2 Engineering Mechanics

1.1
INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICS
Engineering Mechanics, is the science that describes and
forces predicts the effect of
on
objects
either at rest or in motion. It
includes the transmission of
forces, liow they are carried
upon the nature of the internally and the motion they
produce. Depending
body involved, Mechanics can be further classified nto:
Mechanics of solids
Mechanics of fluids
as shown in
Fig. 1.1.
Engineering Mechanics

Mechanics of Solids Mechanics of Fluidss

Rigid Bodies Ideal Fluids

|. Viscous Fluids
Statics Kinematics |.Compressible Fluids|
DynamicsKinetics

Deformable bodies
Strength of Materials
Theory of Elasticity
Theory of Plasticity

Figure 1.1 Engineering mechanics and its classification

The study and the analysis of rigid bodies is dealt with in detail in this
chapter.
1.2 DEFINITIONS

Statics is the study of distribution and effect of forces on rigid bodies

which are at rest and remain at rest.
Dynamics is the study of motion of rigid bodies and their correlation
with the forces causing them.
Kinematics is the study of motion of bodies without any reference to
the forces causing motion or forces produced as a result of the motion.
 rouUCilon

Kinetics is the study of the

sulting motion.
relationship between the forces and the re-

Mechanics of deformable bodies is the study dealing with internal

force distribution and the deformation
and machine components. It is developed
in actual engineering struc
tures also popularly known as
materials mechanics of materials.
or strength of
Fluid mechanics is the study of liquids and gases (fluids) at rest or in
motion.

A brief history of mechanics is described in

Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 History of Mechanics
Scientist Areas of Development
Aristotle (384-322 B.C) Lever, Centre of gravity, Mechanics
Archimedes (287-212 B.C)
Galileo (1564-1642)
Buoyancy
Mathematical analysis, Experimentation
Kepler (1571-1630) Planetary motion, Foundation for modern
Astronomy, Kepler's laws
Newton (1642-1727) Newton's laws, Newtonian mechanics
Bernoulli (1667-1748) Principle of virtual work
Euler (1707-1783) Consolidated Newtonian mechanics, Rigid
bodies, Moment of inertia
Euler, Lagrange (1736-1813) Variational mechanics, Force, Energy,
Momentum
D'Alembert (1717-1783) Dynamic equilibrium
Einstein (1878-1955) Theory of Relativity
Planck (1858-1943) & Quantum mechanics
Bohr (1885-1962)

1.3 IDEALISATION IN MECHANICs

Bach body is made up of atoms and molecules. Since the behaviour of atoms
and molecules are too complex to deal with, the matter is assumed to be con-
tinuously distributed and hence it is used to study the measurable behaviour.
Such a description of matter is called a continuum. A continuum may be rigid
or deformable depending upon the assumptions made.

1.3.1 Rigid Body

It represents the definite amount of matter, the parts of which are fixed in position
relative to one another. Actually, the bodies are not rigid, they deform under
4O Engineering Mechanics

force. If the deformation is negligible when compared with the size of the body,
it is assumed to be rigid. Thus, it gives the mathematical model of the body.

1.3.2 Particle
distances
A body whose dimensions are negligible when compared with the
or the length involved in the discussion of its motion is called a particle.
denotes a body in which all the
For mathematical descriptions, a particle
materials are concentrated at a point.
consid-
while studying the motion of sun and earth, they are
For example,
ered as particles since their dimensions are
small when compared with the
distance between them.

1.4 BASIC CONCEPTs

Space is used to fix the position of a point in relation to a reference point

known as Origin.
Time is used to measure the sequence of events.
Mass is used as a measure of inertia or resistance to change its state (of rest
or motion) of a body. It is essential to distinguish the behaviour of two bodies
under the action of same force.
Force is essential because it changes or tends to change the state of rest or
of uniform motion of body.
The force system can be classified as shown in Fig. 1.2.

Force System

Coplanar Non-coplanar|
(plane) (space)

Concurrent
Collinear
Parallel
Concurrent
Parallel Non-concurrent,
Non-concurrent, Non-parallel
Non-parallel
Figure 1.2 Force system
Various types of force systems are shown in Fig. 1.3.

F2
Fa F

(a) Coplanar-collinear (b) Coplanar-concurrent

F Fa Fa F FI Fa

(c) Coplanar-parallel (d) Coplanar-Non-concurrent

z
(e) Non-coplanar, concurrent () Non-coplanar, parallel forces

(g) Non-coplanar, non-concurrent

non-parallel
Figure 1.3 Types offorce system
6 Engineering Mechanics

The following characteristics of force systems are observed.

Table 1.2 Characteristics of Force Systems
SLNo. Force System Characteristics
lie on the
1 Coplanar forces Lines of action of all forces
same plane.
forces that do
Non-coplanar forces Lines of action of all
not lie on the same plane.
forces act along
3 Collinear Lines of action of all
the same line.
forces pass
Concurrent Lines of action of all
through a single point.
forces that are
5 Parallel Lines of action of all
parallel to each other.

1.5 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

The fundamental principles of mechanics are:

(1) three laws of motion.

Newton's
(2) Newton's law of gravitation
(3) Parallelogram law
(4) Principle of transmissibility.
They are defined as follows:

1.5.1 Newton's Laws of Motion

(a) Newton'sfirst law: Every body continues in its state of rest of uni- or
form motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled to change that
state by an external impressed force.
(b) Newtons second law: The rate of change of momentum of a body is
directly proportional to the force acting on it and takes place in the
direction of force.
If the resultant force acting on a particle is non-zero, the accelera-
tion of the particle will be proportional to the magnitude and direction
of the resultant force.
F ma (1.1)
(c) Newton's third law: To every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
i.e., the forces of action and reaction between the bodies in contact
have the same magnitude and line of action but opposite in direction.
 Introduction 7

1.5.2 Newton's Law of Gravitation

the
Two particles of mass m and my are attracted towards each other along
them with a force whose magnitude 'F" is proportional to
line connecting
the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance (r) between them.

Hence F=G"2 (1.2)

2
Where G is the universal constant or constant of
gravitation and its value is (66.73 +0.03) x 10-12 m/kgs2
Thus, a particle of mass "m lying on the surface of earth of
mass 'M and radius 'R° is attracted towards the earth by a m2
force, F which is given by, Figure 1.4

Fm GM (1.3)
R2
Thus, the weight of the particle is

W m1g (1.4)
and
8 CM
(1.5)
R
where R=6.378 x 10 m, M = 5.98 x 10* kg. The value of 'R in Eqn. 1.5
depends upon the elevation of the point considered. It also depends upon its
latitude, since the earth is not truly spherical. It is sufficiently accurate to
in most
assume engineering computations that g =981 m/s2.
1.5.3 Parallelogram Law
Two forces acting particle may be
on a
replaced by a single force, called
their resultant which can be obtained by drawing
diagonal of the parallelo-
gram, which has the sides equal to the given forces.
1.5.4 Principle of Transmissibility
The conditions of equilibrium or mo- B B F
tion of a rigid body remains, unchanged
if a force acting at a given point of the
A
rigid body is replaced by a force of same F
magnitude and direction, but acting at
a different point provided that the two Figure 1.5 Principle of
forces have the same line of action. transmissibility
 8 Engineering Mechanics

1.6 SYSTEM OF UNITSS

1oe
time, mass arnd
n e rour basic concepts in mechanics namelv, space,
which are related to each other by
(1.6)
F=ma

Force Mass x
Length
-
i.e., Time
The different systems of units are: a= 1 m/s2

(a) Centimetre-Gram-Second System (CGS) me11ka

m kg F=1 N.
(6) Foot-Pound-Second System (FPS)
1.6
(c) Metre-Kilogram-Second System (MKS) Figure
units)
(d) International System of units (SI
can be m 1 kg
The three units of basic concepts
as base unit.
defined arbitrarily and are referred
as per the
fourth unit must be selected
The
1.6 and is referred as derived unit. In this
Eqn.
of units are used.
text, the International system W=9.81N
mass and
The base units are the units of length,
time and are expressed in Metre (m), Kilogram a =
g= 9.81 m/s2
kg) and Second (s) respectively. Figure 1.7
is
Thus, the unit of force is a derived unit. It
called Newton (N) which is defined as the force which gives an acceleration
of I m/s2 to a mass of 1 kg in the direction of force.
IN =1kgx1m/s2
The weight of a body of mass 1 kg is
W mg (1.7)
= (1 kg) (9.81 m/s*)
W=9.81 N (1.8)
SI units are absolute system of units which are independent of the location
where the measurements are made. The principal SI units used in mechanics
are given in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3 Units of Quantities (SI unit)

Quantity Unit Symbol Formula

Acceleration m/s2
metre/(second)?
rad**
Angle radian rad
Angular acceleration rad/s2
rad/(second)?
Angular velocity radian/second rad/s
 Quantity Unit Symbol Formula
Area square metre m
Density kilogram/(metre) kg/m
Energy Joule J Nm
Force Newton N kg m/s2
Frequency Hertz Hz (1/s)
Impulse Newton-second kg m/s
Length metre m m*

Mass kilogram kg kg*

Moment of force Newton-metre Nm
Power Watt W J/s
Pressure Pascal Pa N/m
Stress Pascal Pa N/m
Time Second S s*

Velocity metre/second m/s

Volume (solids) cubic metre m

Volume (liquids) litre L (10 )m
Work Joule Nm
*Base unit; **Supplementary unit. (1 revolution = 2T rad = 360°)

Multiples and submultiples of SI units are obtained using prefixes given in

Table 1.4. In the problems of mechanics, the magitudes of physical variables
involved may be very large or very small. Hence the prefixes are found to be
useful which are given in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4 Prefixes in SI Units

Multiplication Factor Prefir Symbol

1012 tera T
giga G
10
mega M
10
kilo k
103
hecto h*
102
deca da*
10 d*
101 deci
C*
centi
102
milli m
103
micro
106
nano n
109
1012 pico P
Should be avoided if possible.
 Introduction O155

SUMMARY
Fundamental concepts and branches of mechanics have been dealt in this chapter.
The fundamental prineiples, system of units and dimensional analysis are illustrated.
.Mechanics ofsolids are classified as Mechanics of rigid bodies and Mechanics
of deformable bodies.
In Engineering Mechanics, bodies are idealised as particles and rigid bodies.
Basic concepts of Mechanics are space, time, mass and force.
.Fundamental principles of Mechanics are
(a) Newton's three laws of motion
(b) Newton's law of gravitation
(c) Paralelogram law
(d)Principle of transmissibility.
Various systems of units are CGS, FPS, MKS and SI.
Qualitative and quantitative description of a variable is done using dimension
and unit respectively.
is
Absolute system is also known as MLT system and Gravitational system
also known as FLT system.
Since most actual physical problems cannot be solved completely, a simplified
model can provide good qualitative results even in complicated problems.
under consideration and
Hence, one must be aware of, the actual problem
limitations associated with mathematical models used to solve such problems.
ensure that the mathematical
Assumptions must be continuously evaluated to

model predicts adequately the physical problem.

when the size and shape
The term particle used in statics is to describe body
a

solution of problem being considered.

of the body does not significantly affect the
to be concentrated at a point. As a
and when the mass of the body is assumed
concurrent system of forces only.
result, a particle can be subjected to
assumed to remain constant at all times
The size and shape of a rigid body is
The rigid body concept is an idealization
and under all conditions of loading.
under force system acting
of the situation. But real bodies will change shape
are small and have negligible effect
on
on the bodies. Such changes in shape
structural
the reactions required tomaintain the cquilibrium of the body. Hence,
in engincering practice are assumed
elements and machine parts encountered
to be rigid and reactions are determined
EXERCISES

(1)Explain the branches of Mechanics. and (c) Particle.

Rigid Body
(2) Define: (a) Continuumof(b)
force system with examples.
3) Explain classification Mechanics.
(4) State the fundamental principles of
20 O Engineering Mechanics

2.1 INTRODUCTION
is represented by its
A IOce represents action of one body on another. It
an
Hence force is a vector quan-
magnitude, direction and point of application. of vector
and all the rules of vector algebra are applicable (elements
tity,
forces acting on particle having
algebra are reviewed in Appendix-A). Thus, The concurrent
forces.
concurrent
the same point of application are called forces acting on a
relationship between various
plane forces, their resultant,
determination of some of
the unknown forces are
particle in equilibrium and
dealt in this chapter. not sig-
that the size and shape of the body does
The term particle means
are assumed to act
forces
affect the solution of problems and all the
nificantly
at the same point. This is
illustrated by demonstrating engineering problems.

2.2 RESULTANT OF FORCES

is a single equivalent
The resultant of number of forces acting on particle
a

force which produces the same effect as that of

all given forces.

2.2.1 Parallelogram Law

The fundamental principle of finding the resultant of two forces is the paral-
lelogram law which is described in Chapter 1. This law is based on the experi-
mental evidence and hence it cannot be proved or derived mathematically

Fa
R

F F A
(a) (6) (c)

Figure 2.1 Parallelogram law

When two forces (F1, F2) acting on a particle are represented by two
adjacent sides of a parallelogram, the diagonal connecting the two sides
represents the Resultant force R' in magnitude and direction.
Hence, the relationship between F,E and R can be derived as follows.
 Statics of Particles-Concurrent Forces in Plane D21

C
Fa
R

F A

Figure 2.2(a)
Consider the parallelogram OACB. Let OA and OB represent the forces
R
and F acting at a point O. The diagonal OC represents the resultant
which can be expressed as,

(OC) =
(OA +AD) + (CD)2
= (OA)+2(0A) (AD) + (AD)2 +(CD)
= (OA) +2(0A) (AD) +(AC)2
Since (AC) = (AD) +(CD)

R =(F)+2(F) (F2 cos6) +(F2)

Since AC=OB

Hence R=F+F +2F F cos0 (2.1)

CD F2 sin (2.2)
Also tan&=
OA+AD F+Fcos6
Consider the following special cases.

Case (1): If Fj, F2 are at right angles, then 6=90° F

R-F +F (2.3)
F
tana (2.4)
Figure 2.26)

collinear and are in the same direc-

Case (2): If F, F% are

tion, then 6= 0
R= Fi+F2 (2.5) F Fa
0 (2.6) Figure 2.2 (c)
0:a
tana
=
=
 Engineerng Mechanics
Engineering Mecchanics
Case (3): f
F are collinear and in opposite directions (F} >
F).
then 180 are

R F-Fa (2.7) F F
tano=0:a =0 (2.8) Figure 2.2 (d)

Note:
and also obeys parallelo
Aquantity which has both magnitude, direction
displacement, velocity, etc., are
8ram law is called a vector, Hence force,
as shownin
not vector quantities
YCtors. However, large rotations
are

Fig. 2.3. table.

Considera book lying on the top of a

Figure 2.3(a)
90" first and then 6, =
90", the final position is as shown in
Applying , =

Fig. 2.3 (c)

Z
.-

X
A

D
C X
B
(b) First , (c) Then 60
Figure 2.33
Applying 0, =90' first and then 6, 90",thefinal position is as shown in
=

Fig. 2.3(e)
From Fig. (c) and (e), we find that the positions of book are different for
each case. i.e.,
 0,+0 +8
rotations not vector quan-
are very large. Hence l. e are
when 6,,and 6,

tities.
Y

C
X
D B
X

(e) Then 6
(d) First0
Figure 2.3
on a
2.1 The greatest and least resultant of two forces acting
Example of the
35 kN and 5 kN respectively. If 25 kN is the magnitude
particle are

forces F and F2, prove that the forces are at

resultant for the given system of
right angles.
Solution R =F + F +2F F2 cose
When R is maximum; 6=0° i.e., 35= F + F2
When R is minimum; 6= 180° i.e., 5= F- F

Solving the above, two equations, get

we

F 20 kN and F =15 KN.

If the resultant of forces Fj, F2 acting at an angle '6' is 25 kN,

(25) =
(20)+(15)* +2(20) (15) cos6
c o s = 0:0=90°

right angles to each other when the resultant is

Thus F and F2 are at

25 kN.

2.2.2 Triangle Law of Forces

Iftwo forces (F1,F) acting simultaneously on a particle can be repre-
sented by the two sides of a triangle (in magnitude and direction) taken in
order, then, the third side (closing side) represents the resultant in the op-
posite order.
 CCh
Chanics

F
(a (b)
Figure 2.4 Triangle law offorcesS
Thus, all the trignometric relations can be applied.
From Fig. 2.5.
AB C (2.9)
sina sin sin
A =B +C-2BCcosa (2.10a) B
B2=A2+c2-2ACcosB (2.10b) A
C2 =A2+ B2 -2AB cosy (2.10c) Figure 2.5

=15 kN act on a particle as

Example 2.2 Iftwo forces Fj 20 and
kN
=

law and (b)

shown in Fig. 2.6(a), find their resultant by (a) Parallelogram
Triangle law.

Solution (a) Parallelogram law: 15

R=F+F +2F F cose

= (20) +(15) +2(20) (15) cos70°
70
R 28.813 kN

Fasin 15 sin70 20
tana=
tan +Fhcos6 20+15 cos70° Figure 2.6a)
29.3
- - 7

(b) Triangle law:

R 15
R = (20)+(15) -2(20) (15) cos110°
R= 28813 kN.
R 15 70
sin110 sina 20
a = 29.3° Figure 2.66)
2.2.3 Polygon Law

particle, the triangle law can be extended

to
than two Iorces act on a
Tf more
obtain Polygon law, and it may be stated as:
simultaneously on a particle, are
Tf a number of concurrent forces acting
taken in
in magnitude and direction by the sides of polygon
represented
represented

the clos-
ordler, then the resultant of this system of forces is represented by
the polygon in the opposite order.
ing side of
C

Fa F2
Fa Fa
F A FB
A
D

Fa
F

(b)
-JE
(a)
Figure 2.7 Polygon law offorces

2.3 RESOLUTION AND COMPONENTS OF FORCE

have learnt the method of determining the result-
In the previous section, we
resolution is the reverse process of find-
ant of two or more forces. Similarly,
ing the resultant force. force F acting on a particle by two or
The process of replacing a single force is
forces which together have the same effect as that of a single
more
Theoretically, a force can be re-
called resolution of force into components.
number of component sets. However, in practice, we
solved into an infinite
resolve force into two components
as given below.
and direction of P component is known and other
(a) The magnitude
component Q' which
is required.
is determined from the parallelogram
The second component "Q'
triangle as shown in Fig. 2.8.
law or by completing

O P
P
(a) ()
Figure 2.8 Resolution offorce
 26 Engineering Mechanics

(b) The lines of action of two components P and Q are

ki
magnitudes which are required. law
ne magnitudes can be determined by applying parallelogram
as shown in Fig. 2.9.

- - P

"p

(b)
(a)
Figure 2.9
of
It is the special case
into rectangular components.
(c) Resolving a force force into rectangular compo-
to resolve a
(6), which is often required
nents along xr-y axis as
shown in Fig. 2.10.
(2.11a)
F = Fcose

Fy=Fsin 6 (2.11b)
Writing in vector form Fy F
(2.11c)
F=Fi +F5i
Generally,randy axes have horizontal and ver- -:Fx
inclined
respectively. In the case of
tical direction Figure 2.10
planes, however, it may be required resolve;
to
For exam-
along the plane and normal to the plane.
ple, a force F (assume weight of an object) on an

inclined plane can be resolved into two components A

F and F as shown in Fig. 2.11. F

Normal component, F = Fcosa (2.12a)
F
Tangential component, F = Fsin a (2.126) A
Writing in vector form Figure 2.11

F F+ F (2.12c)

2.4 RESULTANT OF SEVERAL CONCURRENT FORCES

Consider a particle shown in Fig. 2.12 (a) subjected to four forces.
 F
F
Fay
F3x- Fax
x
FA

F Fay
(a (b)
Figure 2.12
The rectangular components of all the forces are
shown in Fig. 2.12(6). When a particle is subjected
to a number of forces }, F2... F, the resultant R
is determined using Polygon law of forces as
X

R=F +F2+.+F (2.13a)

where
R=R +R (2.13b)
and Figure 2.12(¢)
F Fii+ Fiyj Fj cos6,7 +
= =
Fj sin e (2.13c)
Fa = F2xi+ Fayi (2.13d)
F= Fnr+Fny j (2.13e)
Thus, R F =(Fx+ Fax + . +Fnx+ (2.14a)
Fiy+Fay + Fm]i

and
R=R,T +R,j =EF,)+(E,) (2.14b)

and tan = Ry (2.14c)

Rx EF
From Fig. 2.12(a), it is observed that when the inclinations of forces as
reiered with respect to the horizontal axis as 6, the horizontal and vertical
components are F cose and Fsin 6 respectively. However, the signs of these
COmponents are determined from the quadrants, as shown in Table 2.1.
 Table 2.1
Components of Force
SLNo Py T+
Force F ExE

dete

Y F
F sin
Fcos

F sin 6
2 F cos6
X

- F sin 6
X - F cos6

4y

- F sin6
F cos6

Thus EF-2(F; cos6;) (2.15a)

and F, 2(F sin6;)
= (2.15b)
'R'is
and all the forces act away from the particle. The magnitude of resultant
as shown in Fig. 2.12(c), and is
calculated as,

R= +(r, (2.16a)

and the inclination with respect to horizontal axis (a) is calculated from,

tan 7 (2.16b)

Note:
used.
To calculate 'a', positive values (magnitudes) of EF, and EF, are

From the signs of 2F, and 2F, quadrant is determined.

Evample 2.3 If five forces act on a particle as shown in the Fig. 2.13 (a),
resultant force.
determine the

105kN
75kN
15kN
15
X
40

45kN35° 60kN

Figure 2.13(a)
Solution
Table 2.2 x, y Components of Forces
SL No Force kN i+(kN) Fu T+(kN

15
15cos15=14489 15 sin 15°= 3.882
1
K15 X

2 105
105 X

- 75 0
3
75 X

-X
4
55 -45 cos55°=-25.811-45 sin55°=-36.862
45

X
5 40 60 cos 40= 45.963-60 sin 40°=-38.567
60
40.359 F
yi
33.453
 30 Engineering Mechanics

33.453

R=(F+zr,)
R=y(40.359)2 +(33.453)2 =52421 kN
tano=2Fyi 33453
40.359
Figure 2.13(6)
LF 40.359
resultant lies
= 39.66° in which the
quadrant
of EF; and EFi, the the inclination of
tne Signs and EFyi,
mdetermined. From the
magnitudes of EFi,
Can be can be
determined.

tne resultant with horizontal 'a'

52.421

105 15

75 15
(39.66) 1
40

35
60
45
Figure 2.13(c)

on a particle as shown in Fig.

2.14 (a) and
forces act
Example 2.4 If five forces is
of components of all these
horizontal
the algebraic sum
the resultant ofall the forces
-324.904 kN, calculate the magnitude of 'P and

282.843
100
165

75 30 45
O

Figure 2.14(a)
Solution The inclination of 100 kN force with x-axis is

tan 3/4:0 36.877

the
All the forces are represented in such a way that they act away fro
particle as shown in Fig. 2.14(b).
 Y
165
P 100

30 36.87 X
75 45

282.843 i

Figure 2.14(6)

EF = -75- Pcos 30°-282.843cos45°+100cos36.87°

- Pcos30° - 195= -324.904

.P=150 kN

(EF, =
Psin 30° +165+100 sin(36.87)°-282.843 (sin45°)
= 100 kN
100
Thus for the particle, R
EF, =-324.904 kN
EF, =100.000 kN.
324.904
R=y(324.904) + (100) = 339.946 kN
Figure 2.14(c)
tana = ZF/EF, = (100/324.904)
a = (17.11)°

The result is shown in Fig. 2.14(d) and Fig. 2.14(e).

Force P' Resultant R'

150 339.946

30 X (17.11 X

(d) (e)
Figure 2.14
2.5 EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE
In the previous section, the method of calculating resultant of several concur-
rent forces was explained. In some situations, the resultant may be zero. In
such a case, the net effect of all the
forces acting ona particle will be zero and
the particle is said to be in
equilibrium.
In other words, a body is said to be in equilibrium, when the resultant of the
force system acting on it is zero. Ifa body is in equilibrium, it will continue
toremain in a state of rest or of uniform motion.

2.5.1 Equilibrant
starts moving uni- With
ACcording to Newton's second law of motion, a body
Torm acceleration if it is acted upon by a force.
When a body is subjected to a
of resultant force with
number of concurrent forces, it moves in the direction
force which is equal in magnitude
uniform acceleration. However, if another
the body comes
Or the resultant but opposite in direction
is applied to the body,
force which acts
Hence equilibrant of a system of forces is a single
to rest.
along with the other forces to keep the body in equilibrium.
R
R
F2
Fi
x

FA E
F
(b) Resultant (R) (c) Equilibrant (E)
(a) Given system of forces
Figure 2.15

Example 2.5 Three forces of magnitude 48 kN, 80kN

at a point 'O' as shown
64 kN and 80 kN are acting
in Fig. 2.16(a). Calculate pair of
a forces along OA A
in equilibrium. A 60
60 15
and OB, which will keep this system
and the in- 48kN
Determine the equilibrant of the system 64kN
B
clination with respect to OA.
and OB Figure 2.16a)
OA
Solution Let the forces acting along
be Fand Fa, as shown in Fig. 2.16(b)
E F , =0
0
F+F2cos60° -80cos30° +64cos15°
=

F+05F -7463 0
EF, = 0
0
F sin 60°+80sin 30°-48-64 sin 15°
F2 (0.867)-24564 =0
 Statics of Particles-Concurrent Forces in Plane 33

F =-6.703 kN
Solving
F2 28.332 kN
80
Negative sign for Fj indicates that it actsin 30 60
AO x
the opposite
direction. Hence the pair of forces o 15
will keep the systenm in
shown in Fig 2.16(c).
equilibrium. 64
48
Figure 2.16(6)
24.536
AY 25.646
28.332

60°
(73.1 7.463
6.703
( (d)
Figure 2.16
forces.
Equilibrant of the given system of forces is the resultant of these
two

cos 60 6.703 7.463 kNN

F = 28.332
24536 kN.
EF, =28.332 sin60° =

The solution is shown in Fig. 2.16(e) and Fig. 2.16(f)

28.332
80
60
30
15 6.703
48 64
Given system Two forces to maintain
equilibrium
Figure 2.16(e)
AY
25.646

73.1X
73.1
25.646
Resultant Equilibrant
Figure 2.160
 Example 2.6 Three forces act on a
particle '0' as shown in Fig. 2.1
Determine the value of 'F' such .17(a).
that the resultant of these three for
horizontal. Find the magnitude and direction of the fourth force whichorces iiss
acting along with the given three forces will keep 'O' in equilibrium.
when
when

Solution Angle between 'F' and Ox is

40°+10°=50° and 30 kN is acting to- 30
wards the particle. Since the resultant is 40 18kN
horizontal;4)EF, =0. 30tO 10 X

t2F, =0 gives, Figure 2.17(a)

-30 sin 30°+18 sin 10°+F sin 50°= 0
F=155.

E F 30cos30° + F cos50° +18cos10°

=
= 53.67.

Equilibrant is -53.67 kN, as shown in Fig. 2.17(c)

30 15.5

18 53.67
40 53.67
.-30°1 10 X X

Resultant Equilibrant
Given system
Figure 2.176)

2.6 EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM

The resultant of given system of

forces is expressed as,
(2.17a)
(2.17b)
= (EF, +(EF,)j
force is zero. In other
When a particle is in equilibrium, the resultant
words, (2.18a)
R0 or (2.186)
EF, = 0 and
(2.18c)
EF, =0
of concurrenoy
The x andy axes can be chosen arbitrarily through the point are
However, for problems involving bodies on inclined planes, the axes a
 Statics of Particles--Concurrent Forces in Plane 0 35
selected along tangential and normal directions to the plane. It is also ob-
erved that in the case of problems involving equilibrium of particle, since
total number of equilibrium equations are two, the number of unknowns can
he only two. Determination of a force with magnitude and direction or
magnitudes of two torces, whose directions are known also can be solved.
These concepts are illustrated in numerical examples.

2.7 APPLICATION OF STATICS OF PARTICLES

The concepts of equilibrium diseussed in the previous section can be demon-
strated by applying them to solve engineering problems. In these applications,
by particles we mean that the size and shape of the bodies will not signifi-
cantly affect the solution of the problem and all the forces are assumed to be
applied at the same point. Hence, all the principles of concurrent plane forces
acting on particles are applied. Thus, a large number of practical problems
may be reduced to problems concerning the equilibrium of a particle. This is
done by choosing a significant particle known as free body and drawing a
separate diagram showing this particle and all the forces acting on it known as
free body diagram.
2.7.1 Free Body
It is the body isolated from all other members which are connected to this
body. Thus in a structure, we may consider number of free bodies.

2.7.2 Free Body Diagram

It is a sketch of the isolated body which shows the external forces on the body
and the reactions exerted on it by the removed elements.
To draw the freebody diagram, let us consider diffierent types of forces
acting on a body.
Every object is subjected to gravitational acceleration and hence has got a
selfweight expressed as,
W mg (2.19)
The selfweight always acts vertically in downward direction. During the
analysis of equilibrium conditions of the body, the selfweight is assumed to
act at centre of gravity of the body. However, in some cases if the selfweight
is very small compared to other forces, it may be neglected. Similarly, reac
tions are self-adjusting forces developed by other bodies which come in con
tact with the body under consideration. According to Newton's third law, the
reactions are equal and opposite to the actions. Thus, the reactions adjust
themselves to bring the body to equilibrium.
 If the surfaces in contact are
Smooth-the direction of reaction will be
normal to the surfaces of contact.
If
force
theyare
Rough-apart from normal reaction, there will be a frictional
also. Hence reactions will not be normal. The effect of friction will be
studied later. In this chapter, all the surfaces in contact are assumed to be smooth
and hence the directions of reactions are normal to surfaces in contact.
For example, let us consider the ball resting on floor as shown in Fig. 2.18a).

7TTTTTTTT*TTTTTTT
(b) Free body diagram of ball
(a)
Figure 2.18
The free body diagram is drawn by considering the weight of the ball (W)
and reaction (R) as shown in Fig. 2.18(b).
Similarly, let us consider two spherical balls of weight Wi and W2 restingg
inside the hollow cylinder as shown in Fig. 2.19(a).
The free body diagram of both the balls considered together is shown in

Fig. 2.19(b)
2

D A
A
RA
W
777TT777TTT77TTTTYTTTT

B
Free body diagram of balls
(a) (b)
Figure 2.19
normal reactions are
The contact surfaces at A, B and C are smooth hence
The weights of balls W and h are also shown. At D, Ball '1' is
represented. reaction at
Ball 2' and viceversa. Thus the balls holds together. This
pushing
be shown in the individual free body diagrams of ball 1 and ball 2 as
D' must
'D' must be along the line joining
shown in Fig. 2.19(c). The reaction force at
the centres of balls 1 and 2.
 Statics of Particles-Concurrent Forces in Plane 37

RA
W

Figure 2.19(c) Free body diagram of ball I and ball 2

inter-
Similarly, in addition to external forces, selfweight and reactions, the
nal forces which hold the particles of the body together should also be repre-
sented in the free The concept of internal force is illustrated as
body diagram.
shown in Fig. 2.20(a).

TTTT TTTT 77T7

A A
B
W

(a) (b)
Figure 2.20

Consider an string (or wire) connecting two points A and B

inextensible
'C' us-
of two separate buildings. When a weight °W' is suspended at point
shown in Fig. 2.20(b). When a
ing a pulley, the string takes the shape as
and CB and is
particle at C is considered, it is pulled by the portions CA
of
subjected to weight 'W and it attains an equilibrium. If the magnitude
load or point of application 'C' changes, the pulling force
in CA and CB change and adjust themselves to support TcA
the weight 'W'. These internal forces are known as ten- TcB
sion in the cable. Thus, the free body diagram is shown
in Fig. 2.20(c).
W
The other types of internal forces will be discussed
later. In all the examples considered so far, we have dealt Figure 2.20(c)
Free body diagram
with the free body diagram of particles subjected to con-
current plane forces. ofparticle at "C'
 38 OEngineering Mechanics
2.7.3 Equilibrium of a Two Force Body
A body when subjected to only two forces and is in equilibrium is known as
two force body. From the conditions of equilibrium, the resultant force must
be zero. Hence the two forces must be collinear, must have same magnitude
but opposite directions as shown in Fig. 2.21(a) and Fig. 2.21 (b).
F
-0.
F

F F - F

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.21

However, when the forces have different lines of action as shown in Fig.
2.21(c), they cannot be in equilibrium even if the magnitudes of two forces
are same. This principle will be illustrated later in the application of forces in
members of pin-jointed trusses.

2.7.4 Equilibrium of a Three Force Body

When a body is subjected to only three forces and is in equilibrium, they must
form a closed triangle when we apply the Polygon law of forces. In other
words, considering the free body diagram (refer Fig. 2.22) the force triangle
is drawn as shown in Fig. 2.23.
CA
TCB CA
W

W TcB
Figure 2.22 Free body diagram Figure 2.23 Force triangle

2.7.5 Lami's Theorem

I f three forces acting on a particle are in equilibrium, then each force is
proportional to the sine of the angle included between the other two forces.

sina sin siny

Fa (2.20)
 Fa
F a'
Fa
(b) Force polygon
Equilibrium of particle
(a) Figure 2.24
180-B;y'= 180-y
a'= 180-a: P'= and is
InFig. 2.24(b), Nis attached to a string
ball of weight 75 the
A spherical the tension in
Example 2.7 as shown in Fig.
2.25(a). Find
2.25(b).
from the ceiling ball as shown in Fig.
suspended the
"F" is applied to the tension in
horizontal force and also
string, if a
makeswith the vertical

Determine the angle the string

kN.
the stringif F= 150 LLLLLU
LLLLLLU

(b)
(a)
Figure 2.25
under the action of two
The ball in Fig. 2.25(a) is in equilibrium
Solution
tension in the string. Then,
forces. Let T' be the
T W 75 N
the action of three forces,
as
under
The ball in Fig. 2.25(b) is in equilibrium
free body diagram
is shown in Fig. 2.25(d).
shown in Fig. 2.25(c). The
0
EF, 0:-Tsin +150=
=

0:Tcos6-75=0.
EF, =
T 168.375 N
Solving 6355°
 LLLLLLU

150

-F 75
(c) (d)
Figure 2.25
Using Lami's theorem,
T 75 =
150
sin90 sin(90+) sin(180-0)
Tsin(90+0) = 75> Tcos6 = 75
Tsin(180-6) = 150 Tsin6 =150.
and hence
T=168.375 N and =63.55°
Example 2.8 In the above example, find the minimum force required when
the string makes an angle of 63.55° with vertical.
Solution
75 T 63.55 Fmin
Fmin
sin(6355°+a)sin(180-a) sin(116.45°)
Fmin 0 sin(116450
mn sin(6355° + a )

75
Max value of sin(63.55+)=1= sin 90° Figure 2.26
Hence a 26.45°
Pmin 67.150 NN
=

T 33.406 N

shows a block that has a weight

of 120 N on a
Example 2.9 Fig. 2.27
With horizontal, the plane makes an angle of 32
frictionless inclined plane. block is in
the block makes an angle of 16°. If the
and force F' applied to

equilibrium find the normal reaction and F.

 R

320

16 1616 X
F

o=32 120N
(a) (b)
Figure 2.27

Solution The block is in equilibrium under (a) the action of weight 120 N
is shown in
(b) normal reaction R and (c) force F". The free body diagram
Fig.2.27(b).
EF, 0; Fcos16-
= 0 Rsin 32 =

0.961F-0530R = 0

EF, 0; Rcos32° Fsin16

-

-120 =0
0.848R-0.276F = 120

obtain
Writing the equations in matrix form, we

0961 -0530| F 0
-0.276 0848 R120
1 0.848 0530 0 95.067
R (0.669) 0.276 0961| |120 172.377
Force F= 95.067 N
Normal reaction (R) = 172.377 N.

Example 2.10 Fig. F

2.28 shows a block of

32 F
weight 120 N on a smooth
inclined plane. The plane 32
makes an angle of 32°
with horizontal and the 32
force F" is applied paral-
120
lel to the plane. Find the
values of F' and normal (a) (b)
Figure 2.28
reaction.
42 Engineering Mechanics

Solution EF, = 0: Fcos32° - Rsin 32° = 0o

E F , = 0: Fsin 32°+ Rcos 32° - 120= 0.

0848 0.530||F 0
0530 0848 R |120
0848 0530| 0 63.6
0530 0.848||120 101.76
This can also be solved by resolving along tangential and normal
tions of plane. direc
F = 0: F - 120sin 32° = 0

FN =0:R-120 cos32°= 0
F 63.6 N
R= 101.76N
Example 2.11 AD is a string hung from a horizontal ceiling at A and D. A
weight of 75 Nis hung from point 'B'; Determine the magnitude of weight that
should be hung from point 'C' such that the portion 'BC' of the string is hori
zontal. Point B is 0.6 m from A and point C is 0.35 m from D. Also calculate the
tension in various portions AB, BC and CD of the string.

L//L/L/LLL4

0.6m
B
75N

0.6m 0.35m
Figure 2.29(a)
Solution Let the tensions in the string be TAB. TcD and 7ac. Free body
diagram of particles at B and C are shown in Fig. 2.29(b) and Fig 2.29(0).
From Fig. 2.29(b),

EF, =0:-AB cos45° nc + =0

)Fy =0: TAn sin45°- 75= 0.

Solving, TaB =
106.066; 7Bc = 75.0
 Statics of
Particles--Concurrent Forces in Plane 43

TAB
TcD
45 TBC 59.74
TBC
75 W
Figure 2.29(b) Free body
Figure 2.29(c) Free body
diagram of particle at 'B'
diagram of particle at 'C'
From Fig. 2.29(c)

EF, 0;-TBC+TCD cos(59.74)° =0

0EF, = 0, TcD sin(59.74)°-W =0

Solving, TCD = 148.832 N; W=128.553 N

Example 2.12 A cylindrical roadroller of weight 'W is pulled by a force

F' which is inclined at 6 to the horizontal as shown in
Fig. 2.30. While mov-
ing, it comes across an obstacle of
height H'. Calculate the force F'required
to cross this obstacle. Assume radius of roller as 'R'.

O
F

R
0
C
T7
B B

(a) (b)
Figure 2.30
Solution When the roller just crosses the obstacle, it is
forces:
subjected to three
Weight 'W', reaction "P" from obstacle and force 'F". Hence all the
forces must be concurrent at centre O.

cosa =
(R - H)/R P
The free body diagram is shown in Fig. 2.30(¢). F
E F , = 0; Fcos - Psina = 0
A9--.
E F y =0; F sin6 + Pcosa - W=0

cose - sinaF W
sin cosa||PJ w Figure 2.30(c)
44 Engineering Mechanics

Solving
cosa sina||0
F 1
a)-sine cos6j{WJ
PS (Cos6 cosoa+sin@sin
F W sino/cos(« -6)
P=Wcos0/cos(-0).
W sin a
F
cos(a-40)

R-H
Since, cOs=-
R
s i n a = 1 -( K - H ) 2RH-H2

R2 R2
2RH-H2
sina=.
N R:
2

WV2RH-H2
F- R cos(a6)
with 6. C F
a are constants,
F varies
Since R, H, W,
WV2RH-H
When 6 Pmin* R
A
horizontally as
Example 2.13 applied
If F' is
the "B
shown in Fig.2.31, find
the force requiredto cross
Figure 2.31(a)
obstacle.
the obstacle, it is subjected to F, W
Solution When the roller just
crosses
all
to three forces and is in equilibrium,
and reaction P. Since it subjected
is
C.
must be concurrent
and should pass through
the forces

BOA = 220CA
LBOA = 20=¢.

coso= cos2a (R-H)/R

=

body diagram is
shown in Fig. 2.31(c)
The free
EF, = 0:F- Psin a =0 B
0: Pcosa -W=0 Figure 2.316)
EF, =
 Statics of
Particles-Concurrent Forces in Plane 45

P=W/cosa P
F =P sina W tan a =

cos20 (R- H)/R

cos2= 2 cos a-1 F

W
tan
tan& = 1-cos2a)-(H/R)
V1+cos2a) V(2R-H)/R
Figure 2.31(c)

Since cos a= (1+cos2a)/2

sin a =(1-cos2a)/2
H

Example 2.14
F=W2R-H
Two cylinders of diameters 60 mm and 30 mm weighing
160Nand40 N respectively are placed as shown in Fig. 2.32. Assuming all
the contact surfaces to be smooth, find the reactions at A, B and C.

72mm

D F 40
Rc
A E 160
RA
a5B

27
(b)
(a)
Figure 2.32

Solution
cosa = 27/45
a= (53.13)°
A6/D
From Ball 2,
EF, =0: Rp cos5313-Rc
= 0 É
0 Figure 2.32(c)
0:Rpsin53.13-40
1 EF,
=

30 N
50 N: Rc
=

Solving, Rp
 46 Engineering Mechanics

(53.13 Rc
Ro
40N

Ro
E(53.13
RA

160 RB
Figure 2.32d)
From Ball 1,
0
Rp cos53.13- Rg sin45°
=

F , 0;RA = -

RA -0.707 Rg =30
0
EF, =
0;- Rp sin53.13-160+Rg cos45°
Rg 282.843 N
RA 230.000 N.
contact surfaces are
Hence, reactions at the
282.843 N; Rc 30 N =

RA 230 N; Rg
=

in flight is shown in Fig. 2.33. It is sub-

Example 2.15 A small airplane lift
Weight (W), thrust provided by engine (FT), the
jected to the following:
and the drag due to motion through the air (Fp)
provided by wings (F)
resultant and its magnitude.
Determine the line of action of

F 38.4 kN
FT 16 kN

D 4.8 kN

10°

-- X

W=40 kN
Solution Four forces are concurrent at 'O'. The
free body diagram of O'
is shown in Fig. 2.33(b).
38.4
4.289
16 10
10t 4.8 X
R
0.595
40

(b) (c)
Figure 2.33

EF, =-16cos10°+4.8+38.4 sin 10°= -4.289kN

+EF =16sin10°+38.4 cos10°-40= -0595kN
R= V(4.289) +(0.595) =
4.33kN
tana =
0595/4.289 =0.139
7.9°

X
17.9°
7.9 ------- -!.
R 4.33 kN

Figure 2.33(d)
The line of action of resultant and its magnitude are shown in Fig. 2.33(d).

SUMMARY
In this chapter, the effect of concurrent forces on a particle is studied. The basic
Ana-
principles of parallelogram law, triangle law and polygon law are introduced.
lytucal method of calculating resultant, the concepts of equilibrium and application
to engineering problems are demonstrated.
The resultant of a concurrent force system is

R=(EF +(EF,) and tan

zero. If
The resultant may be a single force through the point ofconcurrence or
it is zero, the particle is in equilibrium.
 are,
Equations of equilibrium
EF, =0: EF, =0 when the size and
to describe a body
in statics helps of problem beino
The term particle used affect the solution ng
significantly
shape of the body
does not of
to a system concur
be subjected only
considered. As a result, particle can

rent forces.
all mechanics problems. The steps
The freebody diagram
is important to solve
are:
for constructing a freebody diagram be shown.
combination of bodies to
Step 1: Select a body
or
for freebody.
Step 2: Draw the figure and identify all the forces exerted by
mark the freebody
Step 3: Carefully that were removed in
the isolation process.
bodies
contracting or attracting used in solving the problem and
4: Choose the set of coordinate axes
Step diagram. Place on the diagram any
indicate these directions in the freebody
dimensions required for solution of the problem.

EXERCISES

1. Define the following terms:

diagram
(a) Resultant (b) Equilibrant (c) Equilibrium (d) Freebody
2. State and explain the following
(a) Parallelogram law (b) Triangle law (c) Polygon law (d) Lami's theo-
rem
3. What do you understand by "two force body" and "three force body"? What
are the conditions for equilibrium?
4. The resultant of two forces acting at a point is 65 kN. It is observed that one
force is double than that of the other and if the direction of one of them is
reversed the resultant becomes 45 kN. Find the magnitudes of forces and the
angle between them.
5. The resultant of two forces F and F2 acting at a point is R.
) If F2 is doubled, R is also doubled and
(i) If the direction of F2 is changed,R is again doubled.
Provethat F:F2:R=v2:3:2.
6. Consider two forces F and 2F acting on a particle. If the force Fis increased
by 12 kN and 2F is doubled, the direction of resultant is unaltered. Find the
forces acting on it.
7. The resultant of two forces is 250 N and the same are inclined at 30° and 45°
with resultant, one on either side. Calculate the magnitude of two forces.
8. The angle between resultant (26.458 kN) and one of the forces (10 kN) is
40°53'. Find the other force and its direction.
 9. A heavy spherical ball of weight 12 kN rests in a V
shaped trench as shown in Fig. E 2.1. Find there-
actions assuming the contact surfaces to be smooth.451
10. Two homogeneous spherical balls rest between
130
Figure E 2.1
two vertical walls as shown in Fig. E 2.2. The radius
72 cm
of smaller ball is 16 cm and weight is 1.15 kN. The
radius of the larger ball is 24 cm and its weight is
3.45 kN. The distance between the walls is 72 cm.
Assuming the contact surfaces to be smooth, deter-
mine the reactions at A, B andC
B
11. Calculate the resultant ofthe following four concur
Figure E 2.2
rent forces, acting away from point.
(a) 56 N towards East
(b) 42 N towards 20° East of North
(c) 33.6 N towards 30° West of North
(d) 22:4 N towards 50° West of South
12. The forces of 16N, 24 N, 32 N, 40 N and 48 N are acting on one of the angular
points of a regular hexagon towards the other five angular points taken in
order. Find the magnitude and direction of equilibrant.
13. A circular roller of radius 10 cm and ofweight 1.8 kN rests on a smooth horizon-
tal surface and is held in position by an in-
clined wire PQ of length 20 cm as shown 3 . 6 kN
in Fig. E 2.3. Find the tension in wire PQ A15
and vertical reaction at C. P
14. A roller of radius 60 cm weighing 600N 7TT7TdTÍTTTTTT7
C
is to be pulled over a rectangular block of
Figure E 2.3
height 15 cm by a horizontal force applied
at the end of a string wound around the
circumference of the roller. Find the mag-
nitude of force which will just turn the roller over the obstacle.
shown in
15. Three cables are used to drag a heavy box on a horizontal surface as
action is
Fig. E 2.4. The resultant force has a magnitude 4.2 kN and its line of
directed along X-axis. Determine the magnitudes of F and F.

F
X axis

10
35 2.4 kNN
52 Engineering Mechanics

3.1 INTRODUCTION
A particle when it is subjected to external force systemHowever,
Iying in one
in real
plane,
worl
the

methods described in previous chapter can be used. However, in real

which do
do not
subjected to forces
engineering problems, the particles are also essential no
such situations, it is
to understand the effect
ne in the same plane. In
of system of forces in space.
is considered. Hence, it cted toto a
is subjected
In this chapter, particle space
in resultant force
The method of determining
system of concurrent forces only. of a particle under the
for equilibrium
conditions
acting on a particle and the will be similar to the
forces are described. The approach
influence of space notation is advantageous
followed for plane forces. Since the vector
approach
it is followed in this text. The basic con.
forces in space,
and automatic, for
are given in Appendix-A.
cepts of vector algebra

COMPONENTS OF FORCE IN SPACE

3.2
the inclination of this
force
Consider a space force F shown in Fig. 3.1. Let
A vertical plane OCAB through
an origin at O, containing
with y-axis be 0y.
is shown in Fig. 3.1.
the line of action of force 'OA'

y F D X
X
Fe

(b) (c)
(a)
Figure 3.1

The scalar components of F along OB & OC directions are, given by (refer

Fig. 3.1b)). (3.1a)
FH F sin
(3.16)
Fy= F cos6,
two
resolved into
The scalar component Fu in the 'xz' plane is again
components along X and z axes as,
(3.1e)
F = FHcos
(3.1d)
F=FHsino
 Statics
of Particles-Concurrent Forces in Space 53

In other words
Fy = F sin0, coso
(3.1e)
Fy=Fcose (3.1f
F= F sin6, sin o (3.1g)
Generally, a space force is described by its magnitude and line of action.
When the coordinates of points O and A are known, the line of action of
force OA can be defined by the unit vector along OA as 2 which is given by

cos6,7+cose,j +cos6,k (3.2)

Thus
F=F (3.3)
where 'F is the magnitude of force.

(b) Unit vector 2

(a) Force vector F
Figure 3.2

force along x, y and z axes are repre-

The rectangular components of this
sented by Fy,Fy and F.

Figure 3.3
54 O Engineering Mechanics

The resultant force F is given by,

(3.4a)
F=F,+,+ (3.4b)
=F+F,j+Fk
But +cos6,k)
(3.5a)
F F(cos8,i +cos@,j (3.5b)
F c o s e , + F c o s 6 y j+
Fcos0,k
=

vector are,
of force
Thus the rectangular
components
(3.6a)
F =Fi=Fcos6,
(3.6b)
F, Fyj= Fcos6,j
(3.6c)
F Fk =Fcos6,kcomponents
of the force.
the scalar
are
be obtained
where F F, and F, F in any
direction can
of the force unit vector is given by
The scalar components A) whose
(given in Appendix
from the dot product (3.7)
=cos,i +coso,j +coso,k

component is expressed as,

Thus the scalar

(cosÙi +coso,j +coso,k)

Fcos6,j Fcos6,k) +
F-=(Fcos0,i + (3.8)
+ Fcos6, coso, +Fcos,
coso,
=
Fcos0,coso, of ac-
numerical examples. If the line
These concepts are
using
illustrated
from i to j, whose coordinates are,
tion of a force is
defined by two points cosine is defined by
then the direction
and (x;.j,2j),
i , i,),
(3.9a)
cos6,=
L

(3.9b)
cos0,
(3.9c)
cose L

(3.9d)
where L=-) +(j-+(zj -)
 Statics of
Particles-Concurrent Forces in Space 55
3.3 RESULTANT OF SEVERAL CONCURRENT
FORCES

The procedure for determining the resultant of several concurrent forces is

same as that of plane forces diseussed in section 2.4. Let a particle be sub-
iected to 'n' concurrent space forces defined as F,F2.Fn. The resultant
force R is determined using Polygon law of forces a

R=+Fa++, (3.10)
where, R=R, +R, +X, Rf +R,j +R,k=
(3.11)
and =Fii +Fiyj+Rk (3.12a)

=F+Fayi +Fzk (3.12b)

F F +Fyj+Fk (3.12c)
Thus 2F=(Fix +Fzx++Frx) +(Fiy + F2y++Fny)j
+(P +F:t+Fnz )k (3.13)
and R-F-XF7+XF,j+F (3.14)

Hence R, =F (3.15a)
R, -EFy (3.15b)
RF (3.15c)
Thus the magnitude of resultant

-R+R+R -{(EF. +(F,) +(2F (3.16)

The resultant force R can be written in terms of unit vector

R= RA = R(cos0,i +cos6,j+cos 0,k)

(3.17)
=
Ri +Ryj+Rzk
where, cos6= Rg (3.18a)
R

cos6,-Ry
R
(3.18b)

cos6, = R (3.18c)
 IecnanICs
Thus the
dure can be magnitude and line of action of resultant are obtained. The proce
Step 1:
explained
Find
as follows.
x, y and
Step 2:
z
components of all the forces acting on the particle.
Find
2F^.2F, and F
where, 2F = Fx+Fzxt+FRx
2F, Fiy + F2yt+Fny
=

2F Fiz +Fz:t+Fnz
=

Step 3: The x, y and z components of resultant are Ry, Ry and Rz.

R F:R, =EF;R =EF
Magnitude of resultant

R=R, +(R,)2 +(R,

Direction cosines are,
cos, = (R/R}; cos@, = (R,/R}; cose, = (Rz/R)

Hence R= R(cos0,i +cos0,j+cos6,k)

Example 3.1 Aforce of 15 kN forms an angle of 60°, 45° and 120° with x
it as a vector.
y and z axes respectively. Find the components and express

Solution cos, =
cos60° = 05
cos45" = 0.707
cos&, =

cose, = cos 120° = -05

Since cos
2
6, +cos 0, + cos0, =
1, the unit vector is cos6i +cos6,j+

cos6k
F= 15(05 +0.7077 -05k)
F 75T + 10.6057 -75k
Wh
18k acts throughthe origin.
Example3.2 A force F=8.25i +12.757 and z axes?it makes with x, y
is the magnitude of this force and the angle
Solution We know that,
F =F+Fyj+F{k
and magnitude of F

F-P+F+F
 Statics of Particles-Concurrent Forces in Space 5 7

F y(8.25) + (12.75) + (-18) =23551 kN

F =
Fcos6,: Fy Fcos6,: F Fcos6,
= =

8.25
Hence, =cos(E/F)= 69.5°
23.551
12.75
,cosF,/F}=s1=S1:2 23551
- 18

= cos(F./F)=0
=

23551
= 139.9°

Example 3.3 Determine the x, y, z components ofa 60 kN force passing

terms of
from the origin through a point A (2,-4, 1). Express the vector in
unit vectors i,j and k.

Solution OA =V(2-0)+(4-0) +(1-0) =21=4.583

Unit vector along OA= ---4j

(V21 -]
0436i 0873 +021k
Magnitude of force IFl=60
Force vector =F «FIl =(60)04367 -0873j +021
F 26616 -52.38 +13.08k
force 32 kN
3.4 Express in terms of unit vectors i, j and k. The
Example
that starts form 2.5,-1.5) and passes through the point Q(-6, 4, 2).
apoint P(1,
635
PQ (-6-1) +(4-25) +(2-(-15))
=

Solution =

Po={*o-xp+(yo-ye)i+(0-t»)ë}/PQI

Unit vector along PQ= -7+15j +35

63:5
= -08787 +0.1887 +0439k
Force vector =F ="FiA 32(-0878 +0.1887+0439k)
=

F- -28.096i +6.016j+ 14.048k

 58 Engineering Mechanics

Example 3.5 A force acts at the origin in a direction defined by the angles
6, = 65 and 6, = 40°. Knowing that the x component of force is -90 kN,

determihe
(a)the other components and magnitude of force
(b) the value of .

Solution cos6, = 0.423

cos6, = +0.766

cos , +cos 6, 1
=
cos 0, +

cos, =1-cos 6, -cos 6.

= 1-(0.423) - (0.766)
t0484
cos 0, =

Hence , = 118.9 or 61.1

correct value of 0, is determined from thex component of force as
The
given below.
Fcos6, =-90

cos6,=-0484:0, = (118.9)°
F 185.95 kN
Fy =
Fcos0, = 78.657 kN
142.438 kN
F =
Fcos6, =

of a force are 36 kN, -24 kN and

Example 3.6 The x, y, z components the line joining
of this force along
24 kN respectively. Find the component
A(1,2,-3) and B(-1, -2, 2).
Solution F 36-247+24k
F= y36+ (24) + (24) = 49.477 kN

Unit vector = 0.728 -04857 +0485k

F 49.477(0.7287 -0.485 +0.485k)
Unit vector along AB =:
LAB =
V(-2) +(4)2 + (5)2 = 6.708
=-0,298 -05967 +0.745k
 Statics of Particles-Concurrent Forces in Space 59

Component
of F along AB is

49477(0.728i -0485j +0485k)- (-02987 -05967 +0.745k)

= 49.477(0433)
= 21.424 kN

Example, 3.7 Forces 32 kN, 24 kN, 24 kN and 120 kN concurrent at

are
directed through the points whose coordinates are
origin and are respectively
A2. 1,6), B(4,-2, 5), C-3,-2, 1) and D(5, 1,-2). Determine the resultant of
the system.
Solution OA = (2) 4+(1) +(6) =41 OA = V41 = 6403

OB (4) +(-2) + (5)

= = 45OB= 45 = 6.708
oc =(-3) +(-2) +(1)2 =14 »OC=V14 =3.742
OD2 = (5)2 +(1)2 +(-2)2 = 30OD = v30 5477

Unit vector along OA =m= 2 ++6|

Similarly =03121 +0.1567 +0.937k

An 05967 -02987 +0.745k
a=-0.8027 -0535j +0267k
A 0.913 +0.1837-0.365k

F 32A1 =9.9847 +4.9927 + 29.984k

F242 =14.3047 -7.152j + 17.880
Fa 24g=-19.2487 12.84 +6.408
FA= 120A4 109.567 +21967-43.8k
=

Resultant R= +*2 +F +A
R= 114.67 +6.967 + 10472k
IRI= 115288 kN
Unit vector = 0.994 +0.060j +0.091k
6, =6.28°:6, = 86.54 ;0, = 84.79
60 Engneering Mecnanntc
SPACE
3.4 EQUILIBRIUM OF A PARTICLE IN
is said to
De in
equi
force system in space
concurrent
A particle subjected to
In other words,
is zero.
(3.19)
librium when the resultant force
0
R=R,i +Ry,j +R,k 0
=

(3.20)
0 and R,
=

=0; Ry =
to con-
i.e. R, particle
when subjected
for a

ience the equations of equilibrium

forces can be written as
0.
(3.21)
Current space
0:EF, =0: EF
=

F = unknown quantities. All the

for three be used
be solved
These three equations
can
at a joint or it may
members meeting
forces in three
three may be the system.
determine the
equilibrant of a
to
OF PARTICLE
APPLICATION OF STATICS
3.5 to space can be ap-
when subjected
equilibrium of a particle These are illus-
The concept of of statics of particle.
applications
plied to solve engineering

trated in the numerical examples. shown in Fig. the

forces at P'as
is acted upon by at A,
Example 3.8 A tripod of tripod if the legs rest on ground
forces in the legs The
3.4. Determine the
to 0 are as shown in the Fig. 3.4.
coordinates with respect
B and C whose
is 10 m.
height of P' above the origin

8 kN

16kN
C

3m

2 2m

4m 5m

Z.
Figure 3.4
 Statics of Particles-Concurrent Forces in Space 61

Solution Co-ordinates:

o0, 0, 0):; A(-4, 0, 0); B(5, 0, 2); C(-2, 0, -3); P(0, 10, 0).
Table 3.

i -Xi| j i |2-z4| d
PA
- 4 - 10 10.770 - 0.371 -0.929j
PB 5 - 10 2 11.358 0441 -0.88 +0.176k
- 10 - 3 10.630-0.188-0941-0.282
PC -2
force vector 8i - 1 6 .

When point "P' is in equilibrium R=0:

FPA = FPA (-0.371f -0.9297)

FPB =
FPB (0447 -0.887 +0.176k)
FPC =
Fpc(-0.1887 -0.941j -0.282k)
F= 8T -16
R FPA + FPB + FPc + F =0
(-0371FPA +044 FPp-0.188Fpc +8)
+(-0.929FPA -088 FPB-0.941FPc-16)j
+(+0.176FPB-0.282FPc)k =0
+8 0
i.e. -0.371FpA +044 FPB 0.188FPc =

- 0.929 FpA -088FpB -0.941FpC -16 0

+0.176 FPB -0.282 Fpc =0
Writing this in matrix form,
-0.371 044 0.188 FPA-8
- 0.929 -088 -0.941
FpB
FPB 16
0 0176-0282|FPc

Co-factor matrix of (A)

A]{F}= {b}
0414 -0.262 0.164
0.091 0.105. 0.065
-05800.175 .735
A-0.371(0414)+ 0.44(-0.262) - 0.188(-0.164) = -0.238
62 Engineering Mechanics

0414 0.091 -058

1
(A)= -0.262 0.105 -0.175

(-0.238)-0164 0.065 0.735

-1.7400.382 2.437
1.101 -0441 0.735
0.689 -0.273 -3.088

F)=[Ab)
1.740 -0.382 2437-8 7808
|FPA 1.101 -0441 0.735|16={-15864
FPB =|
0.689 0273 -3.088|| 0 -9.88
FPc) direction is correct. A negative
Positive sign for FPA indicates assumed
forces are acting towards P.
indicates that the
sign for FPg and FpPC tension and force in PB and
PC are com-
In other words, force in PA is
pression.
FPA-2.897 -7.254
FPB-6.980F 13.960j -2.792k
FpC 1857i +9.297j +2.786k
=

the tripod is subjected toa block

Example 3.9 In the previous example, if
find the forces in the legs.
of 3 kN weight hanging vertically from vertex P',
Solution F -3
FPA 1.74 -0.382 2.437| 0 -1.146
1.101 -0.441 0.735|+3=-1323
FPC0.689 0273. -3.088|| 0 -0819
forces act to
This shows that all the legs are in compression and all the
wards joint P.

16 3
P P
-8 0.819
9.88
7.808 1.146 1.323
15.864

(b) Free body diagram

Free body díagram
(a) Figure 3.5
 Particles-Concurrent Forces in Space O 63
Statics of

at D. Due to an applied
force P at
are
Three cables joined
Evample 3.10 are as shown in Fig. 3.6. If the
tensions in cables
of the cables
the shape determine the force
D'
42 kN, 42 kN and 72 kN respectively,
DA. DB and DC
are

Pappliod at D.
C

y 1.8m

0.6m

B P

D
0.6m

-1.8m
1.5m

Figure 3.6
Foc
Solution Select origin at O(0, 0, 0) and the coordi-
0), B(0, 1.5, 0.6), C(0,
natesof other points are A(1.8, 0,free
1.5,-1.8) and D(1.8, 0.6, 0). The body diagram of a Foe-
3.7.
particle at D is shown in Fig.
A= Unit vector along DÁ = -j
n = Unit vector along FDA
Figure 3.7
DB=-0857) +04297+0,286k
Ag= Unit vector along DC= -0.667i +0.333 -0.667k.
FDA =42=42]
FDB 42 2=-35.994 +18.0187+12.012k
FDC 724=48.024 + 23.9767-48.024
=

Let the vector be P. .Since particle 'D' is in equilibrium,

64 Engineering Mechanics

Resultant R= 0
FDA +FDB+ Fbc + P= 0
(42j)+ (-35.9947+18.0187 +12.012k)
+(48.0247+23.9767-48.024k) + P=0

-84.0187-36.012k +P =0
P=840187+36.012k

Magnitude of P = 91.411 kN
P=91411(09197 +0394k)
8, =23.22
6, 90
6, =6688
SUMMARY

A force 'F passing through two points i(, Yi G)

and
J{xj, V; 7;)is
pressed as F F2
), ),-z);
where L L
L

and L=x ) +(y-) +(z -)

F- F+F,j+ F
F Fcos0
Fy Fcos4,
F, = Fcos6,
For a particle when subjected to concurrent force system, theresultant K'3
given by,
R=Ri+R,j+R,k
R=R+R+R
where R =2F R, =2 F; R, =ZF
cos, (R/R; cos0, (R,/R cos0, =(R,/R)
=
-
and
equations of equilibrium are
For a particle in equilibrium, R=0. Hence,
EF =0:F, =0;EF, =0
 EXERCISES
The force in the
of a tower is anchored by means ofa bolt at A.
1. The guy wire of Fy, Fy and F the force.
of
Determine (a) The components
wire is 75 kN. force.Refer Fig. E3.1.
and 6, defining the direction of
(b) The angles 6,,6,

80m
A
40m
30m
X

Figure E 3.1
values of tensions
'AB' is 75 kN determine the required
2. Ifthe tension in wire 'A' is
so that the resultants of
the three forces applied at
in 'AC' and 'AD',
Refer Fig. E 3.2.
vertical. Find also the resultant.

/24m
12m
X
B 6m

7 m - -8m

Figure E 3.2

other
3. Three wires are joined at D. Two ends A and B are on the wall and the
end C is on the ground. The wire CD is vertical. A force of 60 kN is applied
at D' and the force passes through a point E on the ground as shown in Fig.
E 3.3. Find the forces in all the three wires.
 B
3m
3m

6OkN 2m

3m 1.5m
1.5m- 6m

Figure E 3.3
shown in Fig. E 3.4. A, B, Care
DA, DB and DC are connected
as
4. Three cables
circumference of a circle of diameter 3m. The
in ground level and are along the
each cable.
of each cable DA, DB and DC is 2.5m. Find the forces in
length
32 kN
D(0,2,0)

a B Y= 120

. B
Figure E 3.4
5. A 22.5 kN weight is hung from a rope in a tripod with legs of equal length as
shown in Fig. E 3.5. Each leg makes an angle of30° with the rope. A, B, Care
in horizontal plane and form an equilateral triangle. Determine the forces in al
the legs of Tripod.
5. Determine the forces in the legs of tripod subjected to 100 kN force along
positive x-direction and 240 kN force along negative y-direction at vertex.
0).
The coordinates are A-2, 0, 0), B(V3, 0, 3), C(V3, 0, -3) and D(0, 6,
and
Where A, B, C are the points where the legs of tripod touch the ground,
D' is the vertex of tripod.
 Orce. DpaCE L

22.5 kNI
D

A
- -

Figure E 3.5