Third Semester Mechanical Google Class Material

Course : MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Course Code : 18ME32

SCHEME OF TEACHING AND EXAMINATION 2018-19
VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERS ITY, BELAGAVI
Scheme of Teaching and Examinati on 2018 – 19
Outcome Based Educati on(OB E) and Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)
(Effecti ve from the academic year 2018 – 19)
III SEMESTER
Teaching Hours
/Week Examination

Department
Teaching

Practical/
Drawing

Credits
Tutorial

Total Marks
SEE Marks
Duration in
Lecture
Theory
Sl. Course and

CIE Marks
Course Title

hours
No Course Code

L T P

BSC 18MAT 31 T ransform calculus, fourier series Mathematics 2 2 03 40 60 100 3

1 and Numerical techniques --
2 PCC 18ME32 Mechanics of Materials 3 2 -- 03 40 60 100 4
3 PCC 18ME33 Basic T hermodynamics 3 0 -- 03 40 60 100 3
4 PCC 18ME34 Material Science 3 0 -- 03 40 60 100 3
5 PCC 18ME35A or Metal cutting and forming -- 40 60 100 3
3 0 03
18ME35B Metal Casting and Welding
6 PCC 18ME36A or Computer Aided Machine Drawing/ 1 4
Mechanical Measurements and 3 0 -- 03 40 60 100 3
18ME36B
Metrology
7 PCC 18MEL37A Material T esting lab
Or
-- 2 2 03 40 60 100 2
18MEL37B Mechanical Measurements and
Metrology lab
8 PCC Workshop and Machine Shop
18MEL38A Practice (Consists of
-- 2 2 03 40 60 100 2
Fitting, and Machining)
18MEL38B Foundry,Forging and Welding lab
18KVK39/49 Vyavaharika Kannada (Kannada for
communication)/
-- 2 -- -- 100 --
100 1
HSMC

18KAK39/49 Aadalitha Kannada (Kannada for

9 Administration) HSMC
OR
Constitution of India, Professional 1 -- -- 02 40 60
18CPC39
Ethics and Cyber Law Examination is by objective type questions
17 10 24 420 480
TOTA L OR OR 04 OR OR OR 900 24
19 14 26 360 540

Note: BSC: Basic Science, PCC: Professional Core, HSMC: Humanity and Social Science, NCMC: Non-credit mandatory course.

18KVK39 Vyavaharika Kannada (Kannada for communication) is for non-Kannada speaking, reading and writing students and 18KAK39 Aadalitha
Kannada (Kannada for Administration) is for students who speak, read and write Kannada.

Course prescribed to lateral entry Diploma holders admitted to III semester of Engineering programs
10 NCMC 18MAT DIP31 Additional Mathematics - I Mathematics 02 01 -- 03 40 60 100 0
a ) T he mandatory non – credit courses Additional Mathematics I and II prescribed for III and IV semesters respectively, to the lateral entry Diploma
holders admitted to III semester of BE/B. T ech programs, shall attend the classes during the respective semesters to complete all the formalities of
the course and appear for the University examination. In case, any student fails to register for the said course/ fails to secure the minimum 40 % of
the prescribed CIE marks, he/she shall be deemed to have secured F grade. In such a case, the students have to fulfill the requirements during
subsequent semester/s to appear for SEE.
b) T hese Courses shall not be considered for vertical progression, but completion of the courses shall be mandatory for the award of degree.
Courses prescribed to lateral entry B. S c degree holders admitted to III semester of Engineering programs
Lateral entrant students from B.Sc. Stream, shall clear the non-credit courses Engineering Graphics and Elements of Civil Engineering and
Mechanics of the First Year Engineering Programme. T hese Courses shall not be considered for vertical progression, but completion of the courses
shall be mandatory for the award of degree.
 SYLLABUS
VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERS ITY, BELAGAVI
B. E. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) and Outcome Based Education (OBE)
SEMESTER - III
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

Course Code 18ME32 CIE Marks 40

Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P) 3:2:0 SEE Marks 60
Credits 04 Exam Hours 03
Course Learning Objectives:
 To know the different types of stresses and strains developed in the member subjected to axial, bending,
shear, torsion & thermal loads.
 To know behaviour & properties of engineering materials.
 To understand the stresses developed in bars, compounds bars, beams, shafts, and cylinders.
 To understand the concepts of calculation of shear force and bending moment for beams with different
supports.
 To expose the students to concepts of Buckling of columns and strain energy.
Module-1
Stresses and Strains: Introduction, Properties of materials, Stress, Strain and Hooke’s law, Stress strain diagram
for brittle and ductile materials, True stress and strain, Calculation of stresses in straight, Stepped and tapered
sections, Composite sections, Stresses due to temperature change, Shear stress and strain, Lateral strain and
Poisson‟s ratio, Elastic constants and relations between them.
Module-2
Analysis of Stress and Strain: Introduction to three dimensional state of stress, Stresses on inclined planes,
Principal stresses and maximum shear stress, Principal angles, Shear stresses on principal planes, Maximum
shear tress, Mohr circle for plane stress conditions.
Cylinders: Thin cylinder: Hoop‟s stress, maximum shear stress, circumferential and longitudinal strains, Thick
cylinders: Lames equations.
Module-3
Shear Force and Bending Moment: Type of beams, Loads and reactions, Relationship between loads, shear
forces and bending moments, Shear force and bending moments of cantilever beams, Pin support and roller
supported beams subjected to concentrated loads, uniformly distributed constant / varying loads.
Stress in Beams: Bending and shear stress distribution in rectangular, I and T section beams.
Module-4
Theories of Failure: Maximum Principal stress theory, Maximum shear stress theory.
Torsion: Circular solid and hallow shafts, Torsional moment of resistance, Power transmission of straight and
stepped shafts, Twist in shaft sections, Thin tubular sections, Thin walled sections.
Module-5
Columns: Buckling and stability, Critical load, Columns with pinned ends, Columns with other support
conditions, Effective length of columns,
Secant formula for columns.
Strain Energy: Strain energy due to axial, shear, bending, torsion and impact load. Castigliano‟s theorem I and
II and their applications.

Course Outcomes: At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
 CO1: Understand simple, compound, thermal stresses and strains their relations and strain energy.
 CO2: Analyse structural members for stresses, strains and deformations.
 CO3: Analyse the structural members subjected to bending and shear loads.
 CO4: Analyse shafts subjected to twisting loads.
 CO5: Analyse the short columns for stability.
 Question Paper Pattern, Text Books & Reference Books
Question paper pattern:
 The question paper will have ten full questions carrying equal marks.
 Each full question will be for 20 marks.
 There will be two full questions (with a maximum of four sub- questions) from each module.
 Each full question will have sub- question covering all the topics under a module.
 The students will have to answer five full questions, selecting one full question from each module.
Name of the
Sl No Title of the Book Name of the Author/s Edition and Year
Publisher
Textbook/s
Eighth edition
1 Mechanics of Materials J M Gere, B J Goodno, Cengage 2013
Fundamentals of Strength of PHI Learning Pvt.
2 Materials P N Chandramouli Ltd 2013
S. Chand and
3 Strength of Materials R K Rajput Company Pvt. 2014
Reference Books Ltd
1 Strength of Materials R. Subramanian Oxford 2005

2 *Strength of Materials S. S. Ratan Tata McGraw Hill 2nd Edition, 2008

Mechanics of materials S C Pilli and N
3 Strength of Materials Balasubramanya Cengage 2019
Ferdinand Beer, Russell McGraw Hill
4 Mechanics of Materials Johston, John Dewolf, Education (India) Latest edition
David Mazurek Pvt. Ltd
5 Mechanics of Materials R C Hibbeler Pearson Latest edition
Technical
6. *Mechanics of Materials H. J Sawanth Latest Edition
Publications
7. **Strength of Materials S. S. Bhavikatti Vikas Publications Latest Edition
Lakshmi
8. *Strength of Materials Dr. R .K. Bansal Latest Edition
Publications
JBK Das and Srinivasa
9. **Mechanics of Materials Latest Edition
Murthy
Lakshmi
10. *Strength of Materials B. C. Punmia Latest Edition
Publications
Dhanpat Rai &
11. *Strength of Materials S. Ramamrutham Latest Edition
Sons.
 MODULE - 1
Stresses and Strains :
Introduction:

Mechanics of Materials is a branch of Applied Mechanics which deals with the study of
behavior of solid material bodies under the action of external loads and is known by
several names such as Strength of Materials, Mechanics of Deformable bodies etc.

The study of behavior mainly focuses on the evaluation of the basic parameters of strength
such as deformation, strain and stress.

Load and Force:

 Load and force are interchangeably used for the same physical quantity. We can
say force is something which causes or tends to cause some change in the state of a
rigid object while load is something which changes or tends to change the shape of
an object or load deforms or tries to deform an object.

 Force is a measure of the interaction between bodies. Force is known as a vector

quantity, as it has both direction and magnitude. Load is a term frequently used in
engineering to mean the force exerted on a surface or body.

 Force is the dynamic load {force= mass× acceleration} and it can act in any direction
on the other hand, load is a static load {F= mg} and it can act only in one (downward)
direction.

 Force is a physics term, and the most general one , where as the load is more an
engineering term, and presumes that there is some system (e.g., a bridge) that is
supposed to resist forces (e.g., gravity, wind) applied to it. The force that it is
supposed to resist is the load.

 The external force applied on a material body is said to be load on that body. The
force may be in the form of dead weight, frictional force, centrifugal force or inertia
force.

Types of External Loads/Forces:

With reference to the mechanics of materials, the various types of forces/loads may be
categorized onto the following:

a) Normal Force
(i) Tensile force
(ii) Compressive force
b) Shear force
 a) Normal force: When the force acts perpendicular to the effective cross-sectional area
of the material body, it is called normal force and may be expressed in Newton (N) or Kilo
Newton (kN) or Mega Newton (MN) or Giga Newton (GN).

(i) Tensile force: The force which tends to pull the material body on which it is
acting is called tensile force. More specifically, a tensile force is the force which
tends to increase the dimension of the material body along the direction of
application of the force.

The tensile force may be expressed in Newton (N) or Kilo Newton (kN) or Mega
Newton (MN) or Giga Newton (GN).

(ii) Compressive force: The force which tends to push the material body on
which it is acting is called compressive force. More specifically, a compressive
force is the force which tends to decrease the dimension of the material body
along the direction of application of the force.

The compressive may be expressed in Newton (N) or Kilo Newton (kN) or

Mega Newton (MN) or Giga Newton (GN).

Note: As a sign convention, tensile force is treated as positive and compressive force
is treated as negative since they are opposite in nature.

b) Shear force: When two equal, opposite and parallel forces, separated apart, act on a
material body, the force developed in the material body is called shear force and may be
expressed in Newton (N) or Kilo Newton (kN) or Mega Newton (MN) or Giga Newton
(GN). The shear force acts parallel to the effective cross-sectional area.

The tensile force, compressive force and shear force are represented with reference to a
prismatic bar in the figures below.

P P
P P

A B A B
L L
Fig. (ii) A prismatic bar AB of length L subjected to
Fig. (i) A prismatic bar AB of length L subjected to compressive force P
tensile force P
P

L
Fig.(iii) A prismatic bar of length L subjected to a
pair of shear forces P at A and B
Deformation: The deformation in a material body may be defined as the change in shape
and size or the change in dimensions under the action of external load and is expressed in
millimeters (mm) or meters (m).

Types of solid Materials: The various types of solid materials may be grouped into the
following:

(a) Metals (b) Ceramics (c) Polymers

(d) Composites (e) Bio-materials (f) Semiconductors.

From the point of view of mechanics of materials, the solid materials mentioned above may
be categorized into the following:

(i) Elastic materials

(ii) Plastic materials
(iii) Rigid materials

(i) Elastic materials: The elastic materials are those materials which undergo deformation
when subjected to external loads and the deformation disappears when the external loads
(up to a certain limit/magnitude) acting on it are removed i.e., the elastic materials are the
materials which undergo change in shape and size (dimensions) when subjected to external
loads and regain original shape and size when the external loads (up to a certain
limit/magnitude) acting on it are removed.
This property, by virtue of which a material regains its original dimensions when the external
loads acting on it are removed, is called elasticity.

(ii) Plastic materials: The plastic materials are those materials which undergo change in
shape and size (dimensions) continuously when subjected to external loads and does not
regain original shape and size even after the external loads (exceeding a certain
limit/magnitude) are removed. i.e., the deformation is permanent.
This property, by virtue of which a material cannot regain its original shape and size even
after the removal of external loads, is called plasticity.

(iii) Rigid materials: The rigid materials are those materials which does not undergo any
deformation under the action of external load, whatever may be the magnitude of external
load.
No material is perfectly rigid. All the materials undergo some amount of deformation. In case
of rigid materials, the amount of deformation will be very small when compared to the original
dimensions and may be neglected.

The same solid material may behave as elastic or plastic depending upon the magnitude of
external load acting on it. based on elastic or plastic behavior of materials, the deformation
may be:
(i) Elastic deformation, wherein the material regains original dimensions after the
removal of external load. (Deformation is temporary)
(ii) Plastic deformation, wherein the material cannot regain the original dimensions
after the removal of external load. (Deformation is permanent)
STRAIN: The strain in a material body may be defined as the ratio of change in dimensions
to the original dimensions as a result of deformation due to external load and is generally
denoted by ε or 𝜸
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
∴ Strain, ε =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Strain is unit less, since it is the ratio of similar units.

Types of Strains: The various types of strains may be categorized as follows:

(a) Based on the types of external loads resulting in the deformation

(i) Tensile strain (ii) Compressive strain (iii) Shear strain
(b) Based on the geometric parameters
(i) Volumetric strain (ii) Superficial strain
(c) Based on the direction considered or direction of interest w.r.t. external load
(i) Linear strain (ii) Lateral strain

(a) (i) Tensile strain: The tensile strain in a material body may be defined as the ratio of
change in dimensions to the original dimensions as a result of deformation due to external
tensile load and is generally denoted by ε

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

∴ Tensile Strain, εtensile =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Front view End view

P P di

A B
li bi

Before deformation
dl

P P
do
A' B'
lo bo
Y
After deformation
X lo > l i bo < b i do < d i P : Tensile load
Z dl =( lo - l i )
Fig. a(i) Phenomenon of tensile strain illustrated w.r.t. dimension, length l

Denoting change in length as 𝛿𝑙 and original length as 𝑙, we can write,

 𝛿𝑙
∴ Tensile Strain, εtensile =
𝑙

(a) (ii) Compressive strain: The compressive strain in a material body may be defined as
the ratio of change in dimensions to the original dimensions as a result of deformation due to
external compressive load and is generally denoted by ε

∴ Compressive Strain, εcompressive = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Front view End view

P P
di

A B
li bi
Before deformation dl

P P
do

A' B'
lo bo
Y After deformation
P : Compressive load
X
Z lo < l i bo > b i do > d i
dl = ( l i - lo )
Fig. a(ii) Phenomenon of compressive strain illustrated w.r.t. dimension, length l

Denoting change in length as 𝛿𝑙 and original length as 𝑙, we can write,

𝛿𝑙
Compressive Strain, εcompressive =
𝑙

(a) (iii) Shear strain: The shear strain in a material body may be defined as the ratio of
displacement along the direction of application of shear force to the original dimensions at
right angle to the direction of application of shear force and is generally denoted by 𝜸
 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
∴ Shear Strain, 𝜸 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

The phenomenon of shear strain is illustrated in the figure a(iii) below.

Referring to the figure, the shear strain may be expressed mathematically as

𝛿
Shear Strain, 𝜸 =( )
𝐿
𝐵𝐵′ 𝛿
But in the right angled triangle ABB' , Tan ϕ = ( ) =( )
𝐴𝐵 𝐿
For small angles of ϕ, Tan ϕ ≈ ϕ

B
Fixed end A f d
B'

D C
f d
C'
L
Fig. a(iii) Phenomenon of shear strain

ABCD : Prismatic bar before deformation/displacement

AB'C'D : Displaced pris matic bar due to shear force P
d : Displacement in the direction of shear force
f: Shear strain

𝛿
∴ we can write ϕ = ( )
𝐿

𝛿
Therefore, shear strain may be expressed as 𝜸 = ( ) or may be expressed in terms of
𝐿
𝛿
angle ϕ. when it is expressed as 𝜸 = ( ), shear strain has no units but when it is
𝐿
expressed in terms of angle ϕ, the unit of shear strain is radians.

b (i) Volumetric Strain: The volumetric strain may be defined as the ratio of change in
volume to the original volume, as a result of deformation due to external loads and is
generally denoted by εv.

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
∴ Volumetric Strain, εv =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Denoting change in volume as δv and original volume as V, we can write

δv
Volumetric Strain, εv =
V
b (ii) Superficial Strain(Area strain): The superficial strain may be defined as the ratio of
change in area to the original area, as a result of deformation due to external loads and may
be denoted by εa

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
∴ Superficial Strain, εv =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

Denoting change in volume as δa and original volume as A, we can write

δa
Volumetric Strain, εa =
A
Note:

 The dimension parallel to the direction of application of external load (or direction of
interest) are treated as linear dimension.

 The dimensions perpendicular to the direction of application of external load (or

direction of interest) are treated as lateral dimensions.

Referring to Fig C, the dimension length (along X-axis) along the direction of application of
axial load P, is treated as linear dimension while the dimensions, breadth & depth,
(respectively along Z-axis & Y-axis) perpendicular to the direction of application of
application axial load P, are treated as lateral dimensions.

L
P
B

Y
Fig C : A prismatic bar of dimensions length L, breadth B & depth D respectively
X respectively along X, Z and Y axes subjected to an axial tensile load P
along X- axis

c (i) Linear Strain : The linear strain may be defined as the ratio of change in linear
dimensions to the original linear dimensions, as a result of deformation due to external load.

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

∴ Linear Strain, εlinear =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

c (ii) Lateral Strain : The lateral strain may be defined as the ratio of change in lateral
dimensions to the original lateral dimensions, as a result of deformation due to external load.

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

∴ Lateral Strain, εlateral =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Referring to Fig. c(i), (length l is the linear dimension and breadth b & depth d are lateral
dimensions), the linear and lateral strains are defined as follows:

𝛿𝑙
Linear Strain with respect to length, ε linear =
𝑙
𝛿𝑏
Lateral Strain with respect to breadth, ε lateral =
𝑏
𝛿𝑑
Lateral Strain with respect to depth, ε lateral =
𝑑

Poisson's Ratio(µ) : The ratio of lateral strain to linear strain, as a result of deformation due
𝟏
to external loads, is called Poisson's ratio and is generally denoted by µ or ( ).
𝒎
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
∴ Poisson’s ratio, µ =
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

For structural materials, the Poisson's ratio lies in the range 0.0 ≤ 0.5. For most metals, the
Poisson's ratio µ ≈ 0.25 - 0.35, for concrete & ceramics µ ≈ 0.10, for cork µ ≈ 0 and for
rubber µ ≈ 0.50. A material for which µ ≈ 0.5, is called incompressible.

The Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio for some of the engineering materials are listed
in the table below.

Material Young's Modulus (E) Poisson's Ratio (µ)

Steel 2.1 e5 (210 GPa) 0.3
Cast Iron 1.20 e5 (120 GPa) 0.28
Aluminium 0.70 e5 (70 GPa) 0.35
Brass 1.10 e5 (110 GPa) 0.33
Bronze 1.20 e5 (120 GPa) 0.34
Copper 1.20 e5 (120 GPa) 0.34
Copper Alloy 1.25 e5 (125 GPa) 0.33
Magnesium 0.45 e5 (45 GPa) 0.35
Titanium 1.10 e5 (110 GPa) 0.35
Glass 0.60 e5 (60 GPa) 0.22
Rubber 50 e5 (5000 GPa) 0.49
Concrete 0.25 e5 (25 GPa) 0.15
Aluminium alloy 0.75 e5 (75 GPa) 0.33
Wrought Iron 1.90 e5 (190 GPa) 0.3
Note: e5 in the unit of Young’s Modulus indicates 10 N/mm2
5

i.e., 2.1e5 = 2.1x105 N/mm2

Concept of Stress: The concept of stress may be explained as follows:

N P

Cross sectional X
Area A
RN
M
N

RM
X
P

M Fig. 1a

Consider a prismatic bar MN of cross sectional area A, subjected to an axial tensile load P at
its ends M & N as indicated in Fig. 1a. In order to maintain the equilibrium of its structure, the
material of the bar develops equal and opposite internal resistance forces R M, opposite to the
force P acting at M and & RN, opposite to the force P acting at N as indicated on section XX
in Fig. 1a. This internal resistance force developed by the material of the bar, per unit of
cross sectional area, is called stress. For equilibrium conditions, the magnitude of this
internal resistance force may be taken as equal to that of external load.

Stress: The stress may be defined as the internal resistance force per unit of cross sectional
area, developed by the material body as a result of deformation due to external load and is
generally denoted by σ

𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

∴ Stress, σ =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

For equilibrium conditions, the magnitude of this internal resistance force may be taken as
equal to that of external load.

Therefore, the Stress may be defined as the ratio of external load acting on a material body
to the effective cross sectional area.
𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Or, Stress, σ =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

Units of stress:

The standard unit of stress is Pascal.

Pascal: A Pascal may be defined as a force of one Newton acting on an area of one square
meter or a stress of 1N/m2 is called one Pascal.

Since Pascal is a very small unit, stress is generally expressed in Mega Pascal (MPa) or
Giga Pascal (GPa).
Equivalent units of MPa and GPa:

1 MPa = 1x106 Pa

1 MPa = 1x106 N/m2 ∵ 1 Pa = 1 N/m2

𝑁
= 1x106 ∵ 1m = 1000mm
(1000∗𝑚𝑚)2

𝑁
= 1x106
106 𝑚𝑚2

= 1 N/mm2

∴ 1 MPa = N/mm2

Similarly,

1 GPa = 1x 109 Pa

or, 1 GPa = 1x106 N/m2 ∵ 1 Pa = 1 N/m2

𝑁
= 1x109 ∵ 1m = 1000mm
(1000∗𝑚𝑚)2

𝑁
= 1x109
106 𝑚𝑚2

= 1x103 N/mm2

= 1 kN/mm2

∴ 1 GPa = 1 kN/mm2

Types of Stresses:

The stresses may be classified into the following:

(a) Normal Stress

(i) Tensile stress
(ii) Compressive stress
(b) Shear stress
(a) Normal Stress: When the stress, corresponding to the normal force (Tensile or
Compressive), is acting perpendicular to the effective cross sectional area, it is called Normal
stress.
(a)(i) Tensile Stress: The tensile stress may be defined as the internal resistance
force per unit of cross sectional area, developed by the material body as a result of
deformation due to external tensile load and may be denoted as σtensile. It may be expressed
in MPa (N/mm2) or GPa (kN/mm2)
 (a)(ii) Compressive Stress: The compressive stress may be defined as the internal
resistance force per unit of cross sectional area, developed by the material body as a result
of deformation due to external compressive load and may be denoted as σcompressive. It may
be expressed in MPa (N/mm2) or GPa (kN/mm2)

(b) Shear stress: The shear stress may be defined as the internal resistance force per unit
of cross sectional area, developed by the material body as a result of deformation due to
external shear force and may be denoted as 𝝉. It may be expressed in MPa or GPa.

Elastic Limit:
The limit of load or stress up to which a material can regain its original shape and size, when
the external loads acting on it are removed, is called elastic limit and may be expressed in
terms of load or stress.
If the elastic limit is expressed in terms of load, it is called load at elastic limit (kN) and, if it
is expressed in terms of stress, it is called stress at elastic limit (GPa).

HOOKE's LAW:
Hooke's Law states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress developed in
the material at any section is directly proportional to the strain at that section.

Mathematically, Stress ∝𝒏𝒂𝒍 Strain

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
or, = Constant
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
or, =E
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝛔
Denoting σ as stress and ε as strain, we can write, =E
𝛆

Where, the constant of proportionality, E is called Young's Modulus of Elasticity or

Modulus of Elasticity or Elastic Modulus.

Stress, s

Linear

(Straight line)

Strain, e

Fig. 1(b)
Stress is directly proportional to the strain means that if a graph of stress v/s strain is plotted,
as indicated in Fig. 1(b), the graph will be a straight line.

Young's Modulus of Elasticity: Young's Modulus of Elasticity may be defined as the ratio
of stress at any section to the strain at that section within elastic limit and is generally
denoted as E.
The Young's Modulus of elasticity may be expressed in MPa (N/mm2) or GPa (kN/mm2). The
unit of Young's Modulus of Elasticity is same as the unit of stress since strain has no unit. It
indicates the elastic strength of the material

The Hooke's Law holds good for tensile, compressive and shear stresses & strains

𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

i.e., = Constant = Constant
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
and = Constant
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

But the proportionality constant between shear stress and shear strain is called Modulus of
Rigidity or Rigidity Modulus. It is generally denoted by G or C.

Modulus of Rigidity:
The modulus of rigidity is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain within elastic
limit and is denoted by G or C.
the Modulus of Rigidity may be expressed in MPa (N/mm2) or GPa (kN/mm2).

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
∴ Modulus of rigidity, G =
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Derivation of an expression for the deformation due to axial loads in prismatic bars or
Extension/Shortening of axially loaded Prismatic bars:

Before deformation

P P

A B
l

dl

P P

A' B'
After deformation

Fig. 1c

Consider a prismatic bar of cross section A, length l and Young's modulus E subjected to an
axial tensile load P as shown in Fig. 1c.
Let 𝜹𝒍 be the change in length, σ be the stress and ε be the strain in the bar due to the axial
tensile load P.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
According to Hooke's law, =E
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

σ
or E= (1)
ε

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
But stress, σ =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

P
or σ=
A

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
and strain, ε =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝜹𝒍
or strain, ε =
𝒍

Substituting for σ and ε (1), we get

(P⁄A)
E=
(𝜹𝒍⁄𝒍 )

𝑷𝒍
∴ The change in length, 𝜹𝒍 = (2)
𝑨𝑬

Equation (2) gives the expression for the change in length (Deformation) due to axial loads in
prismatic bars and holds good for tensile as well as compressive loads.

Principle of superposition:
The principle of superposition states that when an elastic material body is subjected to a
number of external loads at different sections along its length, the total deformation/strain in
the material body will be equal to the algebraic sum of the deformations/strains in the
individual sections of the body.

The principle of superposition is applicable to all the parameters like strain, stress, and
deformation. However, it is not applicable to the materials which do not follow Hooke's law.
The principle of super position is explained with reference to the axially loaded bars as
shown in the figures below:

Principle of Superposition:

Case(i): Prismatic bar/Bar of constant cross section subjected to axial loads

1 2 3
A B C D
A1 E1 A2 E2 A3 E3
Pa Pb Pc Pd

P1 dl 1 e1 P2 dl 2 e2 P3 dl 3 e3

l1 l2 l3

Fig. Case(i)

Case(ii): A bar of suddenly varying cross section/Stepped bar subjected to axial loads

A
1 2 3
B
C D
A1 E1
A2 E2 A3 E3
Pa Pb Pc Pd

P2 d l 2 e2
P3 dl 3 e3
P1 dl 1 e1

l1 l2 l3

Fig. Case(ii)

Fig. Case (i) and Fig. Case (ii) shown above represent a prismatic bar of constant cross
section and a bar of suddenly varying cross sections, subjected to axial loads Pa, Pb, Pc &
Pd at A, B, C & D respectively.
Let (P1 , δl1 , σ1, ε1, l1, A1, & E1), (P2, δl2 , σ2, ε2, l2, A2, & E2) and (P3, δl3 , σ3, ε3, l3, A3, &
E3) be the resultant load, deformation, stress, strain, length, cross sectional area & Young’s
modulus of sections 1, 2, and 3 respectively.
Let δl𝑡 & εt be the total deformation and total strain in the bars respectively.
According to the principle of superposition,
Total deformation, δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 + δl3 ) --------------------(1)
Or
Total strain, εt = (ε1 + ε2 + ε3) -----------------------------(2)

𝑃𝑙
But the deformation/change in length due to axial load, 𝛿𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸
Substituting for δl1 , δl2 & δl3 in equation (1), we get

𝑃1 𝑙1 𝑃2 𝑙2 𝑃3 𝑙3
Total deformation, δl𝑡 = + + --------------(3)
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐴2 𝐸2 𝐴3 𝐸3
 𝜹𝒍
Also, strain due to axial loads, ε =
𝒍

Substituting for ε1 , ε2 & ε3 in equation (2), we get

𝜹𝒍 1 𝜹𝒍 2 𝜹𝒍 3
Total strain, εt = + + -----------------(4)
𝒍1 𝒍2 𝒍3

Equations (3) & (4) hold good for tensile as well as compressive loads.
PB. NO. 1 A prismatic bar of 25mm diameter is subjected to axial loads as shown in the
figure below. Determine the elongation, stress and strain in each section of the bar. Also find
the total elongation of the bar. Take E= 250 kN/mm2.

1 2 3
A B C D

60kN 10kN 20kN 50kN

1.5m 1m 2m

Fig. PB. NO.1

Data: (i) Diameter of the bar, d = 25mm

(ii) Young’s Modulus, E = 250 kN/mm2 (GPa)

Solution:
The loading diagram of the given problem may be divided into three different sections i.e.,
section 1(AB), section 2(BC) and section 3(CD) as indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 1
Let (P1, δl1 , σ1, ε1, l1, A1, & E1), (P2, δl2 , σ2, ε2, l2, A2, & E2) and (P3, δl3 , σ3, ε3, l3, A3,
& E3) be the resultant load, elongation, stress, strain, length, cross sectional area & Young’s
modulus of sections 1, 2, and 3 respectively.
Let δl𝑡 be the total elongation of the bar (or total deformation of the bar).

Applying equilibrium equation ƩH = 0, we get

- 60 - 10 + 20 + 50 = 0
(Leftward forces are treated as negative & Rightward forces are treated are positive)

Therefore, the given prismatic bar is in equilibrium under the action of external loads and
hence all sections of the bar are in equilibrium.

According to the principle of superposition, δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 + δl3 ) -------------(1)

𝑃𝑙
Also, the elongation/deformation/change in length due to axial load, 𝛿𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸

Substituting for δl1 , δl2 & δl3 in equation (1), we get

𝑃1 𝑙1 𝑃2 𝑙2 𝑃3 𝑙3
δl𝑡 = + + ------------(2)
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐴2 𝐸2 𝐴3 𝐸3
The resultant loads P1, P2, & P3 may be determined by drawing Free Body Diagrams (FBD s)
of individual sections and considering the equilibrium conditions of individual sections as
follows;

Applying the equilibrium condition ƩH = 0 for the individual sections

(Note: The resultant load in each of the sections may be obtained as follows and
may be considered for understanding in detail & not as a part of the solution)

 First consider the left end of the section and calculate the algebraic sum of all the
forces acting acting towards left of the section including the force on the left section
and indicate that total force on the left end of the FBD as per the sign convention.

 Next consider the right end of the section and calculate the algebraic sum of all the
forces acting towards right of the section including the force on the right section and
indicate that total force on the right end of the FBD as per the sign convention.

 The total force acting on the left end of the section must be equal and opposite to the
total force acting on the right end of the section to satisfy the condition ƩH = 0.)

This is explained in detail with reference to the FBDs of individual sections below:

PB. NO.1

FBD of section 1

1 Considering first left end of the section1(AB) and calculating the algebraic sum of all the forces acting towards
A B
left of the section including the force on the left section, we get total force as - 60kN
60kN 60kN Next considering the right end of the section1(AB) and calculating the algebraic sum of all the forces acting towards right of
the section including the force on the right section, we get total force as (-10+20+50) = 60kN
Indicating the calculated force on the left end of the section (-60 kN) and the calculated force on the right end of the section
1.5m (+60 kN) as per the sign convention (i.e., leftward force as negative and rightward force as positive), we get the resultant
Fig. PB. NO.1a force in section1(AB) as 60kN(Tensile). This is indicated on FBD of section1(AB). Therefore, P1 = 60kN (Tensile).

FBD of section 2
Considering first left end of the section BC and calculating the algebraic sum of all the forces acting towards
B
2
C left of the section including the force on the left section, we get total force as (-10-60) = -70kN

70kN Next considering the right end of the section BC and calculating the algebraic sum of all the forces acting towards right of
70kN
the section including the force on the right section, we get total force as (+20+50) = +70kN
Indicating the calculated force on the left end of the section (-70 kN) and the calculated force on the right end of the section
1m (+70 kN) as per the sign convention (i.e., leftward force as negative and rightward force as positive), we get the resultant
force in section1(AB) as 70kN(Tensile). This is indicated on FBD of section 2(BC). Therefore, P 2 = 70kN (Tensile).
Fig. PB. NO.1b

FBD of section3
Considering first left end of the section 3(CD) and calculating the algebraic sum of all the forces acting towards
C
3
D left of the section including the force on the left section, we get total force as (- 60-10+20) = -50kN.

50kN Next considering the right end of the section 3(CD) and calculating the algebraic sum of all the forces acting towards right
50kN
of the section including the force on the right section, we get total force as +50kN.
Indicating the calculated force on the left end of the section (-50 kN) and the calculated force on the right end of the section
(+50 kN) as per the sign convention (i.e., leftward force as negative and rightward force as positive), we get the resultant
2m
force in section 3(CD) as 50kN(Tensile). This is indicated on FBD of section 3(CD). Therefore, P3 = 50kN (Tensile).
Fig. PB. NO.1c
(Note: As a part of solution, the FBDs of individual sections with the resultant forces, as
indicated below, may be shown directly.)

FBD of section 1 FBD of section 2 FBD of section3

1 2 3
A B B C C D
Leftward Rightward
60kN Force Force
60kN 70kN 70kN 50kN 50kN

-ve +ve

1.5m 1m 2m Sign Conventions

Fig. PB. NO.1a
Fig. PB. NO.1b Fig. PB. NO.1c

Substituting for P1, P2, & P3 in equation (2), we get,

60∗1500 70∗1000 50∗2000
Total elongation, δl𝑡 = 252 + 252 + 252
𝜋( )∗250 𝜋( )∗250 𝜋( )∗250
4 4 4

𝑑2 252
Here, A1 = A2 = A3 = 𝜋 ( )=𝜋( ) and E1 = E2 = E3 = 250 GPa (kN/mm2)
4 4

or δl𝑡 = (0.733 + 0.570 + 0.810)

∴ 𝛅𝐥𝒕 = 2.113 mm
Stress in each section:

𝑃1 60
(i) Stress in section 1(AB), σ1 = = 252 = 0.122 GPa (kN/mm2)
𝐴1 𝜋( )
4

𝑃2 70
(ii) Stress in section 2(BC), σ2 = = 252 = 0.142 GPa (kN/mm2)
𝐴2 𝜋( )
4

𝑃3 50
(ii) Stress in section 3(CD), σ3 = = 252 = 0.1019 GPa (kN/mm2)
𝐴3 𝜋( )
4

Strain in each section:

δl1 0.733
(i) Strain in section 1(AB), ε1 = = = 4.8 x 10-4
𝑙1 1500
 δl2 0.570
(ii) Strain in section 2(BC), ε2 = = = 5.7 x 10-4
𝑙2 1000

δl3 0.810
(iii) Strain in section 32(CD), ε3 = = = 4.05 x 10-4
𝑙3 2000

PB.NO. 2 A member ABCD is subjected to point loads axially as shown in the figure below.
Calculate (i) Force P necessary for equilibrium
(ii) Total elongation of the bar
Take E = 210 GN/m2 (GPa)
2
B 2400 mm C 2
1200 mm D
2
A 600 mm

50kN P 500kN 200kN

800 mm 1000 mm 1500 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 2

Solution: The given member ABCD may be divided into three sections i.e., section AB
(section 1), section BC(section 2) and section CD(section 3) as shown in the figure below

2 3
1 B 2400 mm 2
C 2
1200 mm D
2
A 600 mm

50kN P 500kN 200kN

800 mm 1000 mm 1500 mm

Let (P1 , δl1 , σ1, ε1, l1, A1, & E1), (P2, δl2 , σ2, ε2, l2, A2, & E2) and (P3, δl3 , σ3, ε3, l3, A3, &
E3) be the resultant load, elongation, stress, strain, length, cross sectional area & Young’s
modulus of sections 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

Applying equilibrium equation ƩH = 0, we get

- 50 + P – 500 + 200 = 0
Therefore, the force necessary for equilibrium, P = 350 kN
According to the principle of superposition, δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 + δl3 ) -------------(1)

𝑃𝑙
Also, the elongation/deformation/change in length due to axial load, 𝛿𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸

Substituting for δl1 , δl2 & δl3 in equation (1), we get

𝑃1 𝑙1 𝑃2 𝑙2 𝑃3 𝑙3
δl𝑡 = + + ------------(2)
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐴2 𝐸2 𝐴3 𝐸3

Given that A 1 = 600mm2, A2 = 2400mm2 and A3 = 1200mm2

Also E1 = E2 = E3 = 210 GPa, 𝑙1= 800mm, 𝑙2= 1000mm and 𝑙3= 1500mm
The resultant loads P1, P2, & P3 may be determined by drawing Free Body Diagrams (FBD s )
of individual sections and considering the equilibrium conditions of individual sections as
shown in the figures below.

FBD of section 2
FBD of section3
FBD of section 1
2
2400 mm
2 3
B C C
2
1 1200 mm
2
D
A 600 mm B
50kN 50kN 300kN 300kN 200kN 200kN

800 mm
1500 mm
1000 mm

From the FBDs of individual sections, it is clear that

The resultant load in section 1, P 1 = 50kN (Tensile)

The resultant load in section 2, P 2 = 300kN (Compressive)

The resultant load in section 3, P 3 = 200kN (Tensile)

Substituting for P1, P2, & P3 in equation (2), we get,

50∗800 (−300)∗1000 200∗1500
Total elongation, δl𝑡 = + +
600∗210 2400∗210 1200∗210

= (0.3174 – 0.5952 + 1.190)

Or Total elongation, 𝛅𝐥𝒕 = 0.913 mm

PB. NO. 3 A prismatic steel bar having a cross sectional area of 200mm 2 is subjected to
axial loading as shown in the figure below. Determine the net change in the length of the bar.
Take E = 210 kN/mm2

25kN 25kN 20kN

1m 1m 2m

Solution:

The loading diagram of the given problem may be divided into three different sections i.e.,
section 1(AB), section 2(BC) and section 3(CD) as indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 3

1 2 3
A B C D

RA 25kN 25kN 20kN

1m 1m 2m

Fig. PB. NO. 3

Let RA be the reaction force at the fixed support A (Rigid support) as indicated in the
Fig. PB. NO. 3

Applying equilibrium equation ƩH = 0, we get

- RA - 25 + 25 - 20 = 0
(Leftward forces are treated as negative & Rightward forces are treated are positive)
∴ The reaction force, RA = 30kN
(Since the calculated value of RA is positive, the assumed direction for RA , as indicated in the
Fig. PB. NO. 3, is correct)
Let (P1, δl1 , σ1, ε1, l1, A1, & E1), (P2, δl2 , σ2, ε2, l2, A2, & E2) and (P3, δl3 , σ3, ε3, l3, A3,
& E3) be the resultant load, elongation, stress, strain, length, cross sectional area & Young’s
modulus of sections 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

Let δl𝑡 be the net change in the length (total deformation) of the bar
According to the principle of superposition, δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 + δl3 ) -------------(1)

𝑃𝑙
Also, the elongation/deformation/change in length due to axial load, 𝛿𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸

Substituting for δl1 , δl2 & δl3 in equation (1), we get

𝑃1 𝑙1 𝑃2 𝑙2 𝑃3 𝑙3
δl𝑡 = + + ------------(2)
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐴2 𝐸2 𝐴3 𝐸3
The resultant loads P1, P2, & P3 may be determined by drawing Free Body Diagrams (FBD s)
of individual sections and considering the equilibrium conditions of individual sections as
indicated below:

Free Body Diagrams of Individual Sections

FBD of section 1 FBD of section 2 FBD of section3

A 1 B B 2 C
3 D
C

30 kN 30 kN 5 kN 5 kN 20kN 20kN

1m 1m 2m

From the FBDs of individual sections, it is clear that

The resultant load in section 1, P 1 = 30kN (Tensile)

The resultant load in section 2, P 2 = 5kN (Tensile)

The resultant load in section 3, P 3 = 20kN (Compressive)

Here, A1 = A2 = A3 = 200 mm2 and E1 = E2 = E3 = 210 kN/mm2

Substituting for P1, P2, & P3 in equation (2), we get,

30∗1000 5∗1000 (−20)∗2000

∴ The net change in length, δl𝑡 = + +
200∗210 200∗210 200∗210

= (0.7142 + 0.1190 - 0.9523)

Or The net change in length, 𝛅𝐥𝒕 = (- 0.1191 mm)

Since 𝛅𝐥𝒕 is negative, the net change in length/the overall deformation is a reduction in the
length of the bar.

PB. NO. 3a: A mild steel bar of suddenly varying cross sections is subjected to an axial pull
of 40 kN as shown in Fig PB. NO. 3a below.
Find: (i) The total extension (Deformation) of the bar taking E = 210GPa.
(ii) If the total extension of the bar under the same pull, is 0.350mm, find the Young’s
Modulus of the material of the bar.

40 kN 40 kN
f 30

f 35
f 20

200 mm 260 mm 160 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 3a

Solution: (i) To find the total extension of the bar:
The given loading diagram may be divided into three different sections i.e., section 1(AB),
section 2(BC) and section 3(CD) as indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 3a(i) below.

1 C
3 D
A B 2
40 kN 40 kN

f 30

f 35
f 20
200 mm 260 mm 160 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 3a(i)

Let (P1 , δl1 , σ1, ε1, l1, A1, & E1), (P2, δl2 , σ2, ε2, l2, A2, & E2) and (P3, δl3 , σ3, ε3, l3, A3, &
E3) be the resultant load, elongation, stress, strain, length, cross sectional area & Young’s
modulus of sections 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

Let δl𝑡 be the net change in the length (total deformation) of the bar
According to the principle of superposition, δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 + δl3 ) -------------(1)

𝑃𝑙
Also, the elongation/deformation/change in length due to axial load, 𝛿𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸

Substituting for δl1 , δl2 & δl3 in equation (1), we get

𝑃1 𝑙1 𝑃2 𝑙2 𝑃3 𝑙3
δl𝑡 = + + ------------ (2)
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐴2 𝐸2 𝐴3 𝐸3

{Note: If an axially loaded bar is subjected to the loads at the extreme ends of the bar
without any loads at the intermediate sections of the bar, then the Free Body Diagrams need
not be drawn to determine the resultant load in the individual sections. All the sections of the
bar will be subjected to the same amount & nature of the load acting at its extreme ends.}

Here, P1 = P2 = P3 = P = 40 kN (Tensile)

Substituting all the corresponding values in equation (2), we get,

40∗200 40∗260 40∗160

Total extension of the bar, δl𝑡 = 302 + 202 + 352
𝜋( )∗210 𝜋( )∗210 𝜋( )∗210
4 4 4

Or δl𝑡 = ( 0.05388 + 0.15761 + 0.03167)

Or 𝛅𝐥𝒕 = 0.24316mm
(ii) To find the Young’s Modulus of the material of the bar if the total extension, under
the same pull, is 0.350mm:

Given that, δl𝑡 = 0.350mm, P1 = P2 = P3 = P = 40 kN (Tensile) and other data i.e., cross
sectional areas & lengths of individual sections remain same. Also E 1 = E2 = E3 = E.

Substituting all the corresponding values in equation (2), we get,

40∗200 40∗260 40∗160

0.350 = 302 + 202 + 352
𝜋( )∗𝐸 𝜋( )∗𝐸 𝜋( )∗𝐸
4 4 4

Or 0.350E = 11.3162 + 33.0999 + 6.6511

∴ The Young’s Modulus of the material of the bar, E = 145.906 kN/mm2

PB. NO. 3b: A steel bar is 8m long and is 50mm in diameter for a length of 2m, 40mm in
diameter for a length of 2m and 30mm in diameter for the remaining length. The bar is
subjected to an axial tensile force at the free ends. If the stress in the smallest section is
85N/mm2, find the total elongation of the bar. Take E = 210GPa.

Solution:
From the given data, the geometry of the steel bar may be represented by an orthographic
view with three different sections i.e., section 1 (AB), section 2 (BC) and section 3 (CD) as
indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 3b below

A 1 B 2
C 3
D
f 50 f 40
P f 30 P

2m 2m 4m

Fig. PB. NO. 3b

Solution:
Let (P1 , δl1 , σ1, ε1, l1, A1, & E1), (P2, δl2 , σ2, ε2, l2, A2, & E2) and (P3, δl3 , σ3, ε3, l3, A3, &
E3) be the resultant load, elongation, stress, strain, length, cross sectional area & Young’s
modulus of sections 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

Let δl𝑡 be the net change in the length (total deformation) of the bar
According to the principle of superposition, δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 + δl3 ) -------------(1)

𝑃𝑙
Also, the elongation/deformation/change in length due to axial load, 𝛿𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸
Substituting for δl1 , δl2 & δl3 in equation (1), we get

𝑃1 𝑙1 𝑃2 𝑙2 𝑃3 𝑙3
δl𝑡 = + + ------------ (2)
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐴2 𝐸2 𝐴3 𝐸3

Here, P1 = P2 = P3 = P
Given that the stress in the smallest section is 85N/mm 2 i.e., the stress in the section 3(CD)
is 85N/mm2 or σ3 = 85N/mm2

𝑃3 𝑃 𝑃 302
Or σ3 = ( ) = ( )= 302 ; A3 = 𝜋 ( )
𝐴3 𝐴3 𝜋( ) 4
4

𝑃
Or 85 = 302
𝜋( )
4

∴ The axial tensile force, P = 60082.95 N

Or P ≈ 60 kN and P1 = P2 = P3 = P = 60 kN

Now substituting all the corresponding values in equation (2), we get,

60∗2000 60∗2000 60∗4000
δl𝑡 = 502 + 402 + 302
𝜋( )∗210 𝜋( )∗210 𝜋( )∗210
4 4 4

Or = (0.29117 +0.4549 +1.6176)

Or Total elongation, 𝛅𝐥𝒕 = 2.362mm

PB. NO. 3c: A bar of length 1000mm and diameter 30mm is centrally bored (drilled) for
400mm, the bore diameter being 10mm, as shown in the Fig. PB NO. 3c. below. Under a
load of 25 kN , if the extension of the bar is 0.185mm, what is the Young’s Modulus of
elasticity of the bar?

25 kN 25 kN
f 30

f 10

400 mm

1000 mm

Fig. PB. NO.3c

Solution: The given bar may be considered to be made of two sections:

Section 1(AB), a solid bar of diameter 30mm and length (1000-400)=600mm &
section 2(BC), a hollow cylindrical bar external diameter 30mm, internal diameter 10mm, and
length 400mm as shown in the Fig.PB. NO. 3c(i) below.
 A 1 B 2 C

25 kN 25 kN

f 30

f 10
400 mm

1000 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 3c(i)

Let (P1, δl1 , σ1, ε1, l1, A1, & E1) and (P2, δl2 , σ2, ε2, l2, A2, & E2) be the resultant load,
elongation, stress, strain, length, cross sectional area & Young’s modulus of sections 1 and 2
respectively.

Let δl𝑡 be the net change in the length (total deformation) of the bar
According to the principle of superposition, δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 ) ------------- (1)

𝑃𝑙
Also, the elongation/deformation/change in length due to axial load, 𝛿𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸
Substituting for δl1 & δl2 in equation (1), we get

𝑃1 𝑙1 𝑃2 𝑙2
δl𝑡 = + -------------- (2)
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐴2 𝐸2

302 302 −102

Here, P1 = P2 = P = 25 kN(Tensile), A1= 𝜋 ( ), A2 = 𝜋 ( ), E1 = E2 = E and also
4 4
it is given that the extension of the bar = 0.185mm i.e., δl𝑡 = 0.185mm

Substituting the all the corresponding values in equation (2), we get,

25∗600 60∗2000
0.185 = 302 + 302−102
𝜋( )∗𝐸 𝜋( )∗𝐸
4 4

∴ The Young’s Modulus of elasticity of the bar, E = 200.736 kN/mm2

PB. NO. 3d: A composite rod is axially loaded as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 3d below.
Determine the largest value of P such that the stress in steel and brass does not exceed
150MPa and 75MPa respectively. Also determine the net deformation in the bar.
Take Esteel = 200GPa and Ebrass = 75GPa.
f 75 f 75
f 50

3P P 2P

Brass
Steel Steel

1m 1.25 m 0.75 m

Fig. PB. NO. 3d

Solution:
The loading diagram of the given problem may be divided into three different sections i.e.,
section 1(AB), section 2(BC) and section 3(CD) as indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 3d(i) below

f 75 1 B f 75 3 D
A 2 C
f 50
RA
3P P 2P

Brass
Steel Steel

1m 1.25 m 0.75 m

Fig. PB. NO. 3d(i)

Let RA be the reaction force at the fixed support A (Rigid support) as indicated in the
Fig. PB. NO. 3d(i)

Applying equilibrium equation ƩH = 0, we get

- RA - 3P - P- 2P = 0
(Leftward forces are treated as negative & Rightward forces are treated are positive)
∴ The reaction force, RA = - 6P
(Since the calculated value of RA is negative, the assumed direction for RA , as indicated in
the Fig. PB. NO. 3d(i), is not correct and is to be reversed)
Let (P1, δl1 , σ1, ε1, l1, A1, & E1), (P2, δl2 , σ2, ε2, l2, A2, & E2) and (P3, δl3 , σ3, ε3, l3, A3,
& E3) be the resultant load, elongation, stress, strain, length, cross sectional area & Young’s
modulus of sections 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

Let δl𝑡 be the net change in the length (total deformation) of the bar
According to the principle of superposition, δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 + δl3 ) -------------(1)

𝑃𝑙
Also, the elongation/deformation/change in length due to axial load, 𝛿𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸

Substituting for δl1 , δl2 & δl3 in equation (1), we get

 𝑃1 𝑙1 𝑃2 𝑙2 𝑃3 𝑙3
δl𝑡 = + + ------------(2)
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐴2 𝐸2 𝐴3 𝐸3

The resultant loads P1, P2, & P3 may be determined by drawing Free Body Diagrams (FBD s)
of individual sections and considering the equilibrium conditions of individual sections as
indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 3d FBDs below:

Free Body Diagrams of Individual Sections

A f 75 1 B 3 D
2 C f 75
B f 50 C
6P 6P
3P 3P 2P 2P

Steel Brass
Steel

1m 1.25 m
0.75 m

Fig. PB. NO. 3d FBDs

From the FBDs of individual sections, it is clear that

The resultant load in section 1, P 1 = 6P kN (Compressive)

The resultant load in section 2, P 2 = 3P kN (Compressive)

The resultant load in section 3, P 3 = 2P kN (Compressive)

752 502
Here, A1 = A3 = 𝜋 ( ) mm2, A2 = 𝜋 ( ) mm2 and E1 = E3 = 200GPa & E2 = 75GPa
4 4

(i) To find the largest value of P:

Given that the stress in steel and brass does not exceed 150MPa and 75MPa respectively.

From this data of stress criteria in steel and brass, the value of P is determined as follows;
𝑃1 −6𝑃
∴ The stress in steel of section 1, σ1 = [ ]= 752
𝐴1 𝜋( )
4

−6𝑃
Or 150 = 752 = - 110460.9375 N
𝜋( )
4

Or P = - 110.46 kN

𝑃2 −3𝑃
The stress in brass of section 2 , σ2 = [ ]= 502
𝐴2 𝜋( )
4

−3𝑃
Or 75 = 502 = - 49093.75 N
𝜋( )
4
Or P = - 49.093 kN

𝑃3 −2𝑃
and The stress in steel of section 3, σ3 = [ ]= 752
𝐴3 𝜋( )
4

−2𝑃
Or 150 = 752 = - 331382.812 N
𝜋( )
4

Or P = - 331.382 kN

The smallest value of P (in magnitude), i.e., P = 49.093 kN satisfies the criteria that stress in
steel and brass does not exceed 150MPa and 75MPa respectively
(Note: In all the problems like this i.e., PB. NO. 3d, wherein the largest value of P is required
to be determined such that the stress does not exceed the given values, find the load values
of P from the given stress criteria and choose the smallest value of P as the required answer
which will satisfy the given stress criteria).

(ii) To find the net deformation in the bar:

Substituting all the corresponding values in equation (2) i.e.,

752 502
P1 = -6P, P2 = -3P, P3 = -2P, A1 = A3 = 𝜋 ( ) mm2, A2 = 𝜋 ( ) mm2, E1 = E3 =
4 4
200GPa, E2 = 75GPa, 𝑙1 = 1000mm, 𝑙2 = 1250mm and 𝑙3 = 750mm, we get

(−6𝑃)∗1000 (−3𝑃)∗1250 (−2𝑃)∗750

The net deformation in the bar, δl𝑡 = 752 + 502 + 752
𝜋( )∗200 𝜋( )∗75 𝜋( )∗200
4 4 4

Where P= 49.093 kN

(−6∗49.093)∗1000 (−3∗49.093)∗1250 (−2∗49.093)∗750

Or δl𝑡 = 752 + 502 + 752
𝜋( )∗200 𝜋( )∗75 𝜋( )∗200
4 4 4

Or δl𝑡 = (-0.3333 - 1.2499 - 0.08333)

Or 𝛅𝐥𝒕 = -1.6665 mm
PB. No. 3e: A steel bar ABC is fixed rigidly at end A and its bottom end C is at a height of
1mm from the bottom rigid support (or the bottom rigid support is 1mm away from the lower
end C) as shown in the Fig. PB. NO. 3e below. If E = 200 kN/mm 2, determine the reactions of
the supports at the top and bottom, and stress in the parts AB and BC due to the axial load.

RA

A A A

f 100 f 100 f 100

4m

4m
4m
B B B

f 120 500 kN f 120 500 kN f 120 500 kN

3m

3m
3m
1 mm C
C C

Fig. PB. NO. 3e Fig. PB. NO. 3e(i)

Fig. PB. NO. 3e(ii)

Free Body Diagrams

RA
RA
( R A- 500 )
A B
A
1 1 2
4m

3m
f 100
4m

C
B -R
B C
( - 500 - RC )
Fig. PB. NO. 3e(iv)
f 120 500 kN
3m

429.753 kN
2 70.247 kN
A B
C

1 2
4m

RC
3m

Fig. PB. NO. 3e(iii)

C
B
70.247 kN
429.753 kN Fig. PB. NO. 3e(v)
Final Free Body Diagrams

Solution:
In this problem, we have to first check whether the lower end C of the bar touches the bottom
rigid support or not due to the axial load of 500 kN. If the total deformation in the bar is
greater than 1mm, then the lower end C touches the bottom rigid support and the given
problem is to be treated as a bar held between the rigid or fixed supports with a total
permitted deformation of 1mm. i.e., δl𝑡 = 1mm. and the principle of superposition is to be
written as;
 δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 ) = 1

Or 1 = (δl1 + δl2 )

(i) To find whether the lower end C of the bar touches the bottom rigid support or not:

Assuming that there is no rigid support at the lower end of the bar as indicated in
Fig. PB. No. 3e(i) above, the total deformation in the bar due to the axial load of 500 kN, is
determined as follows:

Referring to Fig. PB. NO. 3e(i),

Applying equilibrium equation ƩH = 0, we get

RA - 500 = 0
(Upward forces are treated as positive & downward forces are treated are negative)
∴ RA = 500 kN (Since RA is positive, the assumed direction for RA correct)

Let (P1, δl1 , σ1, ε1, l1, A1, & E1) and (P2, δl2 , σ2, ε2, l2, A2, & E2) be the resultant load,
elongation, stress, strain, length, cross sectional area & Young’s modulus of sections 1 and 2
respectively.

Let δl𝑡 be the net change in the length (total deformation) of the bar
According to the principle of superposition, δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 ) ------------- (1)

𝑃𝑙
Also, the elongation/deformation/change in length due to axial load, 𝛿𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸
Substituting for δl1 & δl2 in equation (1), we get

𝑃1 𝑙1 𝑃2 𝑙2
δl𝑡 = + -------------- (2)
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝐴2 𝐸2

The resultant loads P1 in section AB and P2 in section BC, as determined by considering the
FBDs and equilibrium of individual sections, are found to be ;

P1 = 500 kN(Tensile) and P 2 = 0 kN

1002 1202
Also A1= 𝜋 ( ), A2 = 𝜋 ( ) and E1 = E2 = E = 200kN/mm2
4 4
Substituting all the corresponding values in equation (2), we get,

500∗4000 0∗3000
δl𝑡 = 1002 + 1202
𝜋( )∗200 𝜋( )∗200
4 4

Or 𝛅𝐥𝒕 = 1.273 mm
Since δl𝑡 is greater than 1mm, the lower end C of the bar touches the bottom rigid support
and the given problem is to be treated as a bar held between rigid supports as indicated in
Fig. PB. NO. 3e(ii) above.

(i) To find the reaction forces at the supports:

Let RA and R C be the reaction forces at the top end support and the bottom end supports
respectively as indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 3e(iii) above.

Applying equilibrium equation ƩH = 0, we get

RA - 500 - RC = 0 ------------------(1)
(Upward forces are treated as positive & downward forces are treated are negative)

The reaction forces R A and R D can be determined by drawing the FBDs and expressing
the resultant loads in the individual sections in terms of RA or R D as follows.

Let (P1, δl1 , σ1, ε1, l1, A1, & E1) and (P2, δl2 , σ2, ε2, l2, A2, & E2) be the resultant load,
elongation, stress, strain, length, cross sectional area & Young’s modulus of sections 1and 2
respectively.
Let δl𝑡 be total deformation of the bar.
According to the principle of superposition, δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 ) -------------(2)

For an axially loaded bar with two sections, held between the fixed supports, the principle of
superposition may be written as :
The total deformation, 𝛅𝐥𝒕 = (𝛅𝐥𝟏 + 𝛅𝐥𝟐 ) = 0 ----------------- (3)
In this problem, the permitted deformation at the lower end C is 1mm. therefore, the equation
(3) is to be modified as

𝑷𝟏 𝒍𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝒍 𝟐
𝟏= + ----------------- (4)
𝑨𝟏 𝑬 𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑬 𝟐

Where P1 and P2 are the resultant load in individual sections 1 and 2 respectively and are
determined by drawing the FBDs of individual sections as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 3e(iv)
above.

From the FBDs of individual sections, it is clear that

The resultant load in section 1, P 1 = (RA ) or (-500-RC)

The resultant load in section 2, P 2 = (RA -500) or (-RC)

1002 1202
Here, A1 = 𝜋 ( ) A2 = 𝜋 ( ), E1 = E2 = 200 GPa,
4 4

l1 = 4000mm and l2 = 3000 mm

Substituting for P1 & P2, in terms RA , in equation (4), we get,

 (RA)∗4000 ( RA−500) ∗3000
1= 1002 + 1202
𝜋( )∗200 𝜋( )∗200
4 4

On solving, we get,

RA = 429.753 kN

(Since the calculated value of RA is positive, the assumed direction for RA is correct)

Now, substituting for RA in equation(1), we get,

429.753 - 500 - RC = 0

Or RC = -70.247 kN

(Since the calculated value of RC is negative, the assumed direction for RC is not correct and
it is to be reversed)

The final Free Body Diagrams with the magnitude and direction of resultant loads in
individual sections, are represented in Fig. PB. NO. 3e(v).

Referring to FBDs in Fig. PB. NO. 3e(v),

The resultant load in section 1(AB), P1 = 429.753 kN (Tensile) and

The resultant load in section 2(BC), P2= 70.247 kN (Compressive)

(iii) To find the stresses in portions AB and BC:

𝑃1 429.753
Stress in section 1(AB), σ1 = ( )=[ 1002
]
𝐴1 𝜋( )
4

Or σ1 = 0.05471 kN/mm2

𝑃2 −70.247
Stress in section 2(BC), σ2 = ( )=[ 1202
]
𝐴2 𝜋( )
4

Or σ2 = - 0.006211 kN/mm2
 Axially loaded bars held between rigid supports(Fixed Supports):

In case of axially loaded bars held between rigid supports, the overall or net
deformation/change in length due to axial loads will be zero. The elongation in some of the
sections of the bar will be compensated by the contractions in other sections of the bar, so
that the net /overall deformation in the bar will be zero and the total length of the bar remains
unchanged. Therefore, the principle of superposition for an axially loaded bar with three
sections, held between the fixed supports, may be written as follows:
The total deformation, 𝛅𝐥𝒕 = (𝛅𝐥𝟏 + 𝛅𝐥𝟐 + 𝛅𝐥𝟑) = 0

Or 0 = (𝛅𝐥𝟏 + 𝛅𝐥𝟐 + 𝛅𝐥𝟑) -----------------(1)

Where 𝛅𝐥𝟏, 𝛅𝐥𝟐, & 𝛅𝐥𝟑 are the deformations in section 1, section 2 & section 3 respectively.
𝑃𝑙
Also, the elongation/deformation/change in length due to axial load, 𝛿𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸

Substituting for 𝛅𝐥𝟏, 𝛅𝐥𝟐, & 𝛅𝐥𝟑, equation (1) in we get,

𝑷𝟏 𝒍 𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝒍 𝟐 𝑷𝟑 𝒍𝟑
𝟎= + + -------------------(2)
𝑨𝟏 𝑬 𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑬 𝟐 𝑨𝟑 𝑬 𝟑

The equation (2) may be used to find the unknown reaction forces (end reactions) and
thereby the resultant loads in individual sections.

PB. NO. 4: A stepped bar of steel, held between two unyielding supports (Rigid supports), is
subjected to axial loads as shown in the figure below. Find the reactions developed at the
end supports (End reactions). Also find the deformation, stress and strain in each section of
the bar. Take E = 200kN/mm2.

f 60
f 40

80 kN 60 kN

150 mm 150 mm 300 mm

Solution:
The loading diagram of the given problem may be divided into three different sections i.e.,
section 1(AB), section 2(BC) and section 3(CD) as indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 4
 1 2
A 3
f 60 B C D
f 40

RA 80 kN 60 kN RD

150 mm 150 mm 300 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 4

Let RA and R D be the reaction forces (end reactions) at the fixed supports A (Rigid supports)
and D respectively as indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 4

(Note: While solving the problems on axially loaded bars held between the rigid supports,
the following method may be used.
 At the point of support at the left end, initially assume the direction of reaction force
towards left.
 At the point of support at the right end, initially assume the direction of reaction force
towards right.
 The reaction forces at the supports (end reactions) may be determined from the FBDs
of individual sections as follows:

 Draw the FBDs of individual sections.

 Indicate the net load at the left end & right end of the individual sections in
terms of the reaction forces (i.e., in terms of summation equation containing
reaction force terms).
 Do not indicate the direction of loads at the left end & right of individual
sections.
 Now, express the resultant load in individual sections i.e., P1, P2 and P3 in
terms of one of the unknown reaction forces, RA or RD.
 Substitute for P 1, P2 and P3 in the equation 0 = (𝛅𝐥𝟏 + 𝛅𝐥𝟐 + 𝛅𝐥𝟑)
𝑷𝟏 𝒍 𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝒍 𝟐 𝑷𝟑 𝒍 𝟑
i.e., in the equation 𝟎 = + +
𝑨𝟏 𝑬 𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑬 𝟐 𝑨𝟑 𝑬 𝟑
 Determine the only one unknown (i.e., reaction force RA or R D.) contained in the
above equation.)

Applying equilibrium equation ƩH = 0, we get

- RA + 80 + 60 + RD = 0 ------------------(1)
(Leftward forces are treated as negative & Rightward forces are treated are positive)

(For Reference only: The reactions forces RA or R D cannot be determined from equation
(1) directly as it is a case of statically indeterminate problem i.e., the number of unknowns
are greater than the number of equilibrium equations that can be applied. The only one
equilibrium equation that can be applied is ƩH = 0, wherein there are two unknowns, RA and
RD)
The reaction forces R A and R D can be determined by drawing the FBDs and expressing
the resultant loads in the individual sections in terms of RA or R D as follows.

Let (P1 , δl1 , σ1, ε1, l1, A1, & E1), (P2, δl2 , σ2, ε2, l2, A2, & E2) and (P3, δl3 , σ3, ε3, l3, A3, &
E3) be the resultant load, elongation, stress, strain, length, cross sectional area & Young’s
modulus of sections 1, 2, and 3 respectively.
Let δl𝑡 be total deformation of the bar.
According to the principle of superposition, δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 + δl3 ) -------------(2)
For an axially loaded bar with three sections, held between the fixed supports, the principle
of superposition may be written as :
The total deformation, 𝛅𝐥𝒕 = (𝛅𝐥𝟏 + 𝛅𝐥𝟐 + 𝛅𝐥𝟑) = 0

𝑷𝟏 𝒍 𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝒍 𝟐 𝑷𝟑 𝒍 𝟑
Or 𝟎= + + -------------------(3)
𝑨𝟏 𝑬 𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑬 𝟐 𝑨𝟑 𝑬 𝟑

Where P1, P2 and P3 are the resultant load in individual sections 1, 2 & 3 respectively and are
determined by drawing the FBDs of individual sections as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 4a

Free Body Diagrams of Individual Sections

FBD of section 1 FBD of section 2 FBD of section3

A 1 B B 2 3
C C D

( - RA ) ( 140+ RD )
(80 - RA) (60 + RD) (140 - RA) RD

150 mm 150 mm
300 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 4a

(Reference Note: In the FBDs of individual sections shown above, the resultant loads in
individual sections are expressed in terms of the reaction forces RA and R D at the left end &
right end of the sections. The actual magnitude, direction and nature of resultant loads will be
indicated after calculating the values of RA and RD. from equation (3))

From the FBDs of individual sections, it is clear that

The resultant load in section 1, P 1 = (-RA ) or (140+RD)

The resultant load in section 2, P 2 = (80- RA ) or (60+RD)

The resultant load in section 3, P 3 = (140-RA ) or (RD)

402 302
Here, A1 = A2 = 𝜋 ( ) & A3 = 𝜋 ( ), E1 = E2 = E3 = 200 GPa and
4 4

l1 = l2 = 150 mm & l3 = 300 mm

 Substituting for P1, P2, & P3 in terms RA in equation (3), we get,

(−RA)∗150 (80− RA) ∗150 (140−RA) ∗300

0= 402 + 402 + 302
𝜋( )∗200 𝜋( )∗200 𝜋( )∗200
4 4 4

On solving the above equation, we get,

The reaction force, R A ≈ 104 kN

(Since the calculated value of RA is positive, the assumed direction for RA is correct i.e.,
leftward)

Now, substituting for RA in equation (1), we get,

- 104 + 80 + 60 + RD = 0

∴ The reaction force, RD = - 36 kN

(Since the calculated value of RD is negative, the assumed direction for RD is not correct & it
is to be reversed i.e., leftward)

The resultant loads in the individual sections may be calculated by substituting for RA and RD
in the FBDs shown above and the final FBDs with the actual magnitude & direction of
resultant loads are indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 4b below.

Final Free Body Diagrams of Individual Sections

FBD of section 1 FBD of section 2 FBD of section3

A 1 B 2 3
B C C D

104 kN 104 kN 24 kN 24 kN 36 kN 36 kN

150 mm 150 mm 300 mm

Fig. PB NO. 4b

From the Final FBDs of individual sections, it is clear that

The resultant load in section 1, P 1 = 104 kN (Tensile)

The resultant load in section 2, P 2 = 24 kN (Tensile)

The resultant load in section 3, P 3 = 36 kN (Compressive)

The deformations in the individual sections may be calculated as follows:

𝑷𝟏 𝒍 𝟏 104∗150
The deformation in section 1 (AB), 𝛅𝐥𝟏= = 402 = 0.06207 mm
𝑨𝟏 𝑬 𝟏 𝜋( )200
4

𝑷𝟐 𝒍 𝟐 24∗150
The deformation in section 2 (BC), 𝛅𝐥𝟐= = 402 = 0.014323 mm
𝑨𝟐 𝑬 𝟐 𝜋( )200
4

𝑷𝟑 𝒍 𝟑 −36∗300
The deformation in section 2 (BC), 𝛅𝐥𝟑= = 302 = - 0.076394 mm
𝑨𝟑 𝑬 𝟑 𝜋( )200
4

The stress in the individual sections may be calculated as follows:

𝑃1 104
(i) Stress in section 1(AB), σ1 = = 402 = 0.08276 GPa (kN/mm2)
𝐴1 𝜋( )
4

𝑃2 24
(ii) Stress in section 2(BC), σ2 = = 402 = 0.01909 GPa (kN/mm2)
𝐴2 𝜋( )
4

𝑃3 −36
(iii) Stress in section 3(CD), σ3 = = 302 = - 0.05092 GPa (kN/mm2)
𝐴3 𝜋( )
4

The strain in the individual sections may be calculated as follows:

δl1 0.06207
(i) Strain in section 1(AB), ε1 = = = 4.138 x 10-4
𝑙1 150

δl2 0.014323
(ii) Strain in section 2(BC), ε2 = = = 9.548 x 10-5
𝑙2 150

δl3 −0.07639
(iii) Strain in section 3(CD), ε3 = = = - 2.546 x 10-4
𝑙3 300
PB. NO. 5: A prismatic bar of 800mm length and 25mm diameter is attached rigidly at A and
B as shown in the figure below. The bar is subjected to forces as indicated in the figure.
If E = 210 GPa, determine the reactions at the two ends A and B. Also find the deformation,
stress and strain in each of the sections of the bar.
A B

30 kN

60 kN

275 mm 150 mm 375 mm

Solution:
The loading diagram of the given problem may be divided into three different sections i.e.,
section 1(AC), section 2(CD) and section 3(DB) as indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 5 below.
A 1 C 2 D 3 B

RA 30 kN RB
60 kN

275 mm 150 mm 375 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 5

Applying equilibrium equation ƩH = 0, we get

- RA + 30 - 60 + RB = 0 ------------------(1)
(Leftward forces are treated as negative & Rightward forces are treated are positive)

The reaction forces R A and R D can be determined by drawing the FBDs and expressing
the resultant loads in the individual sections in terms of RA or R D as follows.

Let (P1 , δl1 , σ1, ε1, l1, A1, & E1), (P2, δl2 , σ2, ε2, l2, A2, & E2) and (P3, δl3 , σ3, ε3, l3, A3, &
E3) be the resultant load, elongation, stress, strain, length, cross sectional area & Young’s
modulus of sections 1, 2, and 3 respectively.
Let δl𝑡 be total deformation of the bar.
According to the principle of superposition, δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 + δl3 ) -------------(2)
For an axially loaded bar with three sections, held between the fixed supports, the principle
of superposition may be written as :
The total deformation, 𝛅𝐥𝒕 = (𝛅𝐥𝟏 + 𝛅𝐥𝟐 + 𝛅𝐥𝟑) = 0

𝑷𝟏 𝒍 𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝒍 𝟐 𝑷𝟑 𝒍 𝟑
Or 𝟎= + + -------------------(3)
𝑨𝟏 𝑬 𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑬 𝟐 𝑨𝟑 𝑬 𝟑

Where P1, P2 and P3 are the resultant load in individual sections 1, 2 & 3 respectively and are
determined by drawing the FBDs of individual sections as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 5a
 Free Body Diagrams of Individual Sections
1 2 3
A C C D D B

( - R A) ( R B - 30 ) ( -30 - R A) RB

( 30 - R A) (R B- 60 )

275 mm 150 mm 375 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 5a

From the FBDs of individual sections, it is clear that

The resultant load in section 1, P 1 = (-RA ) or (RB - 30)

The resultant load in section 2, P 2 = (30 - RA ) or RB - 60)

The resultant load in section 3, P 3 = (- 30 - RA ) or (RB)

252
Here, A1 = A2 = A3 𝜋( ) , E1 = E2 = E3 = 210 GPa and
4

l1 = 275mm , l2 = 150mm & l3 = 375mm

Substituting for P1, P2, & P3 in terms RA in equation (3), we get,
(−RA)∗275 (30− RA) ∗150 (−30−RA ) ∗375
0= 252 + 252 + 252
𝜋( )∗210 𝜋( )∗210 𝜋( )∗210
4 4 4

Or 0 = (−RA) ∗ 275 + (30 − RA) ∗ 150 + (−30 − RA) ∗ 375

On solving the above equation, we get,

The reaction force, R A ≈ - 8.437 kN

(Since the calculated value of RA is negative, the assumed direction for RA is not correct & it
is to be reversed i.e., Rightwards)

Now, substituting for RA in equation (1), we get,

- (- 8.437) + 30 - 60 + RB = 0

∴ The reaction force, RB = 21.563 kN

(Since the calculated value of RB is positive, the assumed direction for RB is correct i.e.,
Rightwards)

The resultant loads in the individual sections may be calculated by substituting for RA and RB
in the FBDs shown above and the final FBDs with the actual magnitude & direction of
resultant loads are indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 5b below.
 Final Free Body Diagrams of Individual Sections

A 1 C C 2 D D 3 B

8.437 kN 8.437 kN 21.563 kN 21.563 kN

38.437 kN 38.437 kN

275 mm 150 mm 375 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 5b

From the Final FBDs of individual sections, it is clear that

The resultant load in section 1, P 1 = 8.437 (Compressive)

The resultant load in section 2, P 2 = 38.437 kN (Compressive)

The resultant load in section 3, P 3 = 21.563 kN (Tensile)

The deformations in the individual sections may be calculated as follows:

𝑷𝟏 𝒍 𝟏 −8.437∗275
The deformation in section 1 (AB), 𝛅𝐥𝟏= = 252 = - 0.0225 mm
𝑨𝟏 𝑬 𝟏 𝜋( )210
4

𝑷𝟐 𝒍 𝟐 −38.437∗150
The deformation in section 2 (BC), 𝛅𝐥𝟐= = 252 = - 0.05595 mm
𝑨𝟐 𝑬 𝟐 𝜋( )210
4

𝑷𝟑 𝒍 𝟑 21.563∗375
The deformation in section 2 (BC), 𝛅𝐥𝟑= = 252 = 0.07848 mm
𝑨𝟑 𝑬 𝟑 𝜋( )210
4

The stress in the individual sections may be calculated as follows:

𝑃1 −8.437
(i) Stress in section 1(AB), σ1 = = 252 = - 0.01719 GPa (kN/mm2)
𝐴1 𝜋( )
4

𝑃2 −38.437
(ii) Stress in section 2(BC), σ2 = = 252 = - 0.07834 GPa (kN/mm2)
𝐴2 𝜋( )
4

𝑃3 21.536
(iii) Stress in section 3(CD), σ3 = = 252 = 0.04394 GPa (kN/mm2)
𝐴3 𝜋( )
4
The strain in the individual sections may be calculated as follows:

δl1 − 0.0225
(i) Strain in section 1(AB), ε1 = =
275
= - 8.1818 x 10-5
𝑙1

δl2 − 0.05595
(ii) Strain in section 2(BC), ε2 = = = - 3.73 x 10-4
𝑙2 150

δl3 0.07848
(iii) Strain in section 3(CD), ε3 = = = 2.0928 x 10-4
𝑙3 375

PB. NO. 6: A vertical circular steel bar of length 3 l, fixed at both the ends, is loaded at
intermediate sections by the forces 2W and W as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 6a below.
Determine the end reactions if W = 1.5 kN.

Also determine deformation, stress and strain in each of the sections if l = 200 mm, cross
sectional area, A = 500mm2 and Young’s Modulus, E = 200GPa

RA Fig. PB. NO. 6c

RA ( RA - 2W ) ( RA- 3W )
A B C
A

1 1 2 3
l l

B B C D
(- 3W - RD ) (- W - RD ) RD
2W 2W
2
l l

2.5 kN 0.5 kN 2 kN
C
A B C

W W 3 1 2 3
l l

D
B C D
Fig. PB. NO. 6a RD 2.5 kN 0.5 kN 2 kN

Fig. PB. NO. 6b Fig. PB. NO. 6d

Solution:
The loading diagram of the given problem may be divided into three different sections i.e.,
section 1(AB), section 2(BC) and section 3(CD) as indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 6b above.

Applying equilibrium equation ƩV = 0, we get

 RA – 2W - W – RD= 0 ------------------(1)
(Upward forces are treated as positive & Downward forces are treated are nagative)

The reaction forces R A and R D can be determined by drawing the FBDs and expressing
the resultant loads in the individual sections in terms of RA or R D as follows.

Let (P1 , δl1 , σ1, ε1, l1, A1, & E1), (P2, δl2 , σ2, ε2, l2, A2, & E2) and (P3, δl3 , σ3, ε3, l3, A3, &
E3) be the resultant load, elongation, stress, strain, length, cross sectional area & Young’s
modulus of sections 1, 2, and 3 respectively.
Let δl𝑡 be total deformation of the bar.
According to the principle of superposition, δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 + δl3 ) -------------(2)
For an axially loaded bar with three sections, held between the fixed supports, the principle
of superposition may be written as :
The total deformation, 𝛅𝐥𝒕 = (𝛅𝐥𝟏 + 𝛅𝐥𝟐 + 𝛅𝐥𝟑) = 0

𝑷𝟏 𝒍 𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝒍 𝟐 𝑷𝟑 𝒍 𝟑
Or 𝟎= + + -------------------(3)
𝑨𝟏 𝑬 𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝑬 𝟐 𝑨𝟑 𝑬 𝟑

Where P1, P2 and P3 are the resultant load in individual sections 1, 2 & 3 respectively and are
determined by drawing the FBDs of individual sections as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 6c

From the FBDs of individual sections, it is clear that

The resultant load in section 1, P 1 = (RA ) or (- 3W - RD)

The resultant load in section 2, P 2 = (RA – 2W) or (- W – RD)

The resultant load in section 3, P 3 = (RA - 3W) or (RD)

Here, A1 = A2 = A3 = A = 500mm2, E1 = E2 = E3 = E= 200 GPa and

l1 = l2 = l3 = l = 200mm
Substituting for P1, P2, & P3 in terms RA in equation (3), we get,

( RA)∗𝑙 ( RA−2W) ∗𝑙 (RA −3W) ∗𝑙

0= + +
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸

Or 0 = (RA) + ( RA − 2W) + (RA − 3W)

On solving the above equation, we get,

The reaction force, R A = 2.5 kN

(Since the calculated value of RA is positive, the assumed direction for RA is correct.
i.e.,Upwards)

Now, substituting for RA in equation (1), we get,

2.5 - 3 – 1.5 – RD = 0 ; Given that W = 1.5 kN

 ∴ The reaction force, RD = - 2.0 kN
(Since the calculated value of RD is negative, the assumed direction for RD is not correct and
it is to be reversed i.e., Upwards)

The resultant loads in the individual sections may be calculated by substituting for RA and RB
in the FBDs shown in Fig. PB. NO.6c above and the final FBDs with the actual magnitude &
direction of resultant loads are indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 6d above.

From the Final FBDs of individual sections, it is clear that

The resultant load in section 1, P 1 = 2.5 kN (Tensile)

The resultant load in section 2, P 2 = 0.5 kN (Compressive)

The resultant load in section 3, P 3 = 2.0 kN (Compressive)

The deformations in the individual sections may be calculated as follows:

𝑷𝟏 𝒍 𝟏 2.5∗200
The deformation in section 1 (AB), 𝛅𝐥𝟏= = = 0.005 mm
𝑨𝟏 𝑬 𝟏 500∗200

𝑷𝟐 𝒍 𝟐 −0.5∗200
The deformation in section 2 (BC), 𝛅𝐥𝟐= = = - 0.001mm
𝑨𝟐 𝑬 𝟐 500∗200

𝑷𝟑 𝒍 𝟑 −2∗200
The deformation in section 2 (BC), 𝛅𝐥𝟑= = = - 0.004 mm
𝑨𝟑 𝑬 𝟑 500∗200

The stress in the individual sections may be calculated as follows:

𝑃1 2.5
(i) Stress in section 1(AB), σ1 = = = 0.005 GPa (kN/mm2)
𝐴1 500

𝑃2 −0.5
(ii) Stress in section 2(BC), σ2 = = = - 0.001 GPa (kN/mm2)
𝐴2 500

𝑃3 −2.0
(iii) Stress in section 3(CD), σ3 = = = - 0.004 GPa (kN/mm2)
𝐴3 500
The strain in the individual sections may be calculated as follows:

δl1 0.005
(i) Strain in section 1(AB), ε1 = =
200
= 2.5 x 10-5
𝑙1

δl2 −0.001
(ii) Strain in section 2(BC), ε2 = = = - 5 x 10-6
𝑙2 200

δl3 −0.004
(iii) Strain in section 3(CD), ε3 = =
200
= - 2 x 10-5
𝑙3
 TAPERING BARS:

(Bars of gradually varying cross section/continuously varying cross section subjected

to axial loads)

Taper: The taper may be defined as the gradual increase or decrease in cross sectional area
along the length or the longitudinal axis and is expressed in the form of a ratio, say, 1:10.
A taper of 1:10 means that the total increase or decrease in dimension is 1 unit over a length
of 10 units.

Derivation of an expression for the deformation/change in length of tapering bars due

to axial loads.

Case(i): Tapering bar of rectangular cross section:

Tapering bar of rectangular cross section: Pictorial view of tapering bar of rectangular
cross section (For reference only)
A
t
B
P be P
b1 b2 be b1 P be P b2

t
x dx x dx
Cross sectional t
l view at x l
(End view at x )

Fig. 1a Fig. 1b

A tapering bar AB of rectangular cross section of length l and uniform thickness t, tapering
from width b1 at the larger end to width b 2 at the smaller end, subjected to an axial load P, is
represented in Fig.1a
Let δl be the change in length of the bar due to axial load P and E be the Young’s modulus
of the material of the bar.
Consider an elementary strip of length dx and width b e at a distance of x from the larger end
of the taper as indicated in Fig.1a.
Let δle be the change in length of the elementary strip due the axial load P.
The change in length of the tapering bar of length l due to the axial load P, may be given by
𝑙
δl = ∫0 δle ------------(1)

𝑃𝑒 𝑙𝑒
Where, δle = ------------------(2)
𝐴𝑒 𝐸𝑒
and Pe, Ae, le & Ee are the axial load, cross sectional area, length and Young’s Modulus of
the elementary strip respectively.

Also, for the elementary strip Pe = P, Ee = E, le = dx and

Ae = Cross sectional area at a distance of x from the larger end of the taper = (b e x t)
The width be of the of the elementary strip at a distance of x from the larger end of the taper
may be determined as follows;
The decrease in width over a length of l = (b1 – b2)

(b1 – b2)
The decrease in width per unit length =
𝑙

(b1 – b2)
The decrease in width for length of x = x
𝑙

(b1 – b2)
∴ The width of the elementary strip at a distance of x, be = b1 - x
𝑙

Or The width of the elementary strip at a distance of x, be = (b1 – K x)

(b1 – b2)
Where K =
𝑙

∴ The cross sectional area of the elementary strip, Ae = (be x t)

= (b1 – K x) t

𝑃∗𝑑𝑥
Now, from (2) the elongation of the elementary strip, δle =
(b1 – K x)t∗E

Substituting for δle in equation (1), we get,

𝑙 𝑃∗𝑑𝑥
The change in length of tapering bar, δl = ∫0
(b1 – K x) t∗E

Or
𝑃 𝑙 𝑑𝑥
= ∫0
𝑡∗𝐸 (b1 – K x)

Or
𝑃 1 𝑙
=
𝑡∗𝐸
−𝐾 [loge (b1 – K x)]0

𝑃
= − [(loge (b1 – K 𝑙) − loge (b1)]
𝑡𝐸𝐾

𝑃 (𝑏1−𝑏2)
= − [(loge (b1 – 𝑙) − loge (b1)]
𝑡𝐸 (𝑏1−𝑏2)
𝑙
𝑙
 𝑃𝑙 [(loge (b2) − loge (b1)]
= −
𝑡𝐸 (𝑏1−𝑏2)

∴ The change in length or Deformation of a tapering bar of rectangular cross section, due
to axial loads,

𝑷𝒍 𝒃𝟏
𝛅𝐥 = 𝒕𝑬 (𝒃𝟏−𝒃𝟐) 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 ( ) ------------ (3)
𝒃𝟐

Case(ii): Tapering bar of circular cross section:

Pictorial view of tapering bar of circular

Tapering bar of circular cross section:
cross section (For reference only)

B
P be P P
b1 b2 de d1 P
d2

x dx x dx
Cross sectional
view at x
l (End view at x ) l

Fig. 2a Fig. 2b

A tapering bar AB of circular cross section and of length l , tapering from diameter d1 at the
larger end to diameter d2 at the smaller end, subjected to an axial load P, is represented in
Fig.2a
Let δl be the change in length of the bar due to axial load P and E be the Young’s modulus
of the material of the bar.
Consider an elementary strip of length dx and diameter de at a distance of x from the larger
end of the taper as indicated in Fig.2a.
Let δle be the change in length of the elementary strip due the axial load P.
The change in length of the tapering bar of length l due to the axial load P, may be given by
𝑙
δl = ∫0 δle ------------(1)

𝑃𝑒 𝑙𝑒
Where, δle = ------------------(2)
𝐴𝑒 𝐸𝑒
and Pe, Ae, le & Ee are the axial load, cross sectional area, length and Young’s Modulus of
the elementary strip respectively.

Also, for the elementary strip Pe = P, Ee = E, le = dx and

Ae = Cross sectional area at a distance of x from the larger end of the taper.
𝜋(𝑑𝑒 )2
=
4
The diameter de of the of the elementary strip at a distance of x from the larger end of the
taper may be determined as follows;
The decrease in diameter over a length of l = (d1 – d2)

(d1 – d2)
The decrease in diameter per unit length =
𝑙

(d1 – d2)
The decrease in diameter for length of x = x
𝑙

(d1 – d2)
∴ The diameter of the elementary strip at a distance of x, de = d1 - x
𝑙

Or The diameter of the elementary strip at a distance of x, de = (d1 – K x)

(d1 – d2)
Where K =
𝑙

𝜋(d1 – K x) 2
∴ The cross sectional area of the elementary strip, Ae =
4

𝑃∗𝑑𝑥
Now, from (2) the elongation of the elementary strip, δle = 2
𝜋(d1 – K x)
∗E
4

Substituting for δle in equation (1), we get,

𝑙 𝑃∗𝑑𝑥
The change in length of tapering bar, δl = ∫0 2
𝜋(d1 – K x)
4 ∗E
Or
4𝑃 𝑙 𝑑𝑥 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑛+1
= ∫0 2 Ref: ∫ (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑑𝑥 =
𝜋∗𝐸 (𝑛+1) (𝑎)
(d1 – K x)
Or
𝑙
4𝑃 1 1
= [ ]
𝜋∗𝐸 𝐾 (d1 – K x)
0

𝑙
4𝑃 1 1 (d1 – d2)
=
𝜋𝐸𝐾
[
(d1 – 𝐾 𝑙 )
− (d1)
] ∵ K=
𝑙
0
Or
 4𝑃 1 1
= (𝑑1−𝑑2) [ (d1 – d2)
− (d1)
]
𝜋𝐸 (d1 – 𝑙)
𝑙 𝑙

4𝑃 1 1 𝑙
Or δl = (d1 – d2)
[
(d2 )
− (d1) 0
]
𝜋𝐸
𝑙

4𝑃𝑙 1 1 𝑙
=
𝜋𝐸(𝑑1−𝑑2)
[
(d2 )
− (d1) 0
]

4𝑃𝑙 (𝑑1−𝑑2) 𝑙
= [ ]
𝜋𝐸(𝑑1−𝑑2) 𝑑1∗𝑑2 0

∴ The change in length or Deformation of a tapering bar of circular cross section, due to axial
loads,

𝟒𝑷𝒍
𝛅𝐥 = ----------------------- (4)
𝝅 𝑬 (𝒅𝟏∗𝒅𝟐

Equations (3) and (4) holds good for tensile as well as compressive loads.

PB. NO. 7: A round bar with stepped portion is subjected to the forces as shown in the figure
below. Determine the magnitude of force P such that the net deformation in bar does not
exceed 1 mm. Take E steel = 200 GPa and E aluminium = 70 GPa

2
400 mm
2
200 mm
4P
2P P 3P
f 12.5

f 40

Steel
Steel
Aluminium

600 mm 700 mm 500 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 7

Solution:
The loading diagram of the given problem may be divided into three different sections i.e.,
section 1(AB), section 2(BC) and section 3(CD) as indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 7a below.
 1 B 2
2 3
A 400 mm C 2
200 mm D
4P
2P P 3P

f 12.5

f 40
Steel
Aluminium Steel

600 mm 700 mm 500 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 7a

Let (P1 , δl1 , σ1, ε1, l1, A1, & E1), (P2, δl2 , σ2, ε2, l2, A2, & E2) and (P3, δl3 , σ3, ε3, l3, A3, &
E3) be the resultant load, elongation, stress, strain, length, cross sectional area & Young’s
modulus of sections 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

Let δl𝑡 be the net change in the length (total deformation) of the bar
According to the principle of superposition, δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 + δl3 ) -------------(1)

Also, for a prismatic bar, the elongation/deformation/change in length due to axial load,
𝑃𝑙
𝛿𝑙 = and
𝐴𝐸

For a tapering bar of circular cross section, the elongation/deformation/change in length due
to axial load,
4 𝑃𝑙
𝛿𝑙 =
𝜋𝐸 (𝑑1∗𝑑2)

Substituting for δl1 , δl2 & δl3 accordingly for the respective sections in equation (1), we get
4𝑃1 𝑙1 𝑃2 𝑙2 𝑃3 𝑙3
δl𝑡 = + + ------------(2)
𝜋𝐸1 (𝑑1∗𝑑2) 𝐴2 𝐸2 𝐴3 𝐸3

The resultant loads P1, P2, & P3 may be determined by drawing Free Body Diagrams (FBD s)
of individual sections and considering the equilibrium conditions of individual sections as
indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 7b below:

Free Body Diagrams of Individual Sections

1 B 2
B 2 3
A 400 mm C 2
C 200 mm D
4P 4P 2P P 2P 3P 3P
f 12.5

f 40

Steel
Aluminium Steel
500 mm
700 mm
600 mm

Fig. PB.NO. 7b
From the FBDs of individual sections, it is clear that

The resultant load in section 1, P 1 = 4P(Tensile)

The resultant load in section 2, P 2 = 2P (Tensile)

The resultant load in section 3, P 3 = 3P (Tensile)

Here, A2 = 400 mm2 A3 = 200 mm2, E1 = 70GPa, E2 = E3 = 200 GPa

Substituting for δl𝑡 P1, P2, & P3 in equation (2), we get,

4(4𝑃) 600 (2𝑃)∗700 (3𝑃)∗500

∴ 1.0 = 𝜋 70(12.5∗40)
+ +
400∗200 200∗200

Or The magnitude of force, P = 7.027 kN

PB. NO. 8: A stepped bar is subjected to an external loading as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 8
below. Calculate the change in length of the bar. Take E = 200 GPa for steel and E = 70GPa
for aluminium and E = 100GPa for copper.

f 50

f 20
Aluminium Copper
40 kN Steel 40 kN

300 mm 200 mm 200 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 8

Solution: The loading diagram of the given problem may be divided into three different
sections i.e., section 1(AB), section 2(BC) and section 3(CD) as indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 8a
below.

Let (P1 , δl1 , σ1, ε1, l1, A1, & E1), (P2, δl2 , σ2, ε2, l2, A2, & E2) and (P3, δl3 , σ3, ε3, l3, A3, &
E3) be the resultant load, elongation, stress, strain, length, cross sectional area & Young’s
modulus of sections 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

Let δl𝑡 be the net change in the length (total deformation) of the bar
According to the principle of superposition, δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 + δl3 ) -------------(1)
 3
C f 50 D
2
1
A f 20 B
Aluminium Copper
40 kN Steel 40 kN

300 mm 200 mm 200 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 8a

Also, for a prismatic bar, the elongation/deformation/change in length due to axial load,
𝑃𝑙
𝛿𝑙 = and
𝐴𝐸

For a tapering bar of circular cross section, the elongation/deformation/change in length due
to axial load,
4 𝑃𝑙
𝛿𝑙 =
𝜋𝐸 (𝑑1∗𝑑2)

Substituting for δl1 , δl2 & δl3 accordingly for the respective sections in equation (1), we get
𝑃1 𝑙1 4𝑃2 𝑙2 𝑃3 𝑙3
δl𝑡 = + + ------------(2)
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝜋𝐸2 (𝑑1∗𝑑2) 𝐴3 𝐸3

Here, P1 = P2 = P3 = 40 kN (Tensile), E 1 = 200GPa, E2 = 70GPa and E3 = 100GPa

For the tapering bar of circular cross section, diameter of taper at one end, d 1 = 20mm and
the diameter of taper at the other end, d 2 = 50mm

40∗300 4∗40∗200 40∗200

∴ The change in length of the bar, δl𝑡 = 202 + + 202
𝜋( ) 200 𝜋∗70(20∗50) 𝜋( )100
4 4

Or The change in length of the bar, 𝛅𝐥𝒕 = 0.378 mm

PB. NO. 9: Prove that the extension of a bar uniformly tapering from a diameter (d+a) to
4∗𝑃∗𝑙
(d-a) in a length of 𝒍, subjected to an axial load P, is given by and also
𝜋∗𝐸∗(𝑑 2−𝑎2 )
show that the percentage error in elongation, if calculated using average diameter as d, is
100𝑎2 10𝑎 2
given by or ( )
𝑑2 𝑑

Solution: The bar uniformly tapering from a diameter (d+a) to (d-a) in a length of 𝒍 ,
subjected to an axial load P, is as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 9 below.
(d + a)

P P

(d - a)
l

Fig. PB. No. 9

We know that the extension of a tapering bar of circular cross section, subjected to an axial
load, is

4𝑃𝑙
𝛿𝑙 = ------------------ (1)
𝜋𝐸 (𝑑1∗𝑑2)

Referring to Fig. PB. NO. 9, d 1 = (d + a) and d2 = (d – a)

Substituting for d1 and d1 in equation (1), we get,

4 𝑃𝑙
Extension of the tapering bar, 𝛿𝑙 =
𝜋𝐸(d+a) (d−a)

𝟒𝑷𝒍
Or 𝜹𝒍 = --------------- (2) Hence, proved
𝝅𝑬 (𝒅𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 )

Next. To Prove that the percentage error in elongation, if calculated using average diameter
100𝑎2 10𝑎 2
as d, is given by or ( )
𝑑2 𝑑

If the average diameter is used as d, the elongation of the bar is given by,

𝑃𝑙 𝑑2
𝛿𝑙 = ; where A = 𝜋 ( )
𝐴𝐸 4

4𝑃𝑙
∴ 𝛿𝑙 = ----------------- (3)
𝝅𝑑 2 𝐸
Now, considering the percentage error between equations (2) and (3), we get

𝟒𝑷𝒍 𝟒𝑷𝒍
[ − ]
𝝅𝑬(𝒅𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 ) 𝝅𝑑2 𝐸
Percentage error in elongation = x 100
𝟒𝑷𝒍
[ ]
𝝅𝑬(𝒅𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 )

1 1
[ 𝟐 𝟐− 𝟐 ]
(𝒅 − 𝒂 ) (𝒅 )
Or = x 100
1
[ 𝟐 𝟐]
(𝒅 − 𝒂 )

𝒅𝟐 −(𝒅𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 )
[ 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐]
(𝒅 − 𝒂 )𝒅
Or = x 100
1
[ 𝟐 𝟐]
(𝒅 − 𝒂 )

On simplification, we get

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒂𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝒂 𝟐
Percentage error in elongation = or ( ) Hence proved
𝒅𝟐 𝒅

PB.NO.9a: Find out the elongation of a flat plate 3 meters long and 20mm thick. The plate
tapers uniformly from 150mmat one end to 50mm at the other end and is subjected to a pull
of 100 kN. Take E = 2 x 105 N/mm2 (MPa).
What is the percentage error if average area is used for calculating extension?

Solution:
The plate may be considered as a tapering bar of rectangular cross section as indicated in
Fig. PB. NO. 9a below.

Front View End View

100 kN
50 mm
150 mm

100 kN

3m

20 mm
Fig. PB. NO. 9a
W.K.T. the deformation/elongation of a tapering bar of rectangular cross section is given by:

𝑃𝑙 𝑏
𝛿𝑙 =
𝑡𝐸 (𝑏1−𝑏2)
loge (𝑏1 ) ------------- (1)
2

Given that, P = Axial load = 100 kN, l = length of the bar = 3 m = 3000mm,
b1 = Width at one end of taper = 150mm, b 2 = Width at the other end of taper = 50mm,
t = thickness of the bar/plate = 20mm, E= Young’s Modulus = 2 x 105 N/mm2 = 200 GPa

Substituting all the values in (1), we get,

100∗ 3000 150

Elongation of the tapering bar, 𝛿𝑙 = loge ( )
20∗200∗(150−50) 50

Or 𝜹𝒍 = 0.8239mm

To find the percentage error if average area is used for calculating extension:

When average area is used, the elongation of the plate may be given by;

𝑃𝑙
𝛿𝑙 av = [𝐴 𝐸
] ; 𝐴𝑎𝑣 = Average of areas of end faces
𝑎𝑣

(𝐴1 +𝐴2) (150∗20) +(50∗20)

Where Aav = [ ]= [ ] = 2000 mm2
2 2

100∗3000
Or 𝛿𝑙 av = [ ]
2000∗200

Or 𝜹𝒍av = 0.750 mm
𝜹𝒍−𝜹𝒍𝐚𝐯
The percentage error in elongation = [ ] x 100
𝜹𝒍

0.8239−0.750
= [ ] x 100
0.8239

∴ The percentage error in elongation = 8.9%

PB. NO. 9b: A circular bar tapers from100mm diameter to 80mm diameter in length of 1
meter. Determine the elongation of the bar under a pull of 80 kN. Assume E = 200GPa for
the bar material. Also find out the diameter at the smaller end to limit the elongation to
0.4mm under the same pull.
What is the percentage elongation if the average area is used for calculating extension?

Solution:
The bar may be considered as a tapering bar of circular cross section as indicated in Fig. PB.
NO. 9b below.
Front View End View

80 kN 80 kN
100

80
f
f

1m

Fig. PB. NO. 9b

W.K.T. the deformation/elongation of a tapering bar of circular cross section is given by:

4𝑃𝑙
𝛿𝑙 = ------------- (1)
𝝅 𝐸 𝑑1∗𝑑2

Given that, P = Axial load = 80kN, l = length of the bar = 1m = 1000mm,

d1 = Diameter at larger end of taper =100mm,
d2 = Diameter at the smaller end of taper = 80mm & E= Young’s Modulus = 200 GPa

Substituting all the values in (1), we get,

4∗80∗1000
Elongation of the tapering bar, 𝛿𝑙 =
𝝅∗200∗100∗80

Or 𝜹𝒍 = 0.06366mm

To find the diameter of the smaller end to limit the elongation to 0.4mm under the
same pull:

4𝑃𝑙
𝛿𝑙 = ------------------- (2)
𝝅 𝐸 𝑑1∗𝑑2

Given that 𝛿𝑙 = 0.4mm, P = 80 kN, 𝑙 = 1000mm, E = 200GPa and d1 =100mm

 Substituting all the values in (2), we get,

4∗80∗1000
0.4 =
𝝅∗200∗100∗𝑑2

∴ The diameter of the smaller end of taper, d2 = 12.732mm

To find the percentage error if average area is used for calculating extension:

When average area is used, the elongation of the plate may be given by;

𝑃𝑙
𝛿𝑙 av = [𝐴 𝐸
] ; 𝐴𝑎𝑣 = Average of areas of end faces
𝑎𝑣

𝜋𝑑 2
1 𝜋𝑑 2 (100)2 (800) 2
(𝐴1 +𝐴2) + 2 𝜋 +𝜋
Where Aav = [ ] =[ 4 4
] =[ 4 4
] = 6440.264 mm2
2 2 2

80∗1000
Or 𝛿𝑙 av = [ ]
(6440.264)∗200

Or 𝜹𝒍av = 0.06210 mm

𝜹𝒍−𝜹𝒍𝐚𝐯
The percentage error in elongation = [ ] x 100
𝜹𝒍

0.06366−0.06210
= [ ] x 100
0.06366

∴ The percentage error in elongation = 2.45%

PB. NO. 9c: A circular bar has a diameter of 100mm over a length of 300mm. It then tapers
uniformly from 100mm diameter to 50mm diameter over a length of 200mm. the diameter of
50mm extends over a length of 400mm. The bar is subjected to axial pull of 500 kN.
Determine the total elongation of the bar. Take E = 200kN/mm2.

Solution:
The geometry of the given bar, in its orthographic view, may be represented with three
different sections, i.e., section 1(AB) , section 2(BC) and section 3(CD) as shown in Fig. PB.
NO. 9c below.

A 1 B 2
3
C D
f 100

500 kN 500 kN

f 50
300 mm 200 mm 400 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 9c

Let (P1 , δl1 , σ1, ε1, l1, A1, & E1), (P2, δl2 , σ2, ε2, l2, A2, & E2) and (P3, δl3 , σ3, ε3, l3, A3, &
E3) be the resultant load, elongation, stress, strain, length, cross sectional area & Young’s
modulus of sections 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

Let δl𝑡 be the total elongation (total deformation) of the bar

According to the principle of superposition, δl𝑡 = (δl1 + δl2 + δl3 ) -------------(1)

Also, for a prismatic bar, the elongation/deformation/change in length due to axial load,
𝑃𝑙
𝛿𝑙 = and
𝐴𝐸

For a tapering bar of circular cross section, the elongation/deformation/change in length due
to axial load,
4𝑃𝑙
𝛿𝑙 =
𝜋𝐸 (𝑑1∗𝑑2)

Substituting for δl1 , δl2 & δl3 accordingly for the respective sections in equation (1), we get
𝑃1 𝑙1 4𝑃2 𝑙2 𝑃3 𝑙3
δl𝑡 = + + ------------(2)
𝐴1 𝐸1 𝜋𝐸2 (𝑑1∗𝑑2) 𝐴3 𝐸3

Here, P1 = P2 = P3 = 500kN (Tensile), E 1 = E2 = E3 = 200 kN/mm2

For the tapering bar of circular cross section, diameter of taper at one end, d1 = 100mm and
the diameter of taper at the other end, d2 = 50mm
 500∗300 4∗500∗200 500∗400
∴ The total elongation of the bar, δl𝑡 = 1002 + + 502
𝜋( ) 200 𝜋∗200(100∗50) 𝜋( )200
4 4

= (0.09549 + 0.1273 + 0.5092)

Or The elongation of the bar, 𝛅𝐥𝒕 = 0.7319 mm

 Stress-Strain diagram:

Stress-Strain diagram for ductile materials under tension test:

(Tension test diagram for Mild steel)

F
Stress (s )

G
C
B
A D E

Linear Yield Strain Necking Strain (e )

zone zone hardening
Elastic Plastic zone
zone
Fig. 3a

Salient points of Tension test diagram

A : Proportional Limit B-C-D-E : Yield Zone E-F: Strain Hardening

B : Elastic Limit C Upper Yield Point (UYP) F : Ultimate Point
:
D : Lower Yield Point (LYP) F-G: Necking
G : Breaking Point
D-E : Perfect Yielding
 Standard Tension test specimen

P Gripping Gripping P
d
End End
Gauge Length
Fillet
Overall Length

Fig. 3b
d: Diameter of the specimen

Stress-Strain diagram:
The stress-strain diagram is the graphical representation of the behavior of a material body
under the action of external loads. In conveys information about the mechanical properties of
the material body related to deformation, strain and stress.

Stress-Strain diagram for ductile materials under tension test: (Tension test diagram
for Mild steel):
The stress-strain diagram for a ductile material (Mild steel), tested under tension up to failure,
is shown in Fig. 3a. The salient points of the tension test diagram are listed and explained
below:
A: Proportional Limit
B: Elastic Limit
B-C-D-E: Yield Zone
C: Upper Yield Point (UYP)
D: Lower Yield Point (LYP)
D-E: Perfect Yielding
E-F: Strain Hardening
F: Ultimate Point
F-G: Necking
G: Breaking Point

A: Proportional Limit: It is a point on the stress-strain diagram, up to which the stress at

any section is directly proportional to the strain at that section. The material obeys Hooke’s
law up to this point and the stress-strain diagram is a perfect straight line.
The proportional limit may be expressed in terms of stress at proportionality limit or load at
proportionality limit.

B: Elastic Limit: It is a point on the stress-strain diagram, up to which the material regains
its original dimensions (shape & size) when the external load acting on it, is removed. The
portion of the stress-strain diagram from A to B is slightly curved, indicating that the Hooke’s
law is not obeyed in this region.
The elastic limit may be expressed in terms of stress at elastic limit or load at elastic limit.

B-C-D-E: Yield Zone: The portion B-C-D-E of the stress-strain diagram is almost horizontal,
indicating that the strain increases at an almost constant stress due to plastic deformation.
This phenomenon, in which the strain increases at an almost constant stress due to plastic
deformation, is called Yielding.

The yield zone (B-C-D-E) includes the following salient portions:

C: Upper Yield Point (UYP): It is the point on stress-strain diagram at which the
plastic deformation is initiated and is the maximum stress required to initiate the
plastic deformation. It is the stress required to break the strong bond (Fe-C) of the
crystalline structure of the material.
The Upper Yield Point is expressed in terms of stress or load at upper yield point.

D: Lower Yield Point (LYP): It is the point on the stress-strain diagram at which the
perfect yielding is initiated and is the minimum stress required to maintain the plastic
behavior of the material. It is the stress required to break the weak bond (Fe-Fe) of the
crystalline structure of the material.
The Lower Yield Point is expressed in terms of stress or load at lower point yield point.

D-E: Perfect Yielding: The portion D-E of the stress-strain curve is almost horizontal,
indicating that the strain is increasing at an almost constant stress due to plastic
deformation. The plastic flow of the material occurs in this portion.

E-F: Strain Hardening: in the portion E-F of the stress-strain curve, the material begins to
reform the crystalline structure through plastic deformation. As a result, the material becomes
harder and stronger and loses its ductility property. The stress-strain diagram moves
upwards after point E, indicating that the stress required to strain the material increases
gradually.

Strain Hardening: The phenomenon in which the material becomes harder and
stronger by reforming the crystalline structure through plastic deformation, is cal led
strain hardening.

F: Ultimate Point: It is the point on the stress-strain diagram which indicates the maximum
stress that the material can withstand without undergoing rupture and is also called
maximum point. It is expressed in terms of Stress or load at ultimate point.

F-G: Necking: After point F, the stress in the material starts concentrating at a particular
location along its length and due to this the material becomes weaker at that location. As the
stress increase further, the cross sectional area of the specimen material starts decreasing at
the location of stress concentration. The stress -strain curve moves downwards, indicating
that the stress required to strain the material further decreases gradually.
 Necking: The phenomenon in which the cross sectional area of the specimen
material starts decreasing as result of stress concentration at a particular location
along its length, is called Necking.

G: Breaking Point: It is the point on stress-strain diagram which indicates the rupture or
failure of the specimen material as a result of necking due to stress concentration.
It is expressed in stress or load at breaking point.

[Reference note:
 The ductile materials with low carbon content (low carbon steels) exhibit both the
upper yield point & the lower yield point.
 The ductile materials with high carbon content (high carbon steels) do not exhibit both
the yield points( UYP & LYP)
 In ductile materials, the rupture/fracture/failure of the specimen occurs along a cone
shaped surface at about 45° with the original surface of the specimen, indicating tha t
the shear stress is primarily responsible for failure/fracture in ductile materials. This is
also called cup & cone fracture.
 In brittle materials, such as cast iron, wrought iron, glass, stone etc., there is no neck
formation in the specimen and the fracture/rupture occurs along a perpendicular
surface to the load, indicating that the normal stresses are responsible for the fracture/
failure of brittle materials.
 The slope of straight line portion of stress -strain diagram gives the Young’s Modulus
of elasticity. ]

Other terminologies with reference to stress-strain diagram:

Working Stress: The maximum stress which a material member/structural member is

subjected to, during actual or normal working conditions, is called working stress. It is also
called allowable stress or permissible stress or safe stress and may be expressed in Mega
Pascal (MPa) or Giga Pascal (GPa).

Factor of Safety: (FoS): The factor of safety may be defined as the capacity of a structural
system beyond the working loads or actual loads for which it is subjected to. It is also known
as safety factor (SF).

It indicates how much extra load or stress that a structural member can withstand beyond the
load or stress for which it is designed.

It is expressed as a number with reference to yield stress & working stress or ultimate stress
& working stress, in one of the following ways depending upon the type of material and
application.
For the ductile materials, the factor of safety may be defined as the ratio of yield stress to
working stress.

𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
∴ Factor of safety =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

For the brittle materials, the factor of safety may be defined as the ratio of ultimate stress to
working stress.

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
∴ Factor of safety =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

Note: For buildings, the factor of safety is taken as 2.0. For automobiles, aircrafts & space
crafts, the factor of safety varies from 1.5 to 3.0, depending upon the materials and
applications. Pressure vessels use a factor of safety ranging from 3.5 to 4.5.

Proof Stress (Offset Yield Stress):

For the materials which do not exhibit well defined yield point, as in the case of brittle
materials, non ferrous materials, high carbon steels, concrete, alloys of steel etc., the yield
stress is determined by a method called offset method.

In this method, a line is drawn parallel to the straight line portion or the initial portion of the
stress-strain diagram from a point on the strain axis at which the value of strain is equal to
0.002 (0.2% strain) and is extended to intersect the stress-strain diagram. From this point of
intersection, a horizontal line is drawn to intersect the stress axis. The stress corresponding
to this point of intersection is called proof stress. It is also called offset yield stress or 0.2%
yield stress.

The offset method of determining proof stress is represented in the Fig. 3a below.
 Offset method of determining Proof stress(Yield stress)

Stress (s )

Offset Yield
Stress, sy

Offset line

e = 0.002
Strain (e )
Fig. 3c

Nominal stress & strain:

Nominal stress: The nominal stress is defined as the ration of load to the original cross
sectional area and is also called conventional stress or engineering stress. It may be
expressed in MPa or GPa.

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
∴ Nominal stress =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

Nominal strain: The nominal strain is defined as the ratio of change in dimensions to the
original dimensions and is also called conventional strain or engineering strain.

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
∴ Nominal strain =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

True stress & strain:

True Stress: The true stress is defined as the ratio of load at any instant of time to the cross
sectional area at that instant of time.

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

∴ True Stress =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

True Strain: True strain is defined as the ratio of change in dimensions at any instant of time
to the actual dimensions at that instant of time.

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

∴ True Stress =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Engineering stress-strain diagram and True stress-strain diagram:

The stress-strain diagram plotted using nominal stress and nominal strain, is called
engineering or conventional stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram plotted using
true stress and true strain, is called true stress-strain diagram.

In the Fig. 3d below, the curve shown by dashed line represents the true stress -strain
diagram overlaid on engineering stress-strain diagram.

True
Stress (s ) stress-strain
curve

Engineering
stress-strain
curve

Strain (e )
Fig. 3d

The true stress-strain curve and engineering stress-strain curve are same (coincide) up to
the elastic limit since the change in lateral dimensions up to the elastic limit are negligibly
small. The true stress-strain curve deviates upwards from elastic limit due to the fact that the
true stress and strain, calculated based on instantaneous change in dimensions, are
comparatively higher than the engineering stress and strain values.

All the structural members are designed i n such a way that they are subjected to stresses
well below the elastic limit up to which the engineering stress & strain and true stress & strain
values are almost equal. Therefore for calculations within the elastic limit, the engineering
stress & strain, which are simple to calculate, are used rather than the true stress & strain.
To find Young’s Modulus of elasticity from Stress-Strain diagram:

dx A B
Stress (s )

Stress (s )

dyA

dy B

A
B
sB
dx B
dy

A
sA
dx

eA eB Strain ( e )
Strain (e ) Fig. 3f
Fig. 3e

For the materials which exhibit well defined straight line portion and all the salient points on
the stress-strain diagram as indicated in Fig. 3e, the slope of the straight line portion of the
stress-strain diagram gives the Young’s Modulus of elasticity.

Referring to Fig. 3e, above, the Young’s Modulus of elasticity is determined by finding the
slope of the straight line portion as shown below:

Young’s Modulus of elasticity, E = Slope of the straight line portion between A and B

𝑑𝑦
=( )
𝑑𝑥

(𝛔𝐁 −𝛔𝐀 ) 𝛔
Or E =[ ] =( )
(𝛆 𝐁−𝛆 𝐀) 𝛆

Also, if stress σ and strain ε, can be calculated at any point within the straight line portion
(elastic limit), then Young’s Modulus of elasticity can be determined as,

𝛔
Or E= (𝛆)
The stress-strain diagram for brittle materials, non ferrous materials, concrete and stone
neither exhibit perfect straight line portion nor well defined salient points. For such materials,
the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity is expressed in terms of Tangent Modulus or Secant
Modulus, which are determined from the stress-strain diagram as indicated in Fig. 3f.

The Tangent Modulus and Secant Modulus are determined from the stress-strain diagram as
follows:
Tangent Modulus: A tangent is drawn arbitrarily at any point A on the stress-strain diagram
as indicated in Fig. 3f. The slope of this tangent drawn at A, is called tangent modulus and is
taken as Young’s Modulus of Elasticity.
 𝑑𝑦𝐴
∴ Tangent Modulus = ( )=E
𝑑𝑥𝐴

Secant Modulus: An arbitrary point B is chosen on stress-strain diagram. This arbitrary

point is connected to the origin of the stress-strain diagram as shown in Fig. 3f. The slope of
this line connecting the chosen arbitrary point and the origin of the stress-strain diagram is
called secant modulus and is taken as Young’s Modulus of Elasticity.

𝑑𝑦𝐵
∴ Secant Modulus = ( )=E
𝑑𝑥𝐵
PB. NO. 10: A tensile test was conducted on a mild steel bar and the following data were
obtained from the test:
(i) Diameter of the bar = 16mm (ii) Gauge Length = 80mm
(iii) Extension at a load of 60 kN = 0.115mm (iv) Load at proportionality limit = 72 kN
(v) Load at failure = 80 kN (vi) Final gauge length of the bar =104mm
(vi) Diameter of the rod at failure = 12mm
Determine: (i) Young’s Modulus of elasticity (ii) Proportionality limit (iii) True breaking stress
(iv) Percentage elongation (v) Percentage reduction in cross sectional area

Solution:
(i) Young’s Modulus of Elasticity:
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝝈
W.K.T. Young’s Modulus of elasticity, E = ( ) =( )
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜺

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃
Also, Stress, σ = ( )=( ) and
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝛿𝑙
Strain, ε= ( )=( )
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙

Given that the extension at a load of 60 kN is 0.115 mm and Gauge length = 80mm
i.e., load, P = 60 kN, extension = change in length = 𝛿𝑙 = 0.115mm and
Gauge length = original length = 𝑙 = 80mm
𝜋𝑑 2
Here, A = ( 4
); d = diameter of the bar = 16mm
Calculating stress, strain and then the Young’s Modulus for this data, we get

60
Stress, σ = = 0.2984 kN/mm2
𝜋∗162
( )
4
0.115
Strain, ε=( ) = 1.4375x10-3
80
0.2984
∴ Young’s Modulus of elasticity, E = ( )= 207.59 kN/mm2
1.4375x10 −3

(ii) Proportionality limit:

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡

W.K.T. Proportionality limit =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

Given that the load at proportionality limit = 72 kN,

𝜋𝑑 2
Original Cross sectional area, A = ( ) ; d = diameter of the specimen = 16mm
4
 𝟕𝟐
∴ Proportionality limit = 𝟐 = 0.3581 kN/mm2
𝝅∗𝟏𝟔
( )
𝟒

(iii) True breaking stress:

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒
W.K.T. True breaking stress =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝜋𝑑 2
Actual cross sectional area at failure = ( ); d = diameter at failure = 12mm and it is
4
given that the load at failure = 80 kN

𝟖𝟎
∴ True breaking stress = 𝟐 = 0.7073 kN/mm
2
𝝅∗𝟏𝟐
( )
𝟒

(iv) Percentage elongation:

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ −𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

W.K.T The percentage elongation = ( ) x 100
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝟏𝟎𝟒−𝟖𝟎
∴ The percentage elongation = ( ) x 100 = 30%
𝟏𝟎𝟒

(v) Percentage reduction in cross sectional area:

W.K.T In a tension test up to failure, the percentage reduction in cross sectional area

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 −𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

= ( ) x 100
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝜋𝑑 2
The final cross sectional area corresponding to diameter at failure = ( 4
)
d = diameter at failure = 12mm

Or
𝟐 𝟐
𝝅∗𝟏𝟔 ) −( 𝝅∗𝟏𝟐 )
(
𝟒 𝟒
= 𝟐 x 100
𝝅∗𝟏𝟔 )
(
𝟒
[ ]
∴ The percentage reduction in cross sectional area = 43.75%
PB. NO.11: The following data refer to a mild steel specimen tested in a lab.

(i) Diameter of the specimen = 25mm (ii) Gauge Length = 200mm

(iii) Extension under load of 20 kN = 0.04mm (iv) Load at yield point = 150 kN
(v) Neck diameter = 18.25mm (vi) Maximum load = 225 kN
(vii) Length of the specimen after failure = 275mm

Determine: (i) Young’s Modulus of elasticity (ii) Yield stress (iii) Ultimate stress
(iv)Percentage elongation (v) Percentage reduction in cross sectional area (vi) safe stress
taking factor of safety as 2.5 (vii) True breaking stress, if breaking load = 195 kN

Solution:
(i) Young’s Modulus of Elasticity:
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝝈
W.K.T. Young’s Modulus of elasticity, E = ( ) =( )
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜺

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃
Also, Stress, σ = ( )=( ) and
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝛿𝑙
Strain, ε= ( )=( )
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙

Given that the extension under a load of 20 kN is 0.04 mm and Gauge length = 200mm
i.e., load, P = 20 kN, extension = change in length = 𝛿𝑙 = 0.04mm and
Gauge length = original length = 𝑙 = 200mm
𝜋𝑑 2
Here, A = ( 4
); d = diameter of the specimen= 25mm
Calculating stress, strain and then the Young’s Modulus for this data, we get

20
Stress, σ = 2 = 0.04073 kN/mm
2
𝜋∗25
( )
4
0.04
Strain, ε=( ) = 2 x 10-4
200
𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟕𝟑
∴ Young’s Modulus of elasticity, E = ( ) = 203.65 kN/mm2
𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟒

(ii) Yield Stress:

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

W.K.T. Yield Stress =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

Given that the load at Yield point = 150 kN,

𝜋𝑑 2
Original Cross sectional area, A = ( 4
) ; d = diameter of the specimen = 25mm
 𝟏𝟓𝟎
∴ Yield Stress = = 0.3055 kN/mm 2
𝝅∗𝟐𝟓𝟐
( )
𝟒

(iii) Ultimate Stress:

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑)

W.K.T. Ultimate stress =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

Given that the Maximum load = 225 kN,

𝜋𝑑 2
Original Cross sectional area, A = ( ) ; d = diameter of the specimen = 25mm
4

𝟐𝟐𝟓
∴ Ultimate Stress = 𝟐 = 0.4583 kN/mm2
𝝅∗𝟐𝟓
( )
𝟒

(iv) Percentage elongation:

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ −𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

W.K.T The percentage elongation = ( ) x 100
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Given that length of the specimen after failure = Final length = 275mm and
Initial length = gauge length = 200mm

𝟐𝟕𝟓−𝟐𝟎𝟎
∴ The percentage elongation = ( ) x 100 = 37.5%
𝟐𝟎𝟎

(v) Percentage reduction in cross sectional area:

W.K.T In a tension test up to failure, the percentage reduction in cross sectional area

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 −𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

= ( ) x 100
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝜋𝑑 2
The final cross sectional area corresponding to neck diameter = ( )
4
d = neck diameter = 18.25mm
𝟐 𝟐
𝝅∗𝟐𝟓 ) −( 𝝅∗(𝟏𝟖.𝟐𝟓) )
(
𝟒 𝟒
Or The percentage reduction in cross sectional area = 𝟐 x 100
𝝅∗𝟐𝟓 )
(
𝟒
[ ]
∴ The percentage reduction in cross sectional area = 46.71%
(vi) Safe Stress:
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
W.K.T. Factor of safety based on yield stress =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠)

𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
∴ Safe stress Or Working stress =
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦

Factor of Safety = 2.5 and Yield Stress = 0.3055 kN/mm2

𝟎.𝟑𝟎𝟓𝟓
Or Safe stress Or Working stress =( 𝟐.𝟓 ) = 0.1222 kN/mm2

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Also, Factor of safety based on Ultimate Stress =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠(𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 )

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
∴ Safe stress Or Working stress = ; Ultimate Stress = 0.4583 kN/mm2
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦

𝟎.𝟒𝟓𝟖𝟑
Or Safe stress Or Working stress =( ) = 0.1833 kN/mm2
𝟐.𝟓

(vii) True breaking stress:

𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 )

W.K.T. True breaking stress =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝜋𝑑 2
Actual cross sectional area at failure = ( )
4
Where d = Neck diameter or diameter at failure = 18.25mm and

Given that the Breaking load = 195 kN

𝟏𝟗𝟓
∴ True breaking stress = = 0.7453 kN/mm2
𝝅∗(𝟏𝟖.𝟐𝟓)𝟐
( )
𝟒
 PB. NO. 12: A tension test was conducted on a specimen and the following readings were
recorded:
(i) Diