the FIP Recommendations, the load factors f o r these conditions are 7 ^ - 1.2,
7 f = 1.6, 7 f = 1.1 (0.9) and j f = 1.4 f o r P, L , D and E loads, respectively. The f a c t o r o f safety f o r
ordinary loading conditions according t o the DEng regulation is 2.0.

The settlements and displacements, including d i f f e r e n t i a l settlements, permanent h o r i z o n t a l

displacements and dynamic motions have to satisfy the serviceability requirements f o r the actual
p l a t f o r m . None o f the references i n Table 3.1 gives specific requirements t o the SLS. These w i l l
therefore have to be agreed u p o n between the Owner and the appropriate regulatory agency.
The criteria to be agreed upon are hsted i n Table 3.2. I n a d d i t i o n , the rate o f d e f o r m a t i o n may
be i m p o r t a n t . Adjustments may occur under very slow rates, b u t i f the same magnitude occurs
at a faster rate i t may cause distress w i t h i n the structures or between the structure and con-
ductors and pipelines.

The fatigue l i m i t state, ( F L S ) , is normahy n o t checked independently, but the effects o f

repeated loading on shear strength and stress d e f o r m a t i o n properties are taken i n t o account i n
the analysis f o r the U L S as well as f o r the SLS. I n particular, i t is i m p o r t a n t t o consider the
possibihty o f f a ü u r e i n cychc loading, see 3.8.

34
Table 3.2: Criteria t o be agreed u p o n f o r the SLS.

Type of deformation Criteria with respect to

Seafloor d e f o r m a t i o n due t o reservoir Total settlement

subsidence
Settlements T o t a l settlement

Tilt
D i f f e r e n t i a l settlement
Settlement after installation o f conductors
Settiement after instaUation o f pipeline risers
Rapid settlements during storms

Long-term lateral displacements Total

A f t e r conductor instaUation
A f t e r instaUation o f pipeline risers

Dynamic displacements due t o Effects on structure (extreme load effects and

wave action fatigue)
Effects on equipment
Human reactions

The progressive coUapse l i m i t state has n o t yet been applied to N o r t h Sea gravity structures.

The most i m p o r t a n t problem i n the f o u n d a t i o n design concerns the stabihty o f the f o u n d a t i o n ,

under the combined influence o f vertical and horizontal forces transferred t h r o u g h the structure
i n t o the f o u n d a t i o n s o ü . The wave-induced forces are, o f course, dynamic i n nature b u t i n the
s t a b ü i t y analyses they are treated as quasi-static forces m u l t i p h e d b y appropriate dynamic
a m p h f i c a t i o n factors, w h i c h are f u n c t i o n s o f the f o u n d a t i o n spring constants. The design
extreme loading c o n d i t i o n is n o r m a l l y associated w i t h the 100-year storm. For this loading
c o n d i t i o n , t w o failure modes are considered-the quasi-static analysis, the f o u n d a t i o n is
designed t o resist, w i t h a prescribed level o f safety, the probable largest wave force occurring
once during a period o f 100 years. I n addition t o loads acting directly on the structure, the
effects o f wave loads on the seafloor next to the structure should be considered. F a ü u r e i n
cyclic loading, a failure mode w h i c h has received less attention than quasi-static failure, is the
accumulated e f f e c t o f the many waves during a storm, w h i c h may introduce a complete f a ü u r e ,
even i f all load amplitudes are considerably below the undrained strength o f the soil. This
failure mode includes the phenomena o f liquefaction and cyclic m o b i l i t y , w h i c h have been
extensively discussed f o r sand (Casagrande 1976), and Seed (1976), as weU as similar phenomena
f o r clay (Foss, Dahlberg and Kvalstad ( 1 9 7 8 ) ) .

For the instaUation phase, a design installation wave is determined, based on the p l a t f o r m
location, duration o f the installation w o r k , season o f the year, and the consequences o f the pre-
dicted environmental conditions being exceeded. This wave is n o r m a h y smaUer than the 100-
year wave.

I t might be speculated whether the quasi-static assumption results i n a realistic design criterion.
A n alternative w o u l d be t o design against deformations in the extreme loading conditions, as
the l i m i t e d duration o f the loading w ü l l i m i t the displacements even when the strength o f the
SOÜ has been exceeded. F o r t y p i c a l gravity structures, however, very large deformations result
even f r o m a smaU exceedance o f the t o t a l resistance. Therefore, the conservatism involved i n
the quasi-static approach is o f m i n o r significance: the additional resistance due to inertial
effects is n o t sufficient t o prevent the occurrence o f large deformations.

I n general, the safety level o f the f o u n d a t i o n must be controlled b o t h f o r the instaUation

phase and f o r the operation phase, applying the most unfavourable load combinations.

The characteristic value o f the s o ü properties has to be estabhshed i n each d i f f e r e n t layer.

NPD, (1977), and D n V , (1977), define the characteristic value as a conservatively assessed mean

35
 value, based on the results f r o m laboratory tests and i n situ tests. The stress conditions during
testing, as compared w i t h the actual stress conditions i n the layer considered, have t o be taken
i n t o account. Correspondingly larger conservatism is t o be applied i n the assessment o f
characteristic values i f the number o f tests is smah or the scatter is large.

A l t h o u g h onshore f o u n d a t i o n design experience contributes extensively to the design philosophy

under development f o r offshore structures, i t should be bourne i n m i n d that the size, loading
conditions, m e t h o d o f installation, etc., typical f o r a gravity structure, have forced the offshore
f o u n d a t i o n engineer t o develop geotechnical solutions w h i c h i n many ways are unique f o r
offshore conditions.

The geotechnical problems associated w i t h offshore gravity structures are: (1) f o u n d a t i o n

stability, (2) local contact stresses against the base structure during instaUation, due t o uneven
sea b o t t o m , (3) penetration o f skirts, (4) settlements and dynamic displacements o f the structure,
(5) effects o f repeated loading on soil properties, (6) hydraulic effects leading to softening o f
the soil and consequent reduction o f bearing capacity, (7) scour and adequate means f o r scour
protection and (8) marine slope stability.

I n the foUowing, these problems wiU be defined i n more detaU, f o l l o w e d b y a review o f the
analytical methods currently i n use f o r solving the actual problem and the i n p u t soil parameters
required f o r these analyses. The presentation is based u p o n the assumptions that:

AU loads are well defined;

Adequate site investigations have been carried out;

AU necessary laboratory investigations have been performed.

These assumptions are n o t necessarily valid i n a specific case, and i t is o f utmost importance
that the geotechnical engineer has a feel f o r the confidence w h i c h he can place i n his
assumptions. I n order t o i d e n t i f y the critical parameters, a sensitivity study should be carried
out f o r aU i m p o r t a n t analyses. B y assigning a range o f values t o the parameters the effects o n the
f i n a l result wiU indicate h o w t o make a suitably safe assumption f o r each parameter.

3.3 Stability

3.3.1 Problems

This section considers quasi-static stability failure only. F a ü u r e i n cyclic loading as a separate
failure mode is considered i n 3.8.

The critical loading c o n d i t i o n f o r the f o u n d a t i o n o f an offshore gravity structure originates

f r o m a combination o f vertical and horizontal forces, the latter being p r e d o m i n a n t l y wave
induced or, i n certain cases, due t o earthquake forces. The dynamic nature o f the h o r i z o n t a l
forces and the large dimensions o f the structures make undrained analyses a m a j o r t o o l f o r
evaluation o f f o u n d a t i o n behaviour b o t h i n clay and fine-grained f r i c t i o n a l soils. A l l analyses
must, however, consider the deteriorating effects on the soil shear strength o f repeated loading
and the s u s c e p t i b ü i t y o f near-surface s o ü t o scour.

I n principle, large gravity structures depend on their weight t o resist h o r i z o n t a l loads. The ratio
o f the horizontal t o the vertical load is so large that the sliding mode o f f a ü u r e needs separate
consideration. I n particular, this failure mode is i m p o r t a n t f o r soü profiles w i t h s o f t or loose
strata overlaying s t i f f or dense soUs or interbedded between t w o stronger layers, a c o m m o n
situation i n the N o r t h Sea. This has led t o the use o f 'skirts' i n order t o transmit the loads
t h r o u g h weaker t o p layers. The detrimental effects o f scour and hydrauhc instability at the edge
of the p l a t f o r m base are also m i n i m i z e d b y the presence o f skirts.

For most p l a t f o r m designs, the voids remaining after completed penetration o f the skirts
between the p l a t f o r m structure and the seabed are n o r m a l l y fiUed as part o f the installation
phase, see 4.6. UntU that operation is completed the dynamic response o f the soil-structure is
largely influenced b y the entrapped water i n the skirt compartments. Due t o the r o c k i n g motions
o f the p l a t f o r m during wave loading, f l u c t u a t i n g loads are generated w h i c h are balanced m a i n l y
b y water pressure variations i n the skirt compartments. These excess water pressure variations
generate, i n t u r n , hydraulic gradients i n the f o u n d a t i o n s o ü w h i c h have t o be kept w i t h i n
certain limits i n order n o t t o introduce piping failure at the perimeter o f the p l a t f o r m , see 4 . 4 . 1 .

36
 During the operational phase the stability calculations have t o v e r i f y that the p l a t f o r m has an
acceptable level o f safety under the most critical loading conditions considering ah possible
modes o f failure. The most i m p o r t a n t are:

Failure due t o sliding along base or skirt tips;

Deep seated shear failure.
I n a d d i t i o n , combined failure modes, e.g., comprising sUding at the base slab and local failure at
skirt tips have t o be checked.

A number o f t y p i c a l failure modes are illustrated i n Figure 3 . 1 .

I J 1 s y
SLIDING AT SKIRT TIPS

SLIDING ALONG SOFT LAYER

1 1

— >

! L_ 1

(O)
DEEP-SEATED BEARING

CAPACITY FAILURE LOCAL FAILURE ALONG SKIRTS

Figure 3 . 1 : Examples o f failure modes.

For structures f o u n d e d o n t w o or more separate footings the safety against overturning also has
to be investigated. I n the case o f structures on a single f o o t i n g bearing capacity failure under
the edge o f the f o u n d a t i o n w i h take place prior t o overturning.

I f the hydrauhc gradients along the perimeter o f the p l a t f o r m are excessive under dynamic
m o t i o n there is a risk o f piping or internal erosion under the structure. This eventuahty has t o
be studied separately and i t may be desirable t o establish criteria f o r the exit gradient. Such
criteria may replace the n o r m a l requirement t o a compressive contact stress at ah times during
operation. Figure 3.2 gives an example on h o w skirts and an inverted gravel f i l t e r m a y be used to
reduce the exist gradient.

For structures on a sloping or even on a f l a t seafloor, the risk o f seafloor f a ü u r e must also be
considered. Such f a ü u r e s are most c o m m o n i n loose deposits o f fine sand and coarse silt
(Bjerrum, 1971), or very soft clays (Henkel, 1970) and may be triggered b y seabed pressures
caused b y waves.

3.3.2 Analytical methods

The stability analysis o f a f o u n d a t i o n exposed t o a combination o f horizontal and vertical loads
is, i n principle, a stability problem o f the same k i n d as analyses o f slope failure, bearing capacity
o f foundations or earth pressure. These are among the classical geotechnical analysis problems
and are n o r m a h y solved b y means o f h m i t i n g e q u ü i b r i u m methods. The plastic e q u i l i b r i u m
( m o m e n t and forces) is checked f o r the b o d y l i m i t e d b y a possible shding surface, such as that
indicated i n Figure 3 . 1 , and the most unfavourable sliding surface is sought.

37
 GRAVEL FILTER
(INVERTED OR
V^Ell GRADED)
GROUT

FINE SAND

Figure 3.2: Use o f f i l t e r to reduce exit gradient.

The Bishop method o f shces (Bishop, 1955), described i n standard t e x t books o n soil mechanics,
is one o f the methods w h i c h are best suited f o r this purpose. Some o f the most advanced appli-
cations o f this method have been pubhshed b y Janbu (1954; 1973) and b y Morgenstern and
Price (1965).

T w o problems o f particular significance t o such analyses should be mentioned. The first is the
end effects. The analysis normally assumes an i n f i n i t e l y long strip f o u n d a t i o n . F o r a h m i t e d
length o f f o u n d a t i o n , a certain shear force on the ends o f the shding b o d y may be assumed.
These forces w i l l tend t o improve the stability o f short footings o n cohesive soils, compared t o
i n f i n i t e l y long footings. For f r i c t i o n a l soils, the capacity o f short footings may, however, be
smaher than that o f a long f o o t i n g . For certain loading conditions, this effect m a y be accounted
f o r i n an approximate way b y using bearing capacity formulae, (see below).

A second consideration concerns the kinematics o f a failure. A failure mode, such as the deep-
seated bearing capacity failure shown i n Figure 3 . 1 , is o n l y kinematicahy possible when a
simultaneous failure o f the structure and the soil takes place. The stress d i s t r i b u t i o n at the inter-
face is highly uncertain under these conditions. I n practice, the problem is solved b y assuming
either a linear d i s t r i b u t i o n o f stress or a constant stress on a part o f the f o u n d a t i o n only, see
Figure 3,3.

UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION
ON EFFECTIVE
FOUNDATION AREA

Figure 3.3: Simplified stress distributions.

For homogeneous soil conditions, bearing capacity formulae may be used i n lieu o f complete
stability analysis. The most c o m m o n l y used methods are those published b y B r i n c h Hansen,
(1970), and Meyerhof, (1963). For strongly inclined loads, these formulae should be used w i t h
caution, as they are mainly based on smah scale tests. The problems related to undrained
analysis o f foundations on sand have been studied b y Hansen (1976).

38
A critical examination o f the procedure currently i n use f o r stability analysis o f gravity
structures on clay and equipped w i t h penetrating skirts was given by Lauritzen and Schjetne,
(1976). The s t a b ü i t y o f gravity structures is also treated b y Yong, K r a f t and Focht, ( 1 9 7 6 ) and
b y M u r f f and Miller, (1977).

Lauritzen and Schjetne, (1976) outlined the basic assumptions related to bearing capacity
formulae. Since s i m ü a r assumptions have t o be made i n other stability calculations as w e h , i t
may be w o r t h w h ü e t o summarize t h e m here.

Irrespective o f the actual f o u n d a t i o n shape, the f o u n d a t i o n area is transformed t o a square;

Moment e q u ü i b r i u m is satisfied b y applying the vertical load at the base concentricahy o n the
'effective f o u n d a t i o n area', see Figure 3.3.

F r o m the assumption o f f u h contact between the structure and the s u b s o ü over the whole
p l a t f o r m base, i t f o h o w s that a horizontal failure plane cannot develop unless the failure has
developed under the whole p l a t f o r m area;

The part o f the h o r i z o n t a l load assumed t o act simultaneously w i t h the vertical load o n the
'effective area' is f o u n d b y subtracting the shear force taken b y the area outside the effective
area f r o m the t o t a l horizontal load at the base. A h the calculated forces that involve the shear
strength o f s o ü are assumed t o have the same degree o f strength m o b i l i z a t i o n , i.e., a constant
mobilized material factor.

The calculated level o f safety is considerably influenced b y the assumptions made regarding the
horizontal resistance o f f e r e d b y skirts and side areas o f the shding b o d y o f s o ü , in a d d i t i o n t o
that m o b i l i z e d along the critical f a ü u r e surface.

The reduction f a c t o r accounting f o r the e f f e c t o f load inclination i n bearing capacity f o r m u l a e

demonstrates a dramatic decrease i n vertical load carrying capacity, as the ratio o f h o r i z o n t a l t o
vertical load increases. Since ah f o u n d a t i o n soüs are more or less non-homogeneous, the use o f
methods allowing an arbitrary choice o f the shape and location o f the f a ü u r e surface w ü l
usually lead t o more rehable estimates o f the f o u n d a t i o n s t a b ü ü y . For this reason, bearing
capacity formulae are n o t recommended f o r f i n a l design o f foundations w i t h a high ratio o f
horizontal t o vertical loading. I n such cases one should revert t o the m e t h o d o f slices.

Local failure at the skirts, as iUustrated i n Figure 3 . 1 , may n o r m a l l y be analysed b y using a

bearing capacity f o r m u l a f o r the horizontal loading. I n a f u l l y developed f a ü u r e , such as
illustrated i n the Figure, the resistance o f the skirt w i h be twice as high as f o r a f o o t i n g o n the
surface. The actual resistance is expected t o be less than this, e.g., 1.3 t o 1.6 times that o f a
surface f o o t i n g .

SoU properties
AU calculations have to be based on actual site data composed o f results f r o m f i e l d and
laboratory investigations. The field investigations, m a i n l y cone penetration tests, are an invaluable
supplement t o the laboratory investigations i n the assessment o f the actual i n situ shear strength.
The sample disturbance due t o sampling, handling, storage, etc. leads to laboratory shear strength
values w h i c h are normahy smaller than those o f the corresponding element in situ. Certain
'macro-effects' i n situ, e.g., i n slickensided soils, are exceptions to this rule. For such s o ü s the
'macro shear strength' i n situ may be lower than'the laboratory shear strength determined on a
disturbed sample. Therefore, aU possible care has to be demonstrated to assure a m i n i m u m o f
mechanical disturbance to the sample. There is a promising development o f push sampling
techniques f o r offshore use presently under development, see 2 . 4 . 1 , which w i h bring f o r w a r d
the possibility o f recovering offshore s o ü samples o f onshore quality, w h i c h is not the general
case today.

The approximate shear strength determinations carried o u t on board the vessel, i.e., f a l l cone
and pocket penetrometer tests, are part o f the s o ü classification testing and the scatter is nor-
mally very large. The stability calculations require high quality triaxial or simple shear test
results, where the sample prior to shearing has been subjected t o a stress history, bringing i t
back to the actual field stress conditions. Since the wave loading is o f short d u r a t i o n , i t is
assumed that shearing under undrained conditions w i h yield the most relevant shear strength
values f o r clays. I t is recommended that the sliding b o d y be divided in d i f f e r e n t parts and

39
 representative stress-path tests be performed f o r each part o f the shding body. This involves use
o f b o t h active and passive triaxial tests, as well as simple shear tests.

The correct determination o f the shear strength o f clay remains one o f the most i m p o r t a n t
problems i n the f o u n d a t i o n design. Some o f the principal problems include the effects o f s o ü
structure, (e.g. fissures), progressive failure and anisotropy. These and other problems i n relation
to s t i f f clays are extensively discussed b y Skempton, (1977), and Buriand, ( 1 9 7 7 ) , and, i n
relation t o s o f t clays, by Bjerrum, ( 1 9 7 3 b ) .

The undrained (dynamic) strength o f saturated sand depends largely o n sand porosity, i.e.,
whether the s a n d d ü a t e s or contracts when sheared. A contracting sand may loose ü s strength
completely ( l i q u e f y ) while the effective stress path o f a dilating sand moves up along the failure
line w i t h o u t reaching a definite state o f failure. This additional strength mobiUzation is, however,
normally accompanied by large strains, and i t is therefore not advisable t o make use o f strength
accompanied b y negative pore pressures. This philosphy is f o h o w e d b y Hansen, ( 1 9 7 6 ) , when
he defines an avaüable shear strength dependent on the initial ^tate o f effective stresses. The
resulting calculation m e t h o d is closely related to one assuming undrained f a ü u r e . I n the N o r t h
Sea most sands are dense to very dense and thus, d ü a t i n g . Hansen's approach is therefore
applicable to these sites.

The static and dynamic strength o f sand is also affected by the fabric o f the sand as reported b y
Oda, (1972 a, b and c), and Mulilis, Seed, Chan, Mitcheh and Arulanandan, ( 1 9 7 7 ) . Since most
testing on sand is carried out on reconstituted samples, the sam^ple preparation procedure w i h be
very i m p o r t a n t f o r the recorded behaviour o f the sand and the conclusions made w i t h respect
to the i n situ behaviour.

A n i m p o r t a n t aspect o f the f o u n d a t i o n stability calculations is the effect o f repeated loading o n

the shear strength. Based on examination o f the behaviour o f the f o u n d a t i o n structure and the
mechanism o f repeated loading, along w i t h results f r o m carefuhy designed and conducted cyclic
laboratory tests, i t is possible to estimate the deteriorating effects o f repeated shear stress
appHcations on shear strength o f the soil. This correction o f the static shear strength is t o be
included i n the design shear strength. The problems related to repeated loading effects are
f u r t h e r discussed i n section 3.8.

3.4 Long-term deformations

By long-term deformations are meant i n i t i a l and time-dependent settlements and permanent

horizontal displacements. The major experience f r o m gravity structures so far is f r o m the
heavily overconsohdated clays and dense sands encountered i n the N o r t h Sea.

3.4.1 Problems

The most i m p o r t a n t problems related t o long-term settlements are t o t a l settlement, d i f f e r e n t i a l

settlement, and the rate o f settlement.

Large t o t a l settlements may reduce the air-gap between the wave crest and the p l a t f o r m deck
below acceptable margins, and may also introduce additional stresses i n conductors due to
negative skin f r i c t i o n . I n order to minimize such stresses, the conductors should n o t be f i x e d
t o the p l a t f o r m b y group clamping or other means. When assessing this e f f e c t , the possibility
o f permanent horizontal displacements should also be considered.

D i f f e r e n t i a l settlements and t i l t may not be compatable w i t h requirements to the p l a t f o r m and

the process equipment. T ü t may be caused b y n o n - u n i f o r m s o ü conditions or loading.

The rate o f settlement and consolidation influences the safety o f the f o u n d a t i o n , as the safety
may be less before consolidation is complete than after. The rate is also i m p o r t a n t f o r the
instahation o f conductors and equipment, since o n l y the settlements taking place a f t e r such
instahations w ü l normahy affect these. Settlements or lateral displacements have less influence
on the design o f pipehnes and risers than the governing factors f o r these components, w h i c h are
normahy the temperature stresses and elongations, or the stress conditions imposed during pipe-
line instahation.

3.4.2 Analytical metho ds

The analytical methods used f o r calculations o f settlements f o r gravity p l a t f o r m s are generally

the same as those used f o r other types o f structures w i t h shallow foundations.

40
One m e t h o d is t o assume the soh to be a homogeneous or layered elastic m e d i u m . Formulae f o r
settlements are then readily avaüable, (e.g. Poulos and Davis, 1974) and the s o ü parameters
required are Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio.

Another m e t h o d is t o calculate the stress d i s t r i b u t i o n assuming the s o ü to be an elastic m e d i u m ,

and then t o assess a compressibihty f o r each layer. The compressibility may be defined as a
tangent modulus M derived f r o m the stress-strain curve o f laboratory tested s o ü samples. The
f o r m a t i o n f o r M proposed by Janbu, (1963), has been widely applied:
p'
M = m p j j (p^) 1-a

where m is a modulus number, a, a stress exponent and p ' the actual effective stress level. The
atmospheric pressure p^ is included to make the f o r m u l a dimensionally correct. Three problem
groups may be defined on the basis o f the value o f a

a = 0 normally consolidated clays

a = 0.5 sand

a = 1.0 overconsohdated clay and rock.

The compressibility o f the d i f f e r e n t soü layers may also be determined f r o m empirical

relationships based on i n situ tests such as the cone penetration test.

The time-settlement relationships derived on the basis o f Terzaghi's relatively simple case o f a
one-dimensional consolidation w i h normaUy predict rates o f settlement w h i c h are too small.
I m p o r t a n t departures f r o m the assumptions related to Terzaghi's theory o f consolidation arise
f r o m the s o ü containing permeable layers or seams and local sand pockets aUowing f o r lateral
drainage. The large dimensions o f the gravity platforms w i l l , on the other hand, lead t o ratios
between the w i d t h o f the loaded area and the thickness o f the compressible layer w h i c h m i g h t
j u s t i f y the use o f a cone-dimensional consolidation theory were the soü homogeneous.

The methods f o r settlement analysis outlined above may seem crude, b u t bearing i n m i n d the
uncertainties involved i n selecting material properties they are stih considered adequate. More
refined methods, such as f i n i t e element methods, are at present n o t expected to improve the
overall result.

A t present, no reliable analysis method is a v a ü a b l e t o predict the effect o f repeated loading on

settlements. The best analyses are therefore based o n empirical evidence f r o m other types o f
structures subject t o variable loads, see e.g., B j e r r u m , (1964). Rowe, (1975), has demonstrated
h o w settlements during a single storm may be assessed f r o m centrifuge model tests.

SUBSIDENCE CURVE HORIZONTAL STRAIN

++++++ + +++ + + ^ ^ S E A BOTTOM

T
\ r /
\ OVERLYING
FORMATIONS
(ELASTIC ?) /
ANGLE /
OF DRAW
/
_ 1/ TOP OF R E S E R V O I R
- ^ A L ^

r
RESERVOIR
(VISCOUS?)

Figure 3.4: Sketch o f subsidence due t o assumed drop i n f l u i d (or gas) pressure i n the
producing reservoir.

41
 The subsidence o f the sea b o t t o m , (Figure 3.4), due t o possible pressure reduction i n the
producing reservoir has t o be estimated b y the petroleum engineers and added to the calculated
settlements. This c o n t r i b u t i o n t o settlements wiU affect the air gap but is probably less i m p o r t a n t
f o r the stresses i n the structure. As indicated in Figure 3.4, the prediction o f subsidence requires
a knowledge o f the load-deformation characteristics o f the reservoir rock and the overlying
formations as well as boundary conditions. The most f r u i t f u l approaches seem t o be those
assuming a more or less elastic t o p mantel over a viscous lower layer.

As an estimation o f the difference i n settlement likely t o take place over the f o u n d a t i o n area
requires a knowledge o f the variation i n the f o u n d a t i o n deposits across the site, and i n f o r m a t i o n
regarding the preferred w i n d and wave directions. Due t o wave action, rocking m o t i o n s are
induced w h i c h tend t o soften the s o ü more along the periphery o f the f o u n d a t i o n area than at
the centre. Variations i n shear strength along the perimeter o f the f o u n d a t i o n area m a y con-
centrate the effects o f repeated loading to a certain part o f the f o u n d a t i o n area, thus leading to
pronounced d i f f e r e n t i a l settlements.

Methods f o r calculation o f long-term lateral displacements are n o t weh developed, and the best
prospects are probably i n basing such methods on empirical evidence. Experiences so far are
that these considerations are n o t decisive f o r the design o f conductors, etc., b u t that consider-
ation o f the problem is required.

3.4.3 Soil properties

For calculation o f consolidation settlements o f foundations on clay, the preconsolidation
pressure Pc' is the property o f principal concern, since the compressibility is many times higher
above pc' than below.

The preconsolidation pressure may be roughly evaluated b y combining i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m :

Carefully conducted laboratory tests on representative samples;

Empirical correlations between pc' and the undrained shear strength;

Geologic survey (regional and local);

Settlement records f r o m adjacent structures.

Laboratory determinations o f the preconsolidation pressure is largely affected b y the sample

disturbance due to samphng, transportation and t i m e elapsed before the sample is m o u n t e d i n
the oedometer. A d d i t i o n a l uncertainties are related t o the testing technique and the f i n a l
graphical determination o f the preconsohdation pressure based on measured load-settlement
curves.

I n the N o r t h Sea the loads have generahy been well below PQ' and the problems described
above have been avoided. For certain o h fields, however, the evaluation o f p^' may become a
decisive factor.

A determination o f the preconsolidation pressure i n sand is even more d i f f i c u l t since the stress
history is completely destroyed by samphng. I f this knowledge is i m p o r t a n t one has t o rely o n
geological surveys, observation o f adjacent structures and i n situ testing.

Table 3.3. Parameters f o r settlement calculation i n clay.

E ^ = 2 5 0 - 1000 s^ p = 0.5
5i
NC
M = mp' m= 10.25

E ^ = 250-500 s^ V = 0.5
OC
E ^ = 100-150 s^ !^ = 0.1

I n Table 3.3 are listed the m o d u l i i n use f o r prediction o f f o u n d a t i o n settlements i n clay. A

distinction has been made between i n i t i a l settlements (5 ^) i n normally consolidated ( N C ) and
overconsohdated (OC) clays, respectively.

42
For normally consolidated clays, the calculation o f i n i t i a l settlements has been based o n an
undrained Young's modulus E,^ w h i c h is o f t e n taken as equal to 250 to 1000 times the u n -
drained shear strength o f the clay along w i t h Poisson's ratio v = 0.5. Since the i n i t i a l settlements
take place during the instahation phase and n o r m a l l y before the settlement measurements have
started, there is httle evidence o n the a p p h c a b ü i t y o f this procedure. Consolidation settlements
including the i n i t i a l settlements may be predicted using tangent m o d u h i n the range 10 to 25
times the effective over-burden pressure, p ' , as shown i n Table 3.3. The modulus number
increases w i t h increasing stiffness o f the clay.

For overconsohdated clays the undrained Young's modulus E ^ associated w i t h i n i t i a l settlement

predictions may be taken equal to 250 to 500 times the undrained shear strength o f the clay w i t h
V = 0.5, see Table 3.3. The p r i m a r y consolidation settlements including the initial settlements are
normally calculated on the basis o f a drained Young's modulus E^j' w i t h u = O.l. The current
practice involves use o f drained Young's m o d u l i as l o w as 100 t o 150 times the undrained shear
strength.

These values are supported b y Butler, (1974), who summarized methods used f o r settlement
analysis o f structures f o u n d e d o n heavily overconsohdated clays. Based o n case histories o f
b u ü d i n g s on L o n d o n clays and Gault clay he f o u n d b y calculation an equivalent Young's
modulus equal t o 130 times the undrained shear strength when v = O.l was used.

As mentioned previously i n the section, the effects o f repeated loading o n settlements have
normally been estimated o n an empirical basis. F o r a typical N o r t h Sea p l a t f o r m , f o u n d e d o n
clay, settlements averaging 1-2 cm/year and totalling 50-100% o f the initial plus p r i m a r y
consolidation settlements have been proposed.

The compressibility o f sand w i h largely depend o n the relative density w h i c h may be estimated
f r o m cone penetration tests, and driving resistance during sampling. For the dense sands
encountered o n sites f o r gravity structures i n the N o r t h Sea, i t is n o r m a l l y suggested t o use m =
400-600 i n the expression M = m > / p ' p^ f o r p ' < p ^ ' . For pressures p ' < p ^ ' the modulus number,
m , may be 50 t o 100% larger. The corresponding m-values proposed f o r loose sands are also
f o u n d i n Table 3.4.

Table 3.4. Parameters f o r settlement calculation i n sand.

M = m^/ p ' pjj Loose m= 100-200

for a= 1-2
P' < Pc'
Dense m = 400-800
Ed ''^c

a =3-4

M ' =|3M Loose /3 = r? = 3-5

for
P' < P c ' E ^ = T,E^ Dense • /3=17 = 1.5-2

For an estimation o f the drained Young's modulus f r o m the recorded cone penetration
resistance q^, the coefficients a given i n Table 3.4 indicate the magnitude and range o f these
empirical coefficients f o r d i f f e r e n t stress levels and sand densities. Review o f the settlement
calculation methods based o n the cone penetration test have been reported, e.g., b y Sanglerat,
(1972), Dahlberg, (1975) and Mitcheh and Gardner, ( 1 9 7 5 ) .

The effect o f repeated loading is estimated i n a similar way f o r sands as previously described
f o r clay.

Settlement observations are currently being carried o u t o n most o f the gravity p l a t f o r m s

installed i n the N o r t h Sea, see Table 4 . 1 .

None o f the structures has suffered critical settlements. As an example, the E k o f i s k tank
settled 26 c m f r o m the instaUation i n 1973 t o summer 1974 and an additional 2 cm i n the next

43
 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977
E O
z

^ 100
UJ 1^1/3 =11-12,5m

UJ onn

LU
O)

Figure 3.5: Observed settlements o f the Elcofislc tank.

three years, see Figure 3.5. A recent re-evaluation and updating o f the settlement records re-
vealed that the curve given b y Rg(ren, Foss and Furnes, (1977), is shghtly incorrect f r o m summer
1974 t o the end o f 1975. W i t h i n a year, i t is expected that the settlement observations going on
w i l l provide the i n f o r m a t i o n required f o r more accurate settlement predictions.

Finally i t should be emphasized that the assessment o f realistic values o n d e f o r m a t i o n m o d u h

is a diifficult task w h i c h involves several considerations besides those mentioned herein, e.g.,
scale effects when extrapolating f r o m moderate to large dimension structures.

3.5 Dynamic motions

3.5.1 Problems
The principal purpose f o r calculating dynamic motions i n the f o u n d a t i o n soil is t o account f o r oil-
structure interaction i n the dynamic analysis o f the p l a t f o r m . This analysis shall provide i n f o r -
m a t i o n regarding:

The response to extreme wave loading;

The response at frequencies near resonance;

The long-term distribution o f response needed f o r fatigue analysis o f the structure;

D e f o r m a t i o n loads o n external connections such as pipeline risers and conductors;
The e f f e c t o f repeated loading o f the f o u n d a t i o n s o ü .

I n cases where earthquake loading may be applicable, the dynamic analysis is o f course essential
f o r analysis o f the response to such loading, b u t this is outside the scope o f the present report.
Reference is made t o Watt, Boaz and R u h l , ( 1 9 7 8 ) .

On the geotechnical side, the principal problems i n the dynarfiic analysis are t o represent the
dynamic stiffness o f the f o u n d a t i o n , including the non-linear behaviour o f soü, and t o assess the
f o u n d a t i o n damping.

The problems related to the effects o f repeated loadings w i h be considered i n section 3.8.

3.5.2 Analytical metho ds

The study o f dynamic f o u n d a t i o n stiffness has concentrated o n one o f the t w o f o l l o w i n g
principal methods:

C o n t i n u u m methods, (e.g. the elastic half-space m e t h o d )

Finite element methods.

I n the first case the soil is n o r m a l l y modelled as an elastic half-space, and the stiffness and
damping properties are modelled b y a system o f equivalent springs, dashpots and added mass,
see, e.g., Richart, Hall and Woods, (1970). I n the second case the soil layers are modelled b y a
f i n i t e element model, w h i c h f o r economical reasons is normally two-dimensional. Special
elements are o f t e n applied at the boundaries i n order to represent the energy r a d i a t i o n f r o m
the f o u n d a t i o n .

44
A technique based o n this approach was reported b y Waas, (1972) and Lysmer and Waas,
(1972), later generalized b y Kausel, R o ë s s e t and Waas, (1975).

There is still considerable argument as to w h i c h m e t h o d is most suitable f o r various applications.

Seed, Lysmer and Hwang, ( 1 9 7 5 ) , and Hadjian, (1976) review the advantages and draw-backs o f
b o t h methods and arrive at opposite conclusions.

For offshore gravity structures, there are a f e w special considerations w h i c h appear t o make the
c o n t i n u u m methods the best choice. First, the embedment o f the foundations is n o r m a h y small
compared t o the w i d t h , thus avoiding some o f the principal objections t o c o n t i n u u m methods.
Second, i t is d i f f i c u l t t o obtain reliable data f o r the soil parameters to be used i n the analysis.
The accuracy o f the result is therefore governed more b y the quality o f the soü data than b y
the refinement o f the analysis m e t h o d .

Due t o the fact that the f o u n d a t i o n soil is usually highly layered a straightforward apphcation
o f the elastic half-space theory may be rather uncertain. Since the frequency o f loading is very
l o w the static stiffness o f the f o u n d a t i o n is a most i m p o r t a n t factor.

A special e f f o r t should therefore be made t o calculate the static stiffness i n terms o f equivalent
spring constants. I n order t o account f o r non-linearities, this should be done f o r several loading
conditions covering a range f r o m small to extreme loads.

A static two-dimensional f i n i t e element analysis is considered to be a suitable t o o l f o r this

purpose. The analyses w i h allow the various soil layers to be properly modelled and can also
reahstically account f o r the e f f e c t o f skirts penetrating t h r o u g h soft upper layers. The non-
linear soil properties may be introduced i n one o f the f o l l o w i n g t w o ways:

Use o f an equivalent secant shear modulus compatible w i t h the strain level i n each element.
Several iterations are required i n order to obtain an acceptable accuracy.

Use o f non-linear or bi-linear stress-strain curves f o r each element.

For a f u r t h e r study o f the analysis o f soil-structure interaction f o r offshore gravity structures,

reference can be made t o W h i t m a n , ( 1 9 7 6 ) , BeU, Hansteen, Larsen and S m i t h , (1976) and Watt,
Boaz and D o w r i c k , (1976).

Soil properties
As f o r other types o f analysis, the parameters used f o r calculations should preferably be taken
f r o m laboratory or f i e l d investigations. Due to the problems o f sample disturbance w h i c h a f f e c t
deformation properties even more than strength, current practice is to use empirical guidelines
as a supplement t o the test results. N o r m a h y , such guidelines give considerably higher stiffnesses
than laboratory tests.

These t w o sets o f data may be used to define a range f o r the stiffness to be used i n a parameter
study w h i c h is essential i n the dynamic analysis. O n s t i f f clays, careful i n situ tests tend t o support
the high modulus values o f the empirical guidelines.

The laboratory tests most c o m m o n l y used f o r investigation o f the dynamic stress-strain properties
are cyclic triaxial and direct shear tests. These give data f o r the secant shear modulus G, whereas
data concerning internal damping are not always o f good quality. These tests t e n d to give s t i f f -
nesses o n the l o w side. I n the smah strain range ( < 0 . 1 % shear strain) other testing methods,
such as torsional shear or resonant column tests w o u l d be more appropriate, b u t these methods
have n o t yet f o u n d practical use f o r offshore structures. When separate cyclic laboratory tests
are carried o u t specially f o r the project under consideration, high q u a l i t y samples must be used
and tested under representative stresses.

Empirical guidelines f o r selection o f stiffness and damping properties f o r sand have been
summarized b y Richart, H a h and Woods, (1970, p. 152), and f o r clay and sand b y Seed and
Idriss, ( 1 9 7 0 ) , H a r d i n and Drnevich, (1972 a and b ) , and Richart (1977).

The non-linear soil properties also introduce an internal damping i n the soil. This is hysteretic
in nature and thus frequency independent. F o r small strains, an internal damping o f 2-5% may
be assumed, b u t this increases substantially w i t h increasing strains (see Seed and Idriss, ( 1 9 7 0 ) ) .

45
 A n o t h e r more i m p o r t a n t type o f damping is the geometrical or radiation damping w h i c h is
viscous i n nature, i.e., frequency-dependent, and accounts f o r the energy lost due to wave pro-
pagation t h r o u g h the soil away f r o m the p l a t f o r m . The expressions f o r the r a d i a t i o n damping
resulting f r o m the half-space theory w i h o f t e n overestimate the actual damping, thus leading t o
unconservative results. I n order t o account f o r possible reflections f r o m boundaries between
layers and other uncertainties. Whitman, (1976), recommends that 50% o f the theoretical
radiation damping f o r an elastic half-space is used.

O n seven o f the gravity structures presently installed i n the N o r t h Sea, i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n is

provided f o r m o n i t o r i n g o f dynamic motions. The results o f these observations are expected to
add considerably t o our knowledge regarding soil properties to be used f o r dynamic analyses, i n
particular as regards verification o f the high shear m o d u h resulting f r o m the empirical guidehnes
mentioned above.

3.6 Penetration resistance

3.6.1 Problems
W i t h the aim o f improving f o u n d a t i o n stability and t o serve as a means f o r scour protections,
skirts are o f t e n used b o t h along the perimeter o f the f o u n d a t i o n and under the central part o f
the p l a t f o r m . The skirts may be o f steel and/or concrete steel skirts having thicknesses between
20 and 30 m m and the w i d t h o f concrete skirts ranging between 0.3 and 1.5 m (see Figure 3.6).

Figure 3.6: Example o f skirt design.

I n order t o facilitate accurate positioning and to minimize h o r i z o n t a l loads o n the skirts, dowels
projecting a f e w metres below the skirts are f r e q u e n t l y used. These dowels are o f t e n h o h o w
pipes o f large diameter, 1 t o 3 m , and wall thickness 10-50 m m .

The calculation o f the penetration resistance o f skirts, dowels and other projecting elements is
generally based o n methods similar to those used t o calculate the load-carrying capacity o f
piles or o n conventional bearing capacity theories. I t should, however, be emphasized t h a t the
calculation o f penetration resistance o f skirts aims at the best possible p r e d i c t i o n o f the 'true'
penetration resistance i n order t o be able t o f u l f i l certain specified design requirements.

A n under-estimation o f the penetration resistance may have serious economical consequences,

or invahdate the whole design, due t o i n s u f f i c i e n t shding resistance at skirt t i p level. B y over-
estimating the penetration resistance, unwanted contact stresses may develop between the base
structure and the f o u n d a t i o n soil.

The tolerances i n the estimates o f penetration resistance o f skirts are thus dictated b y the
acceptable deviation f r o m a ' t r u e ' penetration resistance. This is i n contrast t o pile capacity
predictions, where tolerances i n the prediction is o n l y i n the direction o f higher bearing
capacity than predicted.

46
W i t h due consideration to the effects o f n o n - u n i f o r m soil conditions, sloping and uneven sea
b o t t o m and other reasons f o r n o n - u n i f o r m penetration resistance, the penetration force available
must t u r n o u t t o be sufficient to drive the skirts to the m i n i m u m depth dictated by stabihty
criteria. On the other hand, t o o large depth o f penetration may generate unwanted contact
stresses between the base structure and the seafloor.

Analytical methods
Many d i f f e r e n t theories and empirical relationships have been adopted to predict the penetration
resistance o f dowels and skirts, all suffering f r o m the same drawback o f n o t having been cali-
brated against results f r o m full-scale measurements when they first were applied. Based o n the
experiences gained so far f r o m the instahation o f concrete gravity structures i n the N o r t h e r n
N o r t h Sea, some predictions turned o u t to compare f a i r l y well w i t h the measured penetration
resistance. The success w i t h a certain calculation m e t h o d depends, however, t o a large extent
on the quality o f the site and laboratory investigations and the interpretation o f the results f r o m
these investigations, i.e., the assessment o f characteristic soil properties.

The most f r u i t f u l approaches t o calculation o f the penetration resistance o f steel skirts and
dowels are those based on cone penetration test results supported b y the result o f relevant
laboratory tests. The main advantage o f the cone penetration test is that a continuous depth
profile o f the penetration resistance is obtained. The conversion f r o m cone resistance t o skirt
penetration resistance involves, however, several uncertain assumptions regarding the effects o f
shape, d i f f e r e n t rate o f penetration, excess pore pressures during cone penetration testing, etc.
Still i t is probable that the cone penetration test is the best f i e l d test presently avaüable f o r
this purpose.

The penetration resistance o f dowels and steel skirts is calculated as the sum o f the accumulated
skin resistance and the p o i n t resistance. I f the dowels are open-ended pipes, the skin resistance
is composed on inner and outer f r i c t i o n , the inner f r i c t i o n a l resistance being h m i t e d b y the p o i n t
resistance corresponding to the t o t a l cross-section o f the dowel. Open pipes are therefore
calculated f o r t w o cases, w i t h or w i t h o u t inner plug.

PLATFORM
FORMULA:
SUBMERGED
-WEIGHT (MN) R = k (d)A q^(d) + ƒ k^(z)q^(z)dz
Ws

where

k ,kp = EMPIRICAL COEFFICIENTS

P (see 6.2)

Ap = SKIRT T I P AREA (m^)

A„ = SKIRT SIDE AREA, 2

OUTER + INNER (ra/m )

Figure 3.7: A p p r o a c h f o r prediction o f penetration resistance o f steel skirts and dowels.

47
 When the results o f cone penetration tests are applied directly to calculation o f the penetration
resistance R o f steel slcirts (or dowels), the cone_resistance, q^, f r o m a representative number o f
tests is used t o establish an average q^ -profile, q^, see Figure 3.7. The corresponding p r o f i l e f o r
f o r u n i t skin resistance o f the skirt is then obtained b y m u l t i p l y i n g the q^, -values b y an empirical
coefficient, k^, w h i c h , f o r N o r t h Sea conditions experienced so far, ranges between 0.03 and
0.05 i n very s t i f f silty clay and between 0.001 and 0.003 i n dense to very dense silty fine sand.
A depth p r o f i l e f o r the unit p o i n t resistance o f the skirts may be established by m u l t i p l y i n g the
average q^ -values b y another empirical coefficient, k „ , w h i c h f o r the N o r t h Sea conditions
ranges between 0.4 and 0.6 i n the same clay and between 0.3 and 0.6 i n the sand f o r m a t i o n s
experienced. This approach is f u r t h e r outlined i n a guidehne t o D n V Rules, (1977).

Due t o the water escaping below the tips o f the external skirts just before the skirts start pene-
trating the seafloor, the t o p soil tends t o scour t o a depth o f a few tenths o f a metre. The
trench thus obtained w i h o f course reduce the penetration resistance w h i c h has t o be considered
in the analysis, i n particular f o r concrete skirts. Due to lateral movement o f the p l a t f o r m during
' t o u c h d o w n ' the depth o f the trench may be more pronounced. This may be considered i n the
analysis by reducing the above mentioned coefficients b y 25 to 50% i n the upper 1 t o 1.5 m o f
f o u n d a t i o n soil.

I n sand, the influence o f personal judgement on the predictions is substantial, due to the
uncertainties related b o t h t o the methods o f analysis and the assessment o f characteristic soil
properties. One o f the uncertainties is how t o correct f o r the difference i n rate o f penetration
between the cone and the skirt. The n o r m a l rate o f penetration o f the cone, 2 cm/s, m a y be
several hundred times as large as that o f the skirts. Since the pore water pressures generated at
the level o f the t i p is a f u n c t i o n o f the rate o f penetration and the relative density o f the soil, the
cone penetration resistance i n a very dense sand w i l l be m u c h higher at a rate o f 2 cm/s than i f
the rate o f penetration is 0.005 cm/s t o the generation o f negative pore pressures, see
Schmertmann, (1974).

When extending the N o r t h Sea experience t o other areas and sites, the calculation o f the u n i t
skin resistance o f steel skirts and dowels should consider the original stress conditions i n the soil,
n o t a b l y the coefficient o f lateral earth pressure at rest,and the relative density o f the soh. The
increase i n the lateral stresses due to the penetration o f the low-displacement steel elements is
negligible f o r very loose sand b u t may be significant f o r dense to very dense sand. B y c o m b i n i n g
the experience gathered f r o m pile measurements (Meyerhof, 1976) and actual site investigation
data, preferably cone penetration test results, f a i r l y good estimates o f the skin resistance o f
skirts and dowels can n o w be made (see also 4.4.2).

The p o i n t resistance o f closed-end or plugged dowels may be calculated based o n conventional

bearing capacity formulae f o r clay and sand.

The penetration resistance o f wide concrete skirts is preferably estimated o n the basis o f
conventional bearing capacity formulae. I n order that a sufficiently high estimate f o r the
resistance shall be obtained, f o r m u l a t i o n s giving high bearing capacity factors, e.g., Caquot and
Kerisel, (1953), should be used. I n a f e w cases, plate loading tests have been carried o u t w i t h
the aim o f determining the angle o f shearing resistance and sandy soils and thus increasing the
accuracy o f the predictions.

W i t h respect to the uncertainties i n the choice o f soil parameters, etc., i t is recommended t o

calculate a 'highest expected' and 'most probable' penetration resistance. This is achieved b y
using a range o f penetration resistance coefficients as indicated above. The required eccentric
bahasting capacity should also be estimated, taking i n t o account the effects o f variations i n soil
deposits across the site, sloping sea b o t t o m , etc., (see also 4.4.2).

3.6.3 Soil properties

The soh i n f o r m a t i o n o f major importance f o r the calculation o f penetration resistance o f
skirts and dowels at:

Layer sequence including lateral variations;

Undrained shear strength or cone penetration resistance o f clay layers;
Undrained shear strength o f the clay layers;
Relative density o f cone penetration resistance o f sand layers;

48
 Average slope o f sea b o t t o m ;
B o t t o m topography;
Lateral distribution and thickness o f erodable t o p layer;
I n i t i a l stress conditions, (e.g. overconsohdation ratio).

The expected rate o f p l a t f o r m submersion at ' t o u c h d o w n ' and the permeabhity o f the principal
layers w i l l also constitute useful i n f o r m a t i o n . The above i n f o r m a t i o n should be cohected through
adequate site investigations such as grab sampling, shahow borings, cone penetration tests, plate
loading tests, TV-survey, b o t t o m slope and topography assessment and relevant laboratory
investigations o n recovered samples, (see Section 2).

S.7 Reaction forces on base structure

S,7.1 Problems
The reaction forces o f the s o ü have t o be considered i n the design o f the base structure. The
structural members o f the base w h i c h come i n t o contact w i t h the soh are the dowels, the skirts
and the base slab or domes.

The dowels and steel skirts must be able t o resist the bending moments and the axial forces
encountered during installation. I n order to keep the bending moments or lateral pressures w i t h i n
acceptable limits, certain restrictions t o wave height and period are defined f o r the instahation
phase, see 4.3. Lateral loads o n dowels and skirts are mainly due to h o r i z o n t a l environmental
forces. I n a d d i t i o n , a lateral pressure is produced b y the excess water pressures i n the skirt
compartments caused b y overturning moments, and this pressure also has t o be accounted f o r .

DISPLACEMENT VECTORS

Figure 3.8: Lateral loads o n skirts due to dome penetration.

A d d i t i o n a l lateral loads on skirts may be introduced i f the base structure is dome-shaped (see
Figure 3.8), or because o f geometrical imperfections giving non-axial penetration o f the skirts.
The presence o f boulders may have the same effect.

The unevenness o f the seabed and the shape o f the base structure may lead to the development
of high local contact pressures o n the base o f a gravity structure. W i t h the extremely dense and
s t i f f s o ü formations encountered i n the N o r t h Sea such loads may, i n cases, govern the design
o f the base structure.

The choice o f design loads f o r the base structure may be based on one o f the f o l l o w i n g t h r è e
principles:

The base structure is designed f o r the most unfavourable loads compatible w i t h the soil
conditions and seabed topography;

Instrumentation is provided t o m o n i t o r the loads on the base slab during instahation, and the
process is stopped when a pre-set design load is approached;

49
 The configuration o f the base is such that the base slab wUl n o t get i n contact w i t h the seabed
unless conditions are very n o n - u n i f o r m . Local contact stresses are thus avoided. This condition
may be achieved, e.g., b y providing wide and high concrete skirts.

The t w o first principles have been used i n practice f o r N o r t h Sea structures, and the t h i r d is
being applied on S t a t f j o r d B, see also 4.5.

In all cases i t must be borne i n m i n d that the local reaction pressures considered i n this report
are the effective soil pressures. I n a d d i t i o n , there is the load caused b y hydrostatic water
pressure.

3.7.2 Analytical methods

The evaluation o f the lateral pressures against dowel during instahation may be carried o u t as
described i n the literature on the analysis o f laterally loaded p ü e s . N o r m a h y , f u l l passive earth
pressure is assumed and the p r o b l e m is reduced to the determination o f the effective w i d t h o f
the dowel. Usually, this is taken as one to three times the actual w i d t h , depending on the depth
o f penetration.

The axial forces on the dowel correspond to the penetration resistance, see 3.6.

During the first part o f the instahation, skirts are designed to resist the l i m i t i n g passive earth
pressure, w h i c h is a f u n c t i o n o f the horizontal touch-down speed (rate o f loading), t y p e o f soil,
and depth o f skirt penetration. Based on model tests and dynamic analyses, a h m i t i n g depth o f
penetration is determined as a f u n c t i o n o f the environmental load related to various sea states
w i t h due considerations t o the load contributions f r o m w i n d , current and tugs. A t penetrations
exceeding the h m i t i n g depth, the lateral loads on dowels and/or skirts correspond to the
environmental forces. This is one o f the reasons w h y a l i m i t i n g sea-state has to be specified f o r
the installation, (see 4.3).

The magnitude and the distribution o f the contact stresses on the base slab or domes are highly
dependent on the stress-strain-strength properties o f the s o ü and their local variations, the
degree o f unevenness o f the seabed and the geometry o f the base o f the structure.

The unevenness o f the seabed assumed i n the design should be chosen i n accordance w i t h the
results o f a sea-bottom survey, taking the accuracy o f the survey m e t h o d and the density o f the
topography measurements over the f o u n d a t i o n site into account. The influence o f significant
seabed formations and obstructions o f d i f f e r e n t kinds are t o be considered as well.

During installation the compression o f high points o n the seafloor w i h first introduce only
m i n o r stresses suggesting that an elastic analysis o f the soil w i l l be acceptable. Later i n the
process, yielding i n the soil may be expected, and a plastic analysis based o n a bearing capacity
theory w i h be more appropriate. B o t h types o f analysis have been used previously and have
demonstrated that, f o r given soil conditions, the size o f the contact area determines w h i c h
conditions give the highest loads.

The non-linear stress-strain behaviour o f soils indicates that a non-linear elastoplastic analysis
w i l l serve as a better a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r the calculation o f contact stresses. A n analysis m e t h o d
based o n this principle has been included as a guideline i n the D n V Rules, (1977). The m e t h o d
assumes a m o d i f i e d hyperbolic stress-strain curve and takes into account the gradual increase i n
the size o f the contact area. The principal parameters i n the analysis are the equivalent modulus
o f elasticity f o r smah strains and the ultimate bearing capacity.

I n order to obtain conservative, i.e., high values o f the reaction stresses, the use o f high values
for the shear strength and bearing capacity factors is recommended, (see 3.6.2).

Current research indicates that actual reaction stresses during installation may be reasonably
accurately predicted b y methods such as those described above. Measurements o n full-scale
structures during installation i n the N o r t h Sea indicate that the very high local contact stresses
predicted b y early analysis must stih be considered as reahstic.

3.7.3 Soil properties

Soh properties o f p r i m a r y importance f o r the analysis o f local contact stresses are:

50
 Shear strength properties, i.e., angle o f shearing resistance and cohesion or undrained shear
strength;
Elasticity properties, i.e., Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio.

The characteristic values o f shear strength and stiffness o f the s o ü must be chosen to give upper
h m i t estimates o f the contact pressure.

For sands, the most representative description o f the shear strength and d e f o r m a t i o n properties
is obtained f r o m i n situ tests such as cone penetration tests. F o r the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the
results f r o m such tests, reference is made to relevant literature o n the topic, e.g., Sanglerat,
(1972), Dahlberg, ( 1 9 7 5 ) , and Mitcheh and Gardner, (1975). Based on current onshore experi-
ence, the constrained modulus o f sand f o r loadings beyond the preconsolidation pressure, i.e.,
f o r p ' < p'^, , may be t w o to f o u r times the average cone penetration resistance w i t h i n the
depth influenced b y the loading. The drained Young's modulus f o r i n i t i a l loading may then be
estimated to vary between 2 t o 4.5 times the average cone penetration resistance i f Poisson's
ratio is taken equal to about 0.3. The larger value is representative f o r dense sand. F o r loads
w i t h i n the preconsohdation range, substantially larger values have t o be assumed, see Dahlberg,
(1975). However, b y relating the stiffness to the cone penetration resistance the ratio o f the
preconsolidation modulus and the modulus applying to virgin loading w i h be l i m i t e d to about
5 f o r loose sand and about 1.5 f o r dense sand, see Table 3.4.

F o r clays, the i n i t i a l Young's modulus o f b o t h n o r m a l l y and overconsohdated clays may be

taken equal to 250-500 times the undrained shear strength, determined o n the basis o f
laboratory and i n situ tests.

,8 Effects of repeated loading

,8.1 Problems
Repeated loadings due to wave action affect soh parameters required f o r many o f the analyses
described i n previous sections. There are also special problems related t o the behaviour o f s o ü i n
cychc loading n o t mentioned previously. The problem is therefore considered i n f u h i n this
chapter.

Starting w i t h the references t o previous parts o f this section, i t was pointed o u t i n 3.3 that re-
peated loading may reduce the undrained shear strength, i n 3.4 that such loading may
mcrease the long-term settlements and i n 3.5 that i t may reduce the dynamic stiffness o f the
soü. The most i m p o r t a n t special problem is the risk o f failure i n cychc loading, such as the
widely discussed phenomenon o f hquefaction o f sand. Another special problem is the
redistribution o f base contact stresses.

The analysis o f all these problems is based on an understanding o f the basic mechanisms
governing the behaviour o f a s o ü element subjected t o repeated loading. These mechanisms w i h
govern the effects o n stiffness and undrained shear strength after cychc loading as weh as the
risk f o r t o t a l failure i n cychc loading. I t should be realized at the outset that repeated loading
effects is a p r o b l e m o f equal concern t o sand and clay. For N o r t h Sea gravity p l a t f o r m s , the
SOÜ conditions decide where the emphasis is f o r a particular project.

I n the f o l l o w i n g the basic mechanisms governing the behaviour o f a soil element are first
considered and then the analysis methods used to extrapolate f r o m the behaviour o f small
elements t o a b u l k soil volume are discussed.

.8.2 Basic mechanism of soil behaviour

The behaviour o f soh during cyclic loading is governed b y the effective stress a, w h i c h is
defined as the average stress transmitted i n grain to grain contact. The t o t a l stress a applied t o
soil element is carried p a r t l y as effective stress and partly as pore water pressure u , i.e.,
CT = a ' + u .

To explain the mechanism, let us consider an isotropically consohdated s o ü element (Point 0 i n

Figure 3.9), subjected t o cyclic shear stresses, w i t h an equivalent constant amplitude as defined
b y the distance o f p o i n t 1 t o the a ' -axis. I f the cyclic loads are applied w i t h o u t ahowing the
pore water t o escape (undrained loading), the imposed cyclic loads have t o be balanced b y
internal water pressure variations i n the soil element. F o r a single load cycle the effective stress

51
w i l l be almost u n a f f e c t e d b y the loading, b u t i f the shear stress level exceeds a certain threshold
value, each load cycle w i h generate a smah increment o f residual pore water pressure w h i c h
adds t o that already accumulated i n previous load cycles. As a result o f the development o f
residual pore water pressures, the effective n o r m a l stress w i l l decrease and displace to the l e f t
in the diagram.

X
STRESS,
EAR

^^^^U 3 2 jl

/o
EFFECTIVE NORMAL STRESS, 0" '

Figure 3.9: Effects o f repeated loading o n soil behaviour.

The effective stress path may stop before i t reaches the failure line (point 2) i f the shear stress
level is moderate or the number o f cycles is smah. A static shear test carried o u t f r o m p o i n t 2
follows an effective stress path w h i c h terminates i n p o i n t b. I f the preceding cychc loading is
assumed to express the e f f e c t o f a design storm, stress path 2-b illustrates the quasi-static
failure mode. The undrained shear strength after cychc loading ( p o i n t b) is somewhat lower
than the static shear strength (point a) o f a non-cycled soh element. Under favourable loading
conditions, a certain soh element may, however, accumulate pore water pressures so large that
the effective stress path touches the failure line ( p o i n t 4). Before reaching this state the shear
strain starts to increase rapidly.

F r o m this c o n d i t i o n t w o things may happen. The soh may lose its strength completely and
behave like a heavy h q u i d . I t can no longer carry the constant amplitude shear stress. This
corresponds to a movement d o w n t o the l e f t on the failure line. I n this c o n d i t i o n , i n d e f i n i t e
strains may take place w h i c h w o u l d represent a true liquefaction failure such as may be
observed i n a loose sand. The other alternative is that the soh stih has an additional strength
w h i c h may be mobihzed i n a static test f o l l o w i n g the cychc loading. This is representative
for a dense sand or a s t i f f overconsohdated clay and corresponds t o a stress path moving up to
the right on the failure line. The additional shear strength available b e y o n d the cyclic shear
stress amphtude previously apphed is mobihzed after a d e f i m t e b u t large strain (say 5-20%),
thus halting the d e f o r m a t i o n . This phenomenon has been termed 'cychc m o b i l i t y '
(Casagrande, (1971)). The t e r m 'failure i n cychc loading' may be used to cover b o t h faUure
modes, irrespective o f whether we consider sand or clay.

The number o f cycles to failure w h l depend primarily on the soil t y p e and the stress
conditions. F o r sand i n particular, the testing procedure, including the sample preparation
procedure, w i h i n addition greatly a f f e c t the results, o f t e n leading t o over-conservative results.

A t present i t must be admitted that reliable testing procedures f o r ah types o f sand are n o t
available. There is a trend i n the U n i t e d States t o make more use o f empirical data based o n
the behaviour o f sand deposits during earthquakes.

Experiences w i t h N o r t h Sea p l a t f o r m s indicate that liquefaction o f sand is n o t a serious p r o b l e m

for the dense sands f o u n d there. Pore pressure buhd-up during storms has been recorded, how-
ever, pointing t o the need f o r concern. A comprehensive review o f the state-of-the-art regarding
liquefaction and cychc m o b i l i t y o f sand was presented b y Seed, ( 1 9 7 6 ) .

For clay, understanding o f the effects o f cychc loading was greatly enhanced b y an industry-
sponsored_research project carried out i n 1974-75. Some o f the results have been published b y
Andersen, ( 1 9 7 6 ) , Andersen, B r o w n , Foss, Pool and Rosenbrand, ( 1 9 7 6 ) and B r o w n , Andersen
and McElvaney, (1977). This project revealed m u c h o f the basic i n f o r m a t i o n and i n f o r m a t i o n
parameters referred to i n this chapter.
52
 As already mentioned, the undrained shear strength o f a clay subjected t o cychc loading
(points b , c. Figure 3.9) may be f o u n d to be less than f o r a non-cycled sample ( p o i n t a). The
degree o f strength reduction has been f o u n d to depend on the strain reached i n cyclic loading
and the apphed number o f load cycles. For cyclic (or permanent) shear strains less than 3%,
generated b y less than 1000 load cycles, the r e d u c t i o n may be up to 25%. This e f f e c t must be
considered i n ah stabihty calculations where relevant. The determination and i n t r o d u c t i o n o f
this effect i n a quasi-static stability analysis and a cyclic loading t y p e o f failure analysis,
respectively, are described elsewhere, see e.g., Foss, Dahlberg and Kvalstad, ( 1 9 7 8 ) .

The deteriorating effects o f repeated loading o n the soh properties are also demonstrated b y the
significant decrease o f the shear modulus w i t h increasing shear strain. Also the damping ratio is
affected b y the shear strains. This e f f e c t is p r i m a r i l y o f concern f o r large strains. I n cases where
the cyclic shear strain is less than about 0 . 1 % the e f f e c t is normahy insignificant.

A n o t h e r effect w h i c h has to be considered i n connection w i t h repeated loading is that o f

previous repeated loading o n the cyclic behaviour o f the soil i n a later storm. I n this case i t is
assumed that any excess pore pressures are drained out between the storms.

The present experience indicates that overconsohdated clays at l o w consolidation stresses may
be less resistant to cylic loading after preshearing, w h ü e f o r n o r m a l l y consohdated clays tested
at higher consohdation stresses, preshearing is favourable. For sand a moderate amount o f pre-
shearing is favourable, w h ü e large strains during preshearing may possibly have the opposite
effect.

The analysis o f cumulative damage is rather d i f f e r e n t f o r soüs than f o r other materials, such as
steel or concrete. As pointed out above, the long t e r m effect o f repeated loading may very weh
be beneficial rather t h a n c o n t r i b u t i n g t o an eventual fatigue f a ü u r e . The p r o b l e m t o consider is,
therefore, the short-term effects i n a single storm, during w h i c h undrained conditions are
normally assumed.

A rational study o f this problem appears to have been done o n l y f o r clays, where reference is
made t o Andersen, (1976) and Andersen, Hansteen, Hoeg and Prevost, ( 1 9 7 7 ) . Possibly a similar
m e t h o d w i h be applicable t o sand. Andersen's m e t h o d may be used to calculate the cychc strain
at any stage o f a random loading process f r o m a knowledge o f the stress-strain curve o f the soh
during the first loading cycle, and the results o f a number o f cyclic tests w i t h constant cychc
stress ranges, covering a range o f stress conditions. The m e t h o d is based on the assumption that
the accumulated cyclic strain at a certain stage o f the loading process is one o f the principal
parameters governing the f u t u r e development. G o o d results have been obtained w i t h the m e t h o d
f o r a number o f test cases, b u t the procedure is stih under development. A recent survey o f the
effects o f cychc loading on clay strength was presented b y Lee and F o c h t , ( 1 9 7 6 ) .

,8.3 Analytical methods

The most c o m m o n l y adopted procedure f o r analysis o f the b u l k volume o f the f o u n d a t i o n is to
assume representative average stress conditions w h i c h are modehed b y means o f small laboratory
specimens. As long as stress and strain conditions are reasonably u n i f o r m , this simple m e t h o d
is expected to give satisfactory results, and i t has been accepted f o r most o f the gravity
structures i n the N o r t h Sea.

I n cases where the distribution o f stresses and strains is highly n o n - u n i f o r m , a more sophisticated
method is desirable. A f e w such methods, based on the f i n i t e element m e t h o d , have been pro-
posed. The first was reported b y B o n i n , Deleuil and Zaleski—Zamenhof, (1976). This m e t h o d
uses a two-dimensional f i n i t e element m o d e l o f the f o u n d a t i o n soil. The soil elements are given
non-linear stress-strain properties according t o a procedure developed b y K u l h a w , Duncan and
Seed, ( 1 9 6 9 ) . The tangent modulus and Poisson's ratio may then be corrected at each stress
increment o n the basis o f the behaviour o f the soil i n the first cycle after change (increase) o f
the stress level. The cumulative e f f e c t o f a storm may then be analysed b y a stress-path m e t h o d
w h i c h incorporates the application o f m i t i a l stresses to the soh elements, the placement o f the
p l a t f o r m and the storm loading sequence.

T w o other methods have been proposed b y Andersen, Hansteen, Hoeg and Prevost, ( 1 9 7 7 ) . One
o f the methods is a direct extension and mathematical f o r m u l a t i o n o f Andersen's m e t h o d f o r
calculation o f cumulative damage. The other m e t h o d is based on an elasto-plastic material model
tailored to the results o f cyclic triaxial and direct simple shear tests.

53
 The last o f the models referred to above may also be used to calculate permanent vertical dis-
placements and changes i n base contact stress due t o repeated loading. These phenomena are
associated w i t h the permanent deformations resulting f r o m a combination o f permanent and
cyclic shear stresses acting i n the same direction.

The f i n i t e element methods mentioned above must at present be considered as an interesting

start o f a new development

3.9 Centrifuge model tests

Traditionahy, model testing has been used extensively i n geotechnical engineering. The most
c o m m o n m e t h o d is the plate bearing test f o r determination o f the bearing capacity and
settlements o f footings. Usually such tests are carried out i n situ, thus testing the f o u n d a t i o n
soil w i t h no assumptions or approximations other than u n i f o r m soh conditions. The tests are
normally carried o u t as static tests, b u t i n recent years cyclic testing has also been successfully
done.

Model testing i n a centrifuge, see, e.g., Rowe, (1975), was introduced some years ago and is an
interesting alternative t o other model tests. The principal advantage over 1 g tests is that the stress
conditions i n a deep soh_deposit may n o t be correctly modelled. The test may thus be used t o
elucidate the physical mechanisms o f comphcated soh problems, or problems o f soil-structure
interaction. For example, critical failure modes may thus be revealed.

W i t h i n the present state-of-the-art, models o f offshore gravity p l a t f o r m s may be b u i l t to a scale

of about 1:100. Consohdation, static and cychc undrained loading may be applied. Instrument-
ation may include stresses, displacements, pore pressures, etc.

For offshore structures the model has t o be b u h t f r o m a soh similar to that o n the actual site,
since s u f f i c i e n t l y large samples cannot be obtained f r o m the site. A n y errors involved i n site
investigations and interpretation o f soil conditions are thus reflected i n the model. A second
circumstance is that the time scale f o r the model is the square o f the linear scale. For a linear
scale o f 1:100 the t i m e scale is thus 1:10 000. This is normally n o t a p r o b l e m f o r clay, b u t f o r
sand i t may be d i f f i c u l t to maintain undrained conditions during the test.

Centrifuge model tests should be considered a useful t o o l i n i d e n t i f y i n g mechanisms and

behaviour, i n particular when studying new types o f structures. Theoretical methods are
expected to remain the principal t o o l o f analysis, b u t may be c o n f i r m e d and sometimes extended
by centrifuge tests.

3.10 Summary

This review covers specification o f the design problems related t o the f o u n d a t i o n design o f
gravity structures, assessment o f available analysis tools and the knowledge regarding soh pro-
perties needed in the analyses.

The l i m i t state m e t h o d is n o w being accepted f o r f o u n d a t i o n design o f concrete structures.

The most i m p o r t a n t checks are on stabihty i n the ultimate l i m i t state and o n settlements i n the
serviceability state. I n b o t h cases the effects o f repeated loading have to be accounted f o r . W i t h
respect to f o u n d a t i o n stabihty, the risk o f failure i n cychc loading has t o be checked independ-
ently, i n addition to the conventional quasi-static stability analysis.

The principal stability problems are shallow shding and deep seated shear faUure. The m e t h o d o f
slices is recommended f o r the quasi-static stabihty analysis. The principal problems are related
to the-correct determination o f the undrained shear strength o f the soil, sand as well as clay.
The shear strength should preferably be obtained according to the stress path m e t h o d .

The most i m p o r t a n t long t e r m deformations are related to settlements. The analysis is based o n
f a i r l y simple methods, and empirical parameters f o r the compressibility o f t e n have to be used.
Settlement observations currently being carried out on most o f the N o r t h Sea gravity structures
are expected to increase the confidence i n the settlement analysis methods w i t h i n a short time.

Calculation o f dynamic motions is part o f the t o t a l dynamic analysis. The most i m p o r t a n t

factors related to the foundations are stiffness and, to a smaller extent, damping. These properties
may be expressed b y equivalent spring constants and dashpots, b u t static f i n i t e element analysis

54
is recommended f o r investigation o f the stiffness. The analysis must talce non-hnear stress-strain
properties i n t o account. Due t o the problems o f sample disturbance, empirical guidehnes are
used as a supplement t o laboratory test results f o r determining the soh parameters.

A n assessment o f the penetration resistance o f dowels, steel and concrete slcirts is required f o r a
safe instahation o f gravity structures. The principal remaining problem i n this respect is deter-
m i n a t i o n o f the p o i n t and side resistance i n sand. Field experience has added considerably to
our knowledge i n this respect. The results o f static cone penetration tests have proved u s e f u l f o r
prediction o f penetration resistance.

Reaction forces o n the base structure due to undulations i n seabed topography and local
variations i n soil conditions may be the governing factors f o r the design o f the base structure.
Elastoplastic analysis o f stress-deformation relationships combined w i t h soh data f r o m cone
penetration tests appear t o give results i n reasonable agreement w i t h field observations.

The effects o f repeated loading influence many types o f analysis, e.g., stabhity, settlement and
dynamic displacement. Failure i n cyclic loading, such as hquefaction is a separate fahure mode
and has t o be considered as such. The basic mechanisms o f repeated loading effects are f a i r l y
weh understood. F o r sand, laboratory tests are o f questionable value, and supporting f i e l d
evidence is o f t e n needed f o r design. F o r clay, laboratory tests are widely used. A promising
m e t h o d has been developed f o r calculation o f cumulative damage effects due t o r a n d o m loading.
Current design is mostly based on simple analysis, using the laboratory specimens as represent-
ative f o r average stress conditions. Recent development o f f i n i t e element methods f o r more
complicated cases appear to be a promising approach.

I n a d d i t i o n t o the theoretical methods m a i n l y considered above, model tests i n the centrifuge

may be considered as a valuable supplementary t o o l , i n particular f o r studying mechanisms and
behaviour.

R E F E R E N C E S AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

DET NORSKE VERITAS

Rules for the desigit, construction aitd iitspection of offshore structures. D n V , Oslo. M a y 1977.

DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY

Guidance oit the design and construction of offshore installations. HMSO, L o n d o n . July 1977

FEDERATION INTERNATIONAL DE L A PRECONTRAINTE

Recommendations for the desigri and constructiori of concrete sea structures. Third edition.
FIP, Slough, July 1977.
NORWEGIAN PETROLEUM DIRECTORATE
Regulations for the structural design of fixed structures on the Norwegian Continental Shelf.
Stavenger, 1977.
ANDERSEN, K.H.
Behaviour o f clay subjected t o undrained cychc loading. BOSS '76. Proceedings of the First
International Conference on Behaviour of Offshore Structures. V o l . 1. pp. 392-403. T r o n d h e i m ,
1976. Also i n Norwegian Geotechnical Institute Publication N o . 114.

A N D E R S E N , K . H . , B R O W N , S.F., FOSS, L , P O O L , J.H. and R O S E N B R A N D , W.F.

E f f e c t o f cyclic loading on clay behaviour. Paper presented at Conference on Design and
Construction o f Offshore Structures. L o n d o n , 1976. Also i n Norwegian Geotechnical I n s t i t u t e
Pubhcation N o . 113.

A N D E R S E N , K . H . , H A N S T E E N , O.E., H O E G , K . and P R E V O S T , J.H.

Soh deformations due t o cyclic loads on offshore structures. T o be pubhshed as Chapter 13 i n
Numerical Methods iit Offshore Engineering b y Zienkiewicz, O.C., Lewis, R.W. and Stagg, K . G .
John Wiley and Sons Inc., New Y o r k . ( I n preparation.)

B E L L , K . , H A N S T E E N , O.E., L A R S E N , P.K. and S M I T H , E . K .

Analysis o f a wave-structure soil system: case study o f a gravity p l a t f o r m . BOSS ' 7 6 .
Proceedings oftJte First International Conference on Behaviour of Offshore Structures, V o l . 1.
pp. 846-863. Also i n Norwegian Geotechnical I n s t i t u t e Publication N o . 114.

55
BISHOP, A . W .
The use o f the shp circle i n the stability analysis o f slopes. Geotechnique, V o l . 5, N o . 1. 1955.
pp. 7-17.

BJERRUM, L.
Secondary settlements o f structures subjected t o large variations i n live load. Proceedings of the
International Symposium on Rheology and Soil Mechanics. Grenoble 1-8 A p r i l , 1964. Springer,
Berlin, 1966. pp. 460-471. Also i n Norvi'egian Geotechnical Institute Publication N o . 73, 1968.

BJERRUM, L.
Subaqueous slope failures i n Norwegian f j o r d s . POAC, Paper presented at the Conference on
Port and Ocean Engineering under A r c t i c Conditions. T r o n d h e i m , 1971.

BJERRUM, L.
Geotechnical problems involved i n foundations o f structures i n the N o r t h Sea. Geotechnique,
V o l . 23, N o . 3. 1973 (a), pp. 319-358.

BJERRUM, L.
General Report on Problems o f soil mechanics and construction on s o f t clays and structurally
unstable soils (collapsible, expansive and others). Proceedings of the Eighth International
Conference on Soil Mecltanics and Foundation Engitteering, V o l . 3. Moscow, 1973 ( b ) .

B O N I N , J.P., D E L E U I L , G. and Z A L E S K I - Z A M E N H O F , L . C .
F o u n d a t i o n analysis o f marine gravity structures submitted t o cychc loading. Proceedings of the
Eighth Annual Offshore Techttology Cottference. 3-6 May 1976. Paper N o . OTC 2475. Houston,
Texas, pp. 571-584.

B R I N C H - H A N S E N , J.
A revised and extended f o r m u l a f o r bearing capacity. Danish Geotechnical I n s t i t u t e B u l l e t i n
N o . 28, 1970.

B R O W N , S.F., A N D E R S E N , K . H . and M c E L V A N E Y , J.
The effect o f drainage on cychc loading o f clay. Paper presented at the N i n t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Conference o n Soh Mechanics and F o u n d a t i o n Engineering. T o k y o , 1977.

B U R L A N D , J.B.
General Report on behaviour o f foundations and structures. Paper presented at the N i n t h
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundastion Engineering, T o k y o , 1977.

B U T L E R , E.G.
General Report on Heavily over-consolidated clays. Proceedings of the Conferettce on Settlement
of Structures. A p r i l 1974. Pentech Press, L o n d o n , 1975. pp. 531-578.

C A Q U O T , A . and K E R I S E L , J.
Sur la terme de surface dans le calcul des f o n d a t i o n en milieu p u l v é r u l e n t . Proceedings of the
Third International Conference on Soil Mechanics attd Foundation Engineerittg, V o l . 1.
Zurich, 1953. pp. 336-337.

CASAGRANDE, A.

On hquefaction phenomena. Geotechnique, V o l . 2 1 , N o . 3, September 1971. pp. 197-202.

CASAGRANDE, A.
L i q u e f a c t i o n and cyclic d e f o r m a t i o n o f sands: a critical review. Havard Soh Mechanics Series
N o . 8 1 . Havard University, 1976.
E I D E , O.
Marine soh mechanics. Paper presented at the Offshore N o r t h Sea Technology Conference and
E x h i b i t i o n , Stavanger, 3-6 September 1974. Also i n Norwegian Geotechnical I n s t h u t e
Pubhcation N o . 103. pp. 1-20.

F O C H T , J.A., L E E , K . L . and Y O U N G , A . G .
A n a l y t i c a l predictions and centrifuge m o d e l tests o f offshore gravity structures. A S C E , 1978.

56
FOSS, I . , D A H L B E R G , R. and K V A L S T A D , T .
Design o f foundations o f gravity structures against failure i n cyclic loading. Proceedings of tiie
TentJt Annual Offshore Technology Conference, 8-11 May 1978. Paper No. OTC 3114, Houston,
Texas, 1978.

HADJIAN, A.H.
Discussion on soil—structure interaction analysis f o r seismic response, by H . B . Seed, J. Lysmer
and R. Yisnangm Proceedings of ASCE, V o l . 101, No. GT 1. 1015\ and Proceedings of ASCE,
V o l . 102, No. G T 4 . A p r i l 1976.

H A N S E N , B.
Modes o f failure under inclined eccentric loads. BOSS '76. Proceedings of the First International
Conference on Behaviour of Offshore Structures. V o l . 1, T r o n d h e i m , 1976. pp. 488-500.

H A R D I N , B.O. and D R N E V I C H , V.P.

Shear modulus and damping i n soils: measurement and parameter effects. Proceedings of ASCE,
V o l . 98, No. SM6. June 1972 (a), pp. 603-624.

H A R D I N , B.O. and D R N E V I C H , V.P.

Shear modulus and damping i n soils: design equations and curves. Proceediitgs of ASCE, V o l . 98,
No. SM7, July 1972 (b). pp. 667-692.

H E N K E L , D.J.

The role o f waves i n causing submarine landslides. Geotechitique, V o l . 20, No. 1. 1970. pp. 75-80.

HOEG, K .
State o f the art report on f o u n d a t i o n engineering f o r f i x e d offshore structures. BOSS '76.
Proceedings oftlte First Internatiorial Cottference on Behaviour of Offshore Structures, V o l . 1.
T r o n d h e i m , 1976. pp. 36-69.
JANBU, N.
Stability analysis o f slopes w i t h dimensionless parameters. Harward Soh Mechanics Series N o . 4 6 ,
1954. pp. 8 1 .

JANBU, N.
Soh compressibility as determined by oedometer and triaxial tests. European Conference on Soil
Mecltanics and Foundation Engineerittg, V o l . I.Wiesbaden, 1963. pp. 19-25.

JANBU, N.
Slope stability computations. Ernbankment-dam engineering. Casagrande volume. (Ed. R.C.
Hirschfeld and S.J. Poulos.) John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New Y o r k , 1973. pp. 47-86.

K A U S E L , E., R Ö E S S E T , J.M. and W A A S , G.

Dynamic analysis o f footings on layered media. Proceedings of ASCE, V o l . 1 0 1 , No. E M 5 ,
October 1975. pp. 679-693.

K U L H A W Y , F . N . , D U N C A N , J.M. and SEED, H.B.

Finite element analysis o f stresses and movements i n embankments during construction. O f f i c e
o f Research Services. University o f California, Report No. T E 69-4. Berkley, 1969.

L A U R I T Z E N , R. and SCHJETNE, K .
Stability calculations f o r offshore gravity structures. Proceedi^^gs of the Eighth Ammal Offshore
Technology Conference, 3-6 May 1976. Paper No. OTC 2 4 3 1 . Houston, Texas, pp. 75-82.

L E E , K . L . and F O C H T , J A .
Strength o f clay subjected to cyclic loading. Marine Geotechnology, V o l . 1, N o . 3, 1976,
pp. 47-86.

L Y S M E R , T. and WASS, G.
Shear waves i n plane i n f i n i t e structures. Proceediitgs of ASCE, V o l . 98, N o . E M I , February
1972. pp. 85-105.

M E Y E R H O F , G.G.
Some recent research on the bearing capacity. Canadian GeotechnicalJournal, V o l . 1, N o . 1,
1963. pp. 16-26.
57
M E Y E R H O F , G.G.
The eleventh Terzaghi lecture: bearing capacity and settlement o f pile foundations. Proceedings
of ASCE, V o l . 102, N o . G T 3 , March 1976. pp. 197-228.

M I T C H E L L , J.K. and G A R D N E R , W.S.

I n situ measurement o f volume change characteristics. ASCE Speciality Conference on
Geotechnical Engineering, N o r t h Carolina, June 1975.

M O R G E N S T E R N , N . R . and PRICE, V . E .
The analysis o f the stability o f general slip surfaces. Geotecfinique, V o l . 15, N o . 1, 1965.
pp. 79-93.

M U L I L I S , J.P., SEED, H . B . , C H A N , C.K., M I T C H E L L , J.K. and A R U L A N A N D A N , K .

Effects o f sample preparation o n sand liquefaction. Proceedings of ASCE, V o l . 103, N o . G T 2 ,
February 1977. pp. 91-108.

M U R F F , J.D. and M I L L E R , T.W.

Stabihty o f offshore gravity structure foundations b y the upper b o u n d method. Proceeding of
theNintIi Annual Offsliore Technology Conference, 2-5 M a y , 1977. Paper N o . O T C 2896.
Houston, Texas, pp. 147-154.

ODA, M.
I n i t i a l fabrics and their relations t o mechanical properties o f granular- material. Soils and
Foundations, March 1972 (a).

ODA, M.
The mechanisms o f fabric changes during compressional d e f o r m a t i o n o f sand. Soils and
Foundations, June 1972 ( b ) .

ODA, M.
D e f o r m a t i o n mechanism o f sand i n triaxial compression tests. Soils and Foundations,
December 1972 (c).

POULOS, H.G. and D A V I E S , E . H .

Elastic solutions f o r soh and rock mechanics. John Whey and Sons, Inc., New Y o r k , 1974.

R I C H A R T , F.E., Jr.
Dynamic stress-strain relationships f o r sohs. State-of-the-Art Report, Proceedings of the Ninth
International Conference on Soil Mechattics and Foundation Engineering. V o l . 2. T o k y o , 1977,
pp. 605-612.
R I C H A R T , F.E, Jr,, H A L L , J.R. and WOODS, R.D.

Vibrations o f soils and foundations. Prentice-Hah, Inc., Englewood C l i f f s , N . J . , 1970.

ROWE, R.W.
Displacement and failure modes o f model offshore gravity p l a t f o r m s f o u n d e d o n clay. Paper
presented at Offshore Europe 1975, Aberdeen, Scotland. Conference Paper OE-75 2 1 8 . 1 .
R 0 R E N , E.M.Q., FOSS, I.J. and F U R N E S , O.
Fixed offshore steel and concrete p l a t f o r m s . Paper presented at S T A R Symposium o n Energy
Research i n the Oceans, San Fransisco, 27-30 May 1977.

S A N G L E R A T , G.

The penetrometer and soil exploration. Elsevier, L o n d o n , 1972.

S C H M E R T M A N N , J.
General discussion at European Symposium on Penetration Testing. 5-7 June, 1974, V o l . 2 : 1 .
Svensk Byggtjanst, Stockholm, 1975.
SEED, H . B .
Evaluation o f soh l i q u e f a c t i o n effects on level ground during earthquakes. L i q u e f a c t i o n Problems
in Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE National Convention, 1976. pp. 1-104.

58
SEED, H.B. and IDRISS, I . M .
Soil m o d u l i and damping factors f o r dynamic response analysis. Earthquake Engineering Research
Center, College o f Engineering, University o f California, Berkely, Cahfornia. Report N o . E E R C
70-10, December 1970.

SEED, H . B . , L Y S M E R , J. and H W A N G , R.
Soil-structure interaction analyses f o r seismic response. Proceedings of ASCE, V o l . 101, No.
G T l . 1975.

SKEMPTON, A.W.
The development o f knowledge concerning slopes i n s t i f f fissured clays. Special lecture presented
at the Ninth httertmtional Conference on Soil Meciiatiics and Foundation Engineering,
T o k y o . 1977.

T H I E R S , G.R. and SEED, H.B.

Strength and stress-strain characteristics o f clays subjected t o seismic loading conditions. A S T M
Technical Publication 450, 1969.

W A A S , G.
Linear t w o dimensional analysis o f soh dynamics problems i n semi-infinite layered media.
University o f California, Berkeley, 1972. (Thesis.)

W A T T , B.J., B O A Z , L B . and D O W R I C K , D.J.

Response o f concrete gravity platforms to earthquake excitations. Proceediitgs of the Eighth
Attnual Offshore Technology Cottferetice, 3-6 May 1976. Paper No. OTC 2673. Houston,
Texas, pp.633-644.

W A T T , B.J., B O A Z , L B . and R U H L , J.A.

Earthquake survivabihty o f concrete platforms. Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Offshore
Techiiology Conference, 8-11 M a y l 9 7 8 . Paper No. OTC 3159. Houston, Texas, pp. 957-973.

W H I T M A N , R.V.
S o h - p l a t f o r m interaction. BOSS '76, Proceedings of the First Intentatiotial Conference on
Behaviour of OffsJtire Structures. V o l . 1. T r o n d h e i m , 1976. pp. 817-829.

Y O U N G , A . G . , K R A F T , L . M . and F O C H T , J.A.
Geotechnical considerations i n f o u n d a t i o n design o f offshore gravity structures. Journal of
Petroleum Technology, August 1976. pp. 925-937.

59
INSTALLATION O F CONCRETE PLATFORMS

Introduction

The instahation o f a concrete p l a t f o r m on the seafloor is a demanding task. Neither the structure
nor the f o u n d a t i o n soh must be damaged nor unfavourably affected b y the operation. So far the
instahations carried o u t are reported to be successful. Some key i n f o r m a t i o n regarding site data,
base configurations and instahation experience f o r the p l a t f o r m s instahed b y 1978 are
summarized i n Table 4 . 1 .

The d i f f e r e n t instahation phases are discussed under the f o l l o w i n g headings:

Touch down
Skirt penetration
Base contact
Grouting

Instahations t h r o u g h the base slab

The requirement f o r an installation manual and data acquisition system is also mentioned.

Sea b o t t o m survey has already been described i n Section 1.

A t some locations, boulders have been registrated o n the seafloor. They have been successfully
removed b y trawling.

Installation manual

Installation o f a concrete gravity p l a t f o r m i n deep waters is a chahenging f o u n d a t i o n j o b w h i c h

has t o be carried out i n a m i n i m u m o f t i m e under very special conditions. Everything therefore
has t o be carefully planned and organized beforehand.

The installation manual should contain the f o h o w i n g :

A l l background i n f o r m a t i o n needed including structure, bahasting system, i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and

site conditions.

Guidelines and instructions f o r all installation phases, stating the d i f f e r e n t criteria, alarm l i m i t s
and contingencies. The d i f f e r e n t plots w h i c h should be kept up to date should be listed.

Specifications f o r grouting and instahations t h r o u g h the base slab.

The installation manual should be accepted beforehand b y the client and the c e r t i f y i n g
authority. I t should be used as a guide b y the installation crew who consist o f all the d i f f e r e n t
specialists. The groups o f people o n board the p l a t f o r m during installation should be capable and
authorized to take any decision.

Some basic data f o r the 13 concrete structures already installed i n the N o r t h Sea are given i n
Table 4 . 1 .

Touch down

Designers w h o have equipped their p l a t f o r m w i t h extended steel pipe dowels have so far been
successful i n preventing horizontal movements o f the p l a t f o r m at the time o f skirt insertion.
However, such base projecting elements may be exposed t o high loads, and have t o be carefully
instrumented t o ensure no overstressing. The evaluation o f an instahation criterion i n terms o f
sea state that can be accepted f o r instahation w i h n o r m a l l y include the determination o f :
(i) environmental loads on the p l a t f o r m as a f u n c t i o n o f the sea state, ( i i ) structure and soil
capacity whichever is a m i n i m u m . I t e m ( i ) has been determined b y model tests and dynamic
analysis (Figure 4.1). This approach seems promising, as good agreement between f i e l d obser-
vations and predictions is obtained. The load c o n t r i b u t i o n f r o m w i n d , current and tugs has
also to be considered.

60
Table 4 . 1 . Concrete p l a t f o r m s i n the N o r t h Sea

North Sea Structure Site data Ease

Installations
Grouting through the Experience
Type Name Operator Year Water Foundation Slab Skirts Dowels
Installed depth soil base
m

Doris Ekofisk tank PhiUips 1973 70 Dense fine sand Flat 0.4 m None No Pore pressure Skidding during
A = 7400 rr? concrete ribs probes touch down

Condeep Beryl A MobU 1975 120 Dense find sand Conical domes 3.0 m steel 3 85% fully baUasted Pore pressure High differential
over clay A = 6200 m2 0.5 m concrete before grouting probes. skirt penetration
Settlement resistance
casing
Deep drainage Flat seafloor
weUs

Condeep Brent B SheU 1975 140 Stiff clay Conical domes 4.0 m steel 3 FuUy baUasted before Pore pressure High differential
interbedded sand A = 6200 0.5 m concrete grouting probes skirt penetration
Settlement resistance
casing Flat seafloor
Deep drainage
weUs

Doris Frigg CDPl Elf 1976 98 Dense fine sand Flat, ringshaped None None No Pore pressure —
A = 5600 m^ probes.
Settlement casing

Sea Tank Frigg TPl Elf 1976 104 Dense find sand Flat 2.0 m concrete None 50% fully ballasted Fore pressure High differential skirt
over clay A = 5600 rrP before grouting probe penetration
resistance
Sloping seafloor 1/100

Doris Frigg- Total 1976 94 Dense find sand Flat, ringshaped None None No Not known —
Scotland Manifold A = 5600m2

Condeep Brent D SheU 1976 140 Stiff clay Conical domes 4.5 m steel 3 75% fuUy baUasted Pore pressure Significant differential
interbedded sand A = 6300 m2 0.5 m concrete before grouting probes skirt penetration
Settlement resistance.
casing. Deep Flat seafloor
drainage weUs

Condeep Statfjord A MobU 1977 145 Stiff clay Conical domes 3.0 m steel 3 75% fully baUasted Pore pressure Low contact stresses
A = 7800 m2 0.5 m concrete before grouting probes on the domes
Settlement casing

Andoc Dunlin A SheU 1977 153 Stiff clay Flat 4.0 m steel 4 35% fuUy baUasted Pore pressure Low differential skirt
interbedded sand A = 10 600 m^ before grouting probes penetration resistance

Condeep Frigg TCP2 Elf 1977 102 Dense fine sand Conical domes 1.2 m steel 3 55% fuUy baUasted Pore pressure High differential skirt
over clay A = 9300 0.5 m concrete before grouting probes penetration resistance
Sloping seafloor 1/100

Doris Ninian Chevron 1973 136 Stiff clay Flat 3.75 m steel None — Not known —
interbedded sand A = 15 400

Sea Tank Brent C Shell 1978 140 Stiff clay Flat 3.0 m concrete None — Pore pressure —
interbedded sand A = ID 300 m^ probes

Sea Tank Comorant A SheU 1978 150 Stiff clay Flat 3.0 m concrete None 50% fully baUasted Pore pressure —
interbedded sand A = 9700m^ before grouting probes
Settlement casing
 £ E
Dowel capacity Variation in
skirt water
pressure Ap
Limitation in
operation of
i
c
03
Ü
c
Acceptable
installation
conditions

Zero upcrossing period Zero upcrossing period

sec Tz sec

Figure 4.] Sea state conditions f o r Figure 4.2: Variation i n skirt water pressure
installation. caused b y over-turning m o m e n t
f r o m sea state.

When determining the utlimate lateral soil resistance against dowels or other base projecting
elements, due consideration must be given t o the rate o f loading, especially when the seafloor
consists o f dense silt and sand w h i c h dhates. The difference i n u l t i m a t e soil resistance may be
dramatic f o r this material, depending on the rate o f d e f o r m a t i o n . Therefore o n l y correct i n p u t
values on p l a t f o r m movements at t o u c h d o w n can lead to realistic predictions.

Accelerometer readings during this phase have been carried out o n some p l a t f o r m s . The results
may vastly increase our knowledge about p l a t f o r m movements.

Experience f r o m installation o f structures not provided w i t h dowels or skirts indicate that some
horizontal skidding has taken place at the t o u c h d o w n phase.

4.4 Skirt penetration

Items o f importance during this phase o f the instahation are m a i n l y :

D i f f e r e n t i a l skirt water pressures and piping problems.

Necessary bahasting capacity to penetrate the p l a t f o r m skirt system vertically t o desired depth,
including the case o f n o n - u n i f o r m skirt penetration resistance.

Capacity o f skirts and sohs t o resist horizontal loading f r o m sea state.

4.4.1 Differential water pressure across skirts

Experience has shown that piping may occur during the skirt penetration phase. The bahasting
system including evacuation o f skirt water has therefore t o be designed w i t h this i n m i n d . Careful
control o f the d i f f e r e n t i a l water pressure across skirts and regulation o f the rate o f ballasting
accordingly is necessary t o l i m i t piping.

During the first stage o f skirt penetration the cyclic overturning moments f r o m environmental
forces w i l l cause varying water pressure i n the skirt compartments as illustrated i n Figure 4.2.

I n general, however, ah e f f o r t s should be made to avoid hydraulic instabilities. Piping along the
skirts may jeopardize the possibility o f applying suction and over-pressure i n skirt compartments
in order to correct f o r t i l t , and i t may also comphcate grouting and influence the f i n a l stabhity.

4.4.2 Skirt penetration resistance

The predictions o f skirt penetration resistance have to a great extent been based on cone pene-
t r a t i o n test results, correlated t o experience f r o m onshore phe loading tests. F o r steel skirts i n
dense sand and s t i f f clays, the observed t o t a l penetration resistance has been o f the order
10-40% less than predicted. W i t h all the observations n o w at hand i t w i l l , however, be possible
to improve the correlation factors o n b o t h point resistance and wah f r i c t i o n f o r this t y p e o f
skirt. F o r concrete skirts the experience so far is m u c h more l i m i t e d , as o n l y one structure w i t h
2 m deep concrete skirts is installed. I n this case, the t i p resistance seems t o yield a f r i c t i o n

62
 angle o f approximately 4 0 ° i n the dense fine sand when utihzing a bearing capacity f o r m u l a .
This f r i c t i o n angle corresponds reasonably well w i t h laboratory test results.

For short concrete skirts w i t h extended steel skirts, the penetration resistance o n the concrete
skirts has been less than expected, due t o erosion taking place at an early stage o f skirt
penetration. Erosion trenches have been observed f r o m submarine inspections.

Substantial uneven skirt penetration resistance over the p l a t f o r m area has been experienced.
This is mainly caused by variation i n thickness o f dense t o p sand or gravel layers. The possibhity
o f facing a large eccentricity on skirt penetration resistance has to be evaluated. A great number
o f cone tests may prove t o the best base f o r this judgement.

The ballasting system must be capable o f o f f s e t t i n g this eccentricity f o r level penetration. A

sloping seafloor may also add to the required eccentric bahasting. W i t h a h o r i z o n t a l seafloor, an
eccentricity o f 10% o f the base diameter has been experienced at almost f u h penetration depth.
W i t h the seafloor sloping 1% an eccentricity o f 25% o f the base diameter has been necessary eariy
in the penetration stage t o keep the p l a t f o r m level.

I n addition to eccentric bahasting, the t i l t o f the p l a t f o r m can t o a certain extent be adjusted b y

regulating the pressures w i t h i n the skirt compartments. Under- and over- pressure can be apphed
in such a way that i t adds to the eccentricity f r o m ballast water. Allowable over- and under-
pressure should be clearly stated i n the installation manual. Beside the risk o f piping, softening
o f clays may take place when the effective stresses are reduced. Ahowable d i f f e r e n t i a l water
pressure w i t h i n the skirt compartments should therefore be given w i t h limitations i n magnitude
and time.

The skirt w i h continue to penetrate somewhat after the loading is stopped. This is due to relax-
ation and w i h be d i f f e r e n t f o r d i f f e r e n t types o f sohs. The bahasting must therefore be termin-
ated w i t h sufficient margin f o r this f i n a l penetration i n order n o t t o overstress the slab or other
elements.

4.4.3 Skirt and soil capacity for horizontal loads

The f o l l o w i n g t w o items have t o be assessed:

H o r i z o n t a l loads acting o n the p l a t f o r m , as a f u n c t i o n o f sea state (Figure 4.3).

Skirt and soh capacity, t o withstand h o r i z o n t a l loads as a f u n c t i o n o f penetration depth (Figure

(Figure 4.4.).

As the skirts penetrate, the resonance frequency is changed and due consideration has t o be
given t o this when assessing the loads. The effect o f cyclic loadings must be taken i n t o account
f o r the soil capacity.

to
c
O

-O
to
O

c (.^ structural
IO
skirt capacity
I
Soil
capacity

Zero upcrossing period Skirt penetration, m

Tz sec

Figure 4.3: H o r i z o n t a l force acting on Figure 4.4: Soil and skirt capacity at
the p l a t f o r m as a f u n c t i o n d i f f e r e n t penetration depths.
o f sea state.

63
 /
/

Y/////(//^//^/////^^r^^^<'^'//l^^l/q Doris
Ekofisl< tank

Condeep Beryl A
Brent B Brent D

y ^ <' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ <' ^ <''' ^ t' ^ <i// / / / / / / / / / / / ,

Doris
Frigg CDP1 Frigg-Scotland Manifold

' / / / / / / / / /
/ / / / / / / / / / • Sea Tank
if Frigg TP1

•— Condeep
Frigg TCP 2

A
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / Doris
// /

Ninian

/ / / / / / Sea Tank
Brent C Cormorant A

Om 20m 40m 60m

I _J I

Figure 4.5: B o t t o m sections o f concrete platforms i n tlie N o r t h Sea.

Base contact

The base and skirt configurations f o r the d i f f e r e n t p l a t f o r m s are ihustrated i n Figure 4.5.

Three d i f f e r e n t design principles seem t o be relevant:

The base structure is designed f o r the most unfavourable loads compatible w i t h soh conditions
and seabed topography.
The b o t t o m structure is designed f o r a certain contact pressure, and earth pressure cehs and
strain gauges make i t possible to ensure that bahasting is terminated before any critical contact
pressure develops.
The b o t t o m slab is n o t intended t o contact the seafloor. I n this case the distance between the
b o t t o m slab and the seafloor has t o be measured very accurately.

64
Installations o f structures designed according to the second principle mentioned have so f a r been
successful. The instrumentation f o r measuring contact pressures and stresses has f u n c t i o n e d
perfectly o n the five Condeep Platforms, and it was possible t o stop bahasting at an o p t i m u m
penetration depth. Reasonably good agreement between observed and predicted contact
pressures has also been obtained. W i t h all the observation data at hand i t w h l however be
possible t o improve the calculation methods.

When applying the t h i r d principle mentioned one must be prepared to stop at less ballast-water
i f the skirt penetration resistance is smah compared to the t o t a l p l a t f o r m weight. Strong
concrete skirts extending somewhat below the slab may however improve the situation.

The base o f the structure is very costly and, i f the design parameters have to be assessed very
conservatively due to lack o f i n f o r m a t i o n , it may have great consequences f o r the project.
Results o f detailed site investigation should therefore be avahable at an early stage i n design.

Grouting

Grouting o f the space between the seafloor and the base o f the structure is carried o u t t o :

Keep the p l a t f o r m level;

A v o i d piping f r o m water pockets below the structure;

A v o i d overstressing o f any structural element;

A v o i d f u r t h e r skirt penetration;

Secure an even soil reaction force on the base.

The grouting is especially i m p o r t a n t when the seafloor is uneven or sloping. I t requires that the
base is equipped w i t h penetrating skirts w h i c h divide the base area i n t o separate compartments.
Each compartment has sufficient pipes f o r grouting and t o exhaust the entrapped sea water.

The grout-filling processes have, f o r the latest instahed p l a t f o r m s i n the N o r t h Sea, been based
on gravity f l o w . The grout density has been o f the order 12 to 13 k N / m ^ .

The grout should f u l f i l the f o h o w i n g requirements:

Strength and compression characteristics n o t less than those o f the supporting soh (28-day
compressive strengths have been o f the order 500 to 1500 k N / m ^ ) . Bleeding preferably less
than 2%.
Low'heat emission to avoid high temperature gradient i n the concrete structures (less than
20°C).
Time t o i n i t i a l set n o t less than 6-8 hours.
L o w viscosity i n order t o obtain a high f i l l i n g rate.
High sweep efficiency i n displacing sea water w i t h i n the compartments. L i t t l e m i x i n g o f grout
and sea water.
As l i t t l e d r y material as possible f o r cost and storage reasons.

On the evacuation side, t w o d i f f e r e n t systems have been applied. I n one case the exhaust pipes
are terminated and the grout emerges into the sea at a certain elevation, w i t h o u t any possibility
t o check the quahty o f the grout at this end. I n d i c a t i o n o f when the grout is flowing up the
exhaust pipe and i n t o the sea is obtained b y measuring an increased pressure i n the skirt
compartment. I n a d d i t i o n , the calculated theoretical volume o f the compartment should be
compared w i t h the amount o f injected grout ( f l o w meter).

I n the other system, w h i c h gives better c o n t r o l o f the grouting, the exhaust pipes pass a check
point where samples can be taken f r o m t i m e to time, u n t h the quality o f the grout is acceptable.
Check o n skirt pressure and grout volume is included.

Ahowable skirt pressure should be given i n the p l a t f o r m grouting manual. The criterion is to
avoid piping, and skirt pressure may be increased during the grouting process as the seafloor i n
the compartment is covered w i t h grout. T i l t o f the structure due t o an eccentric u p l i f t force
has to be checked.

65
 Whether f u h bahasting can be obtained before grouting depends on the t i l t o f the p l a t f o r m and
the stresses i n the base. The order i n w h i c h the d i f f e r e n t skirt compartments are grouted is
determined so as to minimize the t i l t . T o t a l grouting time f o r recent p l a t f o r m s has been o f the
order o f 10 days f o r a grouting volume o f 5000 to 15 000 m ^ .

Some i n f o r m a t i o n about the d i f f e r e n t N o r t h Sea platforms is given i n Table 4 . 1 . So far, grouting

experience is good.

Further developments on the grouting technique may be related t o the retrieval and possible re-
use o f the p l a t f o r m at another location. I t may be possible to obtain a material w h i c h does n o t
adhere to the structure.

4.7 Installations through the base slab

When the p l a t f o r m has been installed and possible grouting is carried o u t , installations t h r o u g h
the base slab w i h have to be placed. These w h l include conductor installations, drhlings f o r deep
piezometers, deep settlement reference points and possible deep drainage wahs i n order to
improve the f o u n d a t i o n conditions.

Conductor tubes w i t h a diameter o f 0.76 m are n o r m a l l y installed t o a depth o f 50 to 80 m

below the seafloor. Piezometers are usually installed t o a depth o f approximately 20 m ,
settlements reference points to approximately 60 m and drainage wehs have been installed to
10-20 m depth.

Installation o f conductors w h i c h may include as many as 40-50 on one p l a t f o r m w h l take place

over several years. One o f the purposes o f the 0.76 m diameter conductors is to be able to
carry o u t deeper drilling w h h m u d return to deck level.

Pre-drihing f o r the conductors is normahy carried o u t w i t h sea water. Some over-pressure is

needed t o stabilize the hole, b u t the over-pressure must be kept w h h i n certain limits, i n order
n o t to cause hydraulic fracturing. I t is very i m p o r t a n t that the instahation is carried o u t i n such
a way that i t does not affect the f o u n d a t i o n soh i n an unfavourable manner.

The problems encountered may be connected to swelling i n s t i f f , overconsohdated clay w h i c h

reduces the diameter o f the pre-drihed hole, and i n sand an oversized hole may develop.

Critical f l u i d pressures f o r hydraulic fracturing should be evaluated theoreticahy o n the basis o f

the soh properties and compared i f test results and experiences are avahable f r o m the actual
location. So far, test results and theoretical calculations have been i n acceptable agreement.

A safe and efficient way to install conductors is essential. Due to the great height o f the drih
deck above the sea level, drill cuttings f o r the 0.76 m diameter conductors have been taken i n t o
the d r h l shaft when drilling is performed inside a shaft. The water level i n the shaft has to be
controhed to maintain acceptable gradients i n the subsoh. I t has been shown to be o f great
importance t o measure skirt water pressure during conductor installation.

4.8 Data acquisition system

A l l observation data should be made available immediately i n a visible way to those responsible
f o r the instahation. Usually a computer is utihzed i n the data processing. This makes i t possible
to present measured values, as well as calculated values, i n a convenient f o r m .

Example

Based on experience, the Condeep group has condensed all the i n f o r m a t i o n needed t o have the
f u l l perspective indicated on one sheet o f paper, called the Penetration Status.

The content o f this Status is as f o h o w s :

1. T o t a l weight o f bahast water sluiced i n t o the structure after t o u c h d o w n .

2. T o t a l u p l i f t force f r o m excess water pressure i n the skirt compartm.ent.
3. Increased tower buoyancy after t o u c h d o w n .
4. Sum o f dowel penetration resistances.
66
 5. Skirt penetration resistance (1-2-3-4).

6. A x i a l force i n each dowel

7. M i n i m u m safety factor f o r the most highly stressed dowel including bending and axial force.
8. Skirt water pressure i n the d i f f e r e n t skirt compartments compared to hydrostatic pressure.

9. M o m e n t and direction o f m o m e n t f r o m :

(a) Bahast water (c) A x i a l forces in dowels

(b) Skirt water pressure (d) Skirt penetration resistance

10. Inclination o f p l a t f o r m and direction o f t i l t .

11. Rate o f penetration i n metres per hour
12. Mean b o t t o m clearance i n relation to t i p o f dowels

13. B o t t o m clearance at each echo-sounder

14. Draught i n relation t o the different sea inlets

4.9 R E F E R E N C E S AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. A L L O C K , L.C.
Instahation o f Brent ' B ' concrete structure. Paper presented at the Offshore Europe '75
Conference, Aberdeen 1975. Paper OE-75 209. 1975.

2. B O O N , C , G O U V E N O T , D . , G A V , M . and G E F F R I A U D , J.P.
Stability o f gravhy-type platforms by f i h i n g under the r a f t . Proceedings oftlte Ninth O f f -
shore Technology Coriference, V o l . 4. Houston. 1977. pp. 39-44.

3. C L A U S E N , C.J.F., D I B I A G I O , E., D U N C A N , J.M. and A N D E R S E N , K .

Observed behaviour o f the Ekofisk o h storage tank f o u n d a t i o n . Proceedings of the Seventh
Offshore Technology Conference, V o l . 3. Houston, 1975. pp. 399-413. Also i n Norwegian
Geotechnical Insthute Publication 108, md Journal of Petroleum Technology, March
1976. pp. 329-336.

4. D I B I A G I O , E., M Y R V O L L , F. and H A N S E N , S.B.

Instrumentation o f gravity platforms f o r performance observations. BOSS '76. Proceedings
of the International Confereitce on the Behaviour of Offshore Structures, V o l . 1, T r o n d h e i m .
1976. pp. 516-527. Also i n Norwegian Geotechnical Insthute Pubhcation 114.

5. E I D E , O., L A R S E N , L . G . and MOS, O.

Instahation o f the Sheh/Esso Brent B Condeep p r o d u c t i o n p l a t f o r m . Proceedings of the
Eighth Offshore Techtiology Confereitce, V o l . 1. Houston, 1976. pp. 101-114. Also i n
Norwegian Geotechnical Institute Pubhcation 113, and Journal of Petroleum Technology,
March 1977. pp. 231-238.

6. F I E L D , S., B R A A T H E N , N . F . and H A N S V O L D , C.
Instahation o f offshore platforms: reflections f r o m a certification viewpoint. Proceedings
of the Ninth Offshore Technology Conferettce, V o l . 2. Houston, 1977. pp. 441-448.

7. H0EG, K . and T A N G , W.H.

Probabihstic considerations i n the f o u n d a t i o n engineering f o r offshore structures. Paper
presented at the Second International Conference on Structural Safety and Rehability,
M u n i c h , Germany, September 1977.

8. K L E I N , K . , D I B I A G I O , E. and M I C H A E L S E N , M .
A system f o r f u h scale measurements and continuous m o n i t o r i n g o f gravity p l a t f o r m s
behaviour i n the N o r t h Sea. Five papers presented at an I F A C / I F I P Sym.posium on O f f -
shore O h Field Operations. Bergen, 1976.

9. WERENSKOILD, K.
Maritime operations relative to the construction o f large concrete offshore structures.
Proceedings of a Conference on Design attd Cottstruction of Offshore Structures, London
1976. I n s t i t u t i o n o f Civh Engineers, pp. 97-105.
67
5. OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE OF CONCRETE PLATFOR^IS

5.1 Introduction

Since 1973 when the f o u n d a t i o n configurations o f the first N o r t h e r n N o r t h Sea o f f s h o r e concrete

gravity structures, Sheh's Brent B and Mobh's Beryl A were decided, 13 o f these structures have
been b u i l t and w i t h the instahation o f Brent C i n June 1978 ah are n o w at their seabed sites.
The f o u n d a t i o n performance has been m o n i t o r e d b y instrumentation f o r t w o winters i n an
industry sponsored project on Brent B , and i n less detah o n ah other platforms f o r certification
purposes.

Operational experience w i t h the foundations o f the platforms has been l i m i t e d t o instahation o f

conductors, drihing o f a smah number o f wells and observational f o u n d a t i o n performance f o r
at the most five years. Nevertheless, experience has had some influence o n the recommendations
f o r f u t u r e design, although this has been l i m i t e d b y the absence o f really testing environmental
conditions.

5.2 Conductor installation

A h structures are reported to be p e r f o r m i n g their f u n c t i o n s satisfactorily b u t d i f f i c u l t i e s i n

installing the well conductor pipes to the required depth have been experienced. Since ah o f the
structures are placed on generally hard or dense f o u n d a t i o n sohs, i t has been f o u n d necessary t o
mstah conductors by a combination o f drilling a p i l o t hole and lowering and driving the conductor.
Each o f the operators has evolved d i f f e r e n t techniques and, w i t h varying degrees o f success, has
attempted t o minimise the amount o f disturbance caused to the f o u n d a t i o n sohs. Experience of,
f o r example, wash-out w h i c h has occurred during conductor instahation beneath the drihing
shaft o f some gravity structures, despite care being taken to avoid i t , has emphasized the
importance o f providing skirts immediately surrounding the conductor areas, i n order t o restrict
the extent o f any loss o f base support. I n one case, a structure, although equipped w i t h a skirt
system, suffered sub-base erosion when temporary lowering o f the water level i n the drhling
shaft created a suction pressure beneath the structure w h i c h exceeded critical hmits.

Careful c o n t r o l o f drhling pressures has also been f o u n d necessary i n order to minimise

f o r m a t i o n fracture or excessive borehole cohapse w h i c h , although n o t particularly h u r t f u l
when drihing f r o m a semi-submersible, is unacceptable i n the f o u n d a t i o n sohs immediately
beneath a gravity structure.

During drilling operations on a number o f gravity p l a t f o r m s , the instrumentation provided f o r

use during p l a t f o r m installation has proved useful i n ensuring that design limits were n o t
exceeded, and i n the case where sub-base erosion during drilling t o o k place, provided the o n l y
means o f assessing its extent.

P l a t f o r m designers should undoubtedly take account o f the above factors and most i m p o r t a n t l y ,
provide a m i n i m u m penetration i n t o virgin f o u n d a t i o n soh o f an impermeable skirt surrounding
the conductor areas. The required penetration should be decided f r o m considerations o f the
pressures t o be resisted, the soil conditions and the overah p l a t f o r m structural skirt system.
Platform base and soil f o u n d a t i o n instrumentation should be provided and carefully m o n i t o r e d
and results should be assessed during conductor instahation. P l a t f o r m base design might assume,
f o r example, that contact w i t h the soh i n the conductor areas may either be lost, or alternatively,
significantly increased locally b y the ' s t i f f group o f conductors, wehs and surrounding grout
w h i c h w i h have less settlement than the f o u n d a t i o n soh and p l a t f o r m .

5.3 Foundation performance

Assumptions about f o u n d a t i o n behaviour made i n the original designs are i n general being con-
f i r m e d and knowledge o f the f u n d a m e n t a l matters o f overah p l a t f o r m stabhity, settlement, soh
f o u n d a t i o n pore pressure, and dynamic m o t i o n s is i m p r o v i n g w i t h results o f the analysis o f
measurements f r o m instrumentation instahed on virtuahy ah gravity platforms. O n one p l a t f o r m ,
instrumentation has predicted design wave mudline displacements, significantly less than those
chosen conservatively f o r pipeline connection design.

Observations have c o n f i r m e d that pore pressure buhd-up results f r o m repeated loading o f the
soh f o u n d a t i o n . The magnitude has so far given no cause f o r concern, being weh w i t h i n

68
 conservative design assumptions, and tliere are indications tliat, as tlie soil becomes more consoli-
dated w i t h t i m e , pore pressure b u i l d up becomes less.

Settlement records indicate that most o f the primary consolidation i n clay layers under, f o r
example, the Brent B p l a t f o r m t o o k place i n the t o p 15 m o f the seabed and w h h i n 10 months.
A smah secondary settlement is taking place at Brent B b u t so far no 'shakedown' settlement
(rapidly occurring i n m a j o r storms) has been observed on any p l a t f o r m except the E k o f i s k
Tank. I t is, however, suspected that the 4 cm settlement w h i c h occurred i n one day i n 1973 at
Ekofisk may possibly have been as a resuh o f f u r t h e r penetration o f the concrete ribs attached
t o its ungrouted base.

However, forces equivalent to only about 35 t o 45% o f those predicted f o r the design c o n d i t i o n
have so far been experienced on Brent B and deductions made about the f o u n d a t i o n behaviour
o f this and other p l a t f o r m s must necessarily be reserved. The design o f criticahy affected
appurtenances such as wellhead f l o w l i n e , pipeline connection and conductor design therefore
should sthl account f o r a p l a t f o r m settlement gradually occurring over the first year and an
accelerated settlement w h i c h may occur over a number o f hours. Choice o f the magnhudes o f
these settlements and movements can o n l y be a matter f o r the individual designer, taking into
account the changing state o f the art as evidenced b y recent measured data f r o m p l a t f o r m s .

The operator's conductor and well design should, i n a d d i t i o n t o taking account o f m o t i o n s and
settlements o f the structure and f o u n d a t i o n soh w h i c h induce displacements and forces i n the
weh, also account f o r those induced b y o h or gas temperature as m o d i f i e d by the f o u n d a t i o n .

The design o f pipeline connections is being approached i n t w o d i f f e r e n t ways. Some operators

design spool pieces attached at each end w i t h f i x e d flanges on the caisson or external riser,
other make extensive use o f pipeline pull-in tunnels i n the caisson, whereby excessive pipeline
forces are dealt w i t h b y assumption that they w i h cause the line t o snake on the seabed.

The cost o f conservatism i n the prediction o f the design parameters is considerable and any
improvements arising f r o m recent or f u t u r e measured data w i h be o f great benefit.

5.4 Use of instrumentation for performance monitoring

Whhe a reduction i n c e r t i f y i n g a u t h o r i t y requirements may occur after a number o f years o f

operation o f the early p l a t f o r m s , the basic m i n i m u m instrumentation today f o r assessment o f
overah f o u n d a t i o n safety is settlement, soh pore pressure and caisson motions (acceleration
m o n h o r i n g ) . Some operators and contractors have added to this significant instrumentation o f
the base w h i c h has proved vital f o r careful c o n t r o l during instahation o f the p l a t f o r m and
important f o r measurement o f the effects o f drilling operators. These factors emphasize the
importance o f careful consideration at an early stage o f the amount and type o f instrumentation
t o be provided. M o n h o r i n g systems capable o f providing p l a t f o r m personnel w h h simple read-
out i n engineering unhs f o r comparison w h h alarm l i m h s have n o t yet been successfully
commissioned f o r the operators planning this type o f control. Settlements are being observed o n
virtually ah presently installed platforms, b u t i n a number o f cases the records are incomplete,
particularly f o r the months f o h o w i n g p l a t f o r m instahation.

5.5 Seabed scour

Out o f the 13 p l a t f o r m s installed t o date, scour has only been experienced i n one case. This was
a square p l a t f o r m n o t provided w i t h scour p r o t e c t i o n and f o u n d e d o n sand. The p l a t f o r m
suffered scour during the first w i n t e r o n l o c a t i o n , whereas a r o u n d p l a t f o r m instahed on a simhar
seabed and n o t provided w h h scour p r o t e c t i o n has n o t been similarly affected. The Christchurch
Bay research tower, installed on the south coast o f England i n shahow water, suffered severe
scour on a sand f o u n d a t i o n as a resuU o f p u m p i n g action at the base exacerbated b y hs lack o f
skirts. However no p l a t f o r m f o u n d e d o n a seabed w i t h significant clay layers has yet suffered
scour even t h o u g h n o t provided w i t h scour protection.

5.6 Operational records

A questionnaire has been circulated t o the operating companies on the 13 presentiy instahed
concrete structures i n the N o r t h Sea. A summary o f the i n f o r m a t i o n provided, relating to
purpose, conductor instahation experience, f o u n d a t i o n performance m o n i t o r i n g , pipeline
connections and seabed scour is given i n Tables 5.1—5.13.

69
Table 5 . 1 .

Platform name: Ekofisk Tank Installed: June 1973 Operator: Phillips Petroleum Company, London.

Platform purpose Primary: gas process plant, including compression

Secondary: oil storage (1 million barrels)
General data
No. of wells None

Installation method Not applicable

Setting depth (ft) Not applicable

Conductor
Installation Number installed Not applicable
(February 1978)

Experience Not applicable

Measurements To Autumn '73: settlements by levelling, tilt, pore pressure

accelerations. Currently—settlements measured by levelling
Foundation from adjacent platform
performance
monitoring Logging in 1973 only

% Successful recording

Pipeline Number/sizes None

connections
Means of connection Not applicable

Seabed soil type Dense silty fine sand

Seabed scour
Scour protection placed Plastic filter sheet with rocks on top

Occurrence of scour No

Table 5.2.

Platform name: Beryl A Installed: July 1975 Operator: Mobil North Sea Ltd., London.

Platform purpose Drilling and production

General data
No. of wells 40

Instahation method Drill ahead/lowering sequence

Conductor Setting depth (ft) + 60 metres

installation
Number installed (June 1978) 39

Experience Driving attempted but abandoned in favour of drilling and

lower sequences—Major washout beneath base necessitated
regrouting.

Measurements Settlement, pore pressures, accelerations, base contact stress

Foundation and base reinforcement strain (during conductor installation).
performance
monitoring Logging Manual to October 1977. Magnetic tape since.

% Successful recording 75%

Number/sizes 36 in. and 6 in.

Pipeline
connections Means of connection 36 in. hyperbaric weld
6 in. flanged

Seabed soil type 8-10 m dense silty sand overlying hard clay

Seabed scour Scour protection placed Yes

Occurrence of scour No

70
Table 5.3.

Platform name: Brent B Installed: August 1975 Operator: Shell UK Exploration and Production.
London.

Platform purpose Drihing and production

General data
No. of wells 38

Instahation method Drill ahead/lower sequence with final drive

Conductor Setting depth (ft) ± 4 5 metres

installation
Number installed (June 1978) 38

Experience Change of base support under drilling shafts measured by

instrumentation in base which was monitored during
conductor installation.

Measurements Pore pressures, base contact stress, settlements, lateral

displacement, tilt, dynamic motion. Recording 20 min/
Foundation 3 hours during winter months for 2 years as part of
performance research project.
monitoring
Logging By mini-computer with operator to March '77. Then
manual, with automatic system planned.

% Successful recording 90%

Number/sizes 1 No. each of 16, 24, 30 in. and 2 No. 26 in.

Pipeline
connections Means of connection Bolted flanges to external risers with bends in line on
seabed out from platform.

Seabed soil type Silty fine sand over stiff clay with sand layers.

Seabed scour Scour protection placed No

Occurrence of scour No

Table 5.4.

Platform name: Frigg CDPl Installed: September 1975 Operator: ELF Aquhaine Norge A/S,
Stavanger.

Platform purpose Drilhng and production (Gas)

General data
No. of wells 24

Installation method DriU hole to fuU depth and lower with driving

Conductor Setting depth (ft) 35-42 metres

installation
Number installed (June 78) 24

Experience Used special mud to hold hole open into which 26 in.
diameter conductors were lowered and driven.

Measurements Currently; hydrostatic pressure beneath slab, dynamic

motions, settlement by optical leveUing. Planned; deep pore
Foundation pressure, settlement and lateral movement using X-ray
performance markers in borehole
monitoring
Logging Magnetic tape (20 min every 3 hours)

% Successful recording (Not known)

Number/sizes 2 X 26 in. diameter

Pipeline
connections
Means of connection Through pull-in tunnels

Seabed soil type Dense sand

Seabed scour Scour protection placed No

Occurrence of scour No

71
Table 5.5.

Platform name: Frigg TPl Installed: June 1976 Operator: ELF Aquitaine Norge A/S,
Stavanger

Platform purpose Gas treatment platform

_ 1 J X
General data
No. of weUs None

Installation method Not applicable

Setting depth (ft) Not applicable

Conductor
installation Number instahed Not apphcable
(February 1978)

Experience Not applicable

Measurements Accelerations, tilt,-settlement (by optical leveUing)

Foundation Logging Magnetic tape (20 mins every 3 hours)

performance
monitoring % Sccessful recording Not known

Number/sizes 32 in., 2 X 26 in., 24 in. (welded), 8 in. and 4 in. (flanged)

Pipline Future: 32 in. and 24 in. (welded)
Connections
Means of coimection Through pull-in tunnels

Seabed soil type Dense sand

Seabed scour Scour protection placed No (planned 1978)

Occurrence of scour Yes (1/4 metres at corners)

Table 5.6.

Platform name: MCPOl Installed: June 1976 Operator: Total Oil Marine Ltd., London.

Platform purpose Intermediate manifold on Frigg pipehne in block 14/9

General data
No. of wehs None

Installation method Not applicable

Setting depth (ft) Not applicable

Conductor
installation Number instahed Not applicable
(February 1978)

Experience Not applicable

Measurements Riser stresses Water pressure under Platform settlement

slab, platform (differential pressure
dynamic motions gauge)
Foundation
performance Logging Hard copy-teleprinter

% Successful recording 80% 15-20% 0%

Number/sizes 4 No. sealed atmospheric connections at base of structure

with encastré anchor in each riser tunnel
Pipeline
connections Means of connection Caisson seal connections, (settlement and rocking
accounted for in design).

Seabed soil type Coarse sand

Seabed scour Scour protection placed Anti-scour mats

Occurrence of scour Some deposition

72
Table 5.7.

Platform name: Brent D Installed: M y 1976 Operator: Shell UK Exploration and

Production

Platform purpose DriUing and production

General data
No. of wells 48

InstaUation method As Brent B

Conductor Setting depth ( f t ) 105 metres

instahation
Number instaUed (June 1978) 24

Experience As Brent B

Measurements Settlement, soU pore water pressure, dynamic motions,

base contact stress and base reinforcement strain (during
Foundation Logging conductor instaUation).
performance
monitoring % Successful recording 90%

Number/sizes 1 No. 24 in., 1 No. 20 in.

Pipehne
connections As Brent B
Means of connection

Seabed soU type Silty fme sand over stiff clay with sand layers

Seabed scour Scour protection placed No

Occurrence of scour No

Table 5.8.

Platform name: Statfjord A Installed: May 1977 Operator: Mobil Exploration Norway, Inc.

Platform purpose Drihing and production

General data
No. of wells 42

Installation method Drill and drive 30 in. conductor (threaded connections)

Conductor Setting depth ( f t ) 90 metres below seabed

instaUation
Number installed (June 78) None (planned to start 20 June 78)

Experience None

Measurements Settlement, pore pressure, dynamic motions, base contact

Foundation stress and base reinforcement strain.
performance
monitoring Logging Installation recording system and manual, magnetic tape
planned for permanent system.

% Successful recording 100%

Number/sizes One 36 in. SPM oU line

Pipeline
connections
Means of connection Flanged connection

Seabed soü type Thin sand (2-10 cm) overlying stiff clay
Seabed scour
Scour protection placed None

Occurrence of scour No

73
Table 5.9.

Platform name: Dunlin A Installed: May 1977 Operator: Shell UK Exploration and
Production, London.

Platform purpose DriUing and production

General data
No. of wells 48

InstaUation method DrUl ahead, lower and drive sequence

Setting depth (ft) 140 metres

Conductor
instahation Number instahed (June 78) 7

Experience Two conductors met refusal before setting depth

reached owing to driving beyond pre-driUed hole.

Measurements Settlement, deep and shaUow pore pressure,

Foundation accelerations
performance
monitoring Logging Manual for settlement, chart recorder for pore water
pressure with automatic data acquisition planned.

% Successful recording 90%

Pipehne Number/sizes 1 No. 24 in., 1 No. 16 in.

connections
Means of connection As Brent B

Seabed soU type Dense fine to coarse sand (0-2 m thick) overlying
very stiff silty clay
Seabed scour
Scour protection placed No

Occurrence of scour No

Table 5.10.

Platform name: Frigg TCP2 InstaUed: June 1977 Operator; Elf Aquitaine Norge A/S, Stavanger.

Platform purpose Gas treatment and compression

General data
No. of weUs None

Installation method Not applicable

Conductor Setting depth (ft) Not applicable

installation
Number instaUed Not applicable
(February 1978)

Experience Not applicable

Measurements Pore pressure, settlement and horizontal displacement

planned: wave pressure, base reinforcement strains,
Foundation platform dynamic motions
performance
monitoring Logging — magnetic tape (20 min/3 hours)
— settlement by analogue (paper record)

% Successful recording Not in operation

Number/sizes 1 No. 32 in. diameter, 2 No. 26 in. diameter (welded),

Pipeline 8 in. and 4 in. (flanged).
connections Future: 24 in., 20 in., 18 in., 16 in. (welded).

Means of connection Connected through puU-in tunnels

Seabed soU type 4 m dense fine sand overlying interbedded sand and
stiff clay

Seabed scour Scour protection placed No

Occurrence of scour No

74
Table 5 . 1 1 .

Hatform name: Ninian Central Installed: May 1978 Operator: Chevron Petroleum (UK) Ltd.,
London.

Platform purpose DrUling production

General data
No. of weUs 42

Installation method DriU and drive

Conductor Setting depth (ft) Approx. 40 m

Installation
Number instaUed (June 1978) None

Experience

Measurements Vertical and horizontal settlement, dynamic motions,

pore pressure at skirt tips (to be installed).
Foundation
performance Logging Data acquisition system

% Successful recording

Number/sizes 11 risers; 36 in., 24 in., 16 in. connected June 1978.

Pipeline
connections Bolted flanges
Means of connection

Seabed soÜ type 0.5 m sUty clay overlying dense sand and stiff clay layers
Seabed scour
Scour protection placed No

Occurrence of scour

Table 5.12.

Platform name: Cormorant A InstaUed: May 1978 Operator: SheU UK Exploration and
Production, London.

Platform purpose DriUing and production

General data
No. of wells 36

InstaUation method DrUl ahead, then lower and drive

Conductor Setting depth (ft) Approx. 100 m

instaUation
Number instaUed (June 1978) None

Experience

Measurements Pore pressure, short and long term settlement,

Foundation accelerations
performance
monitoring Logging Manual settlement from date of instaUation, data
acquisition system planned in July 1978

% Successful recording

Number/sizes 1 No. 24 in., 1 No. 30 in., 1 No. 36 in.

Pipeline
connections
Means of connection As Brent B

Seabed soU type Stiff clay

Seabed scour Scour protection placed No

Occurrence of scour No

75
Table 5.13.

Platform name: Brent C Installed: June 1978 Operator: SheU UK Exploration and
Produchon, London.

Platform purpose DriU and production

General data
No. of wells 48

InstaUation method DriU ahead then lower and drive

Conductor Setting depth (ft) Approx. 100 m

instaUation
Number instaUed (June 1978) None

Experience -

Measurements Pore pressure, accelerations, settlement

Foundation
performance Logging Data acquisition system
monitoring
% Successful recording Not yet applicable

Pipeline Number/sizes 1 No. 20 in., 2 No. 24 in., 2 No. 30 in.

connections
Means of connection (As Brent B)

Seabed soU type Silty fine sand over stiff clay with sand layers

Seabed scour Scour protection placed No

Occurrence of scour -

REFERENCES

1. C O R B E T T , J.S.
Drihing f r o m deepwater concrete gravity platforms. Paper presented at Offshire Europe '77,
Aberdeen, Society o f Petroleum Engineers 7 . 6 6 8 9 . 1 . 1977.

2. D I B I A G I O , E., M Y R V O L L , F. and H A N S E N , S.B.

Instrumentation o f gravity platforms f o r performance observation. BOSS '76. Proceedings of
tire International Conference on Beltaviour of Offshore Structures, T r o n d h e i m , 1976.

3. FOSS, I .
Instrumentation f o r operation surveillance o f gravity structures. BOSS '76, Proceedings of the
International Conference on Behaviour of Offshore Structures, T r o n d h e i m , 1976.

76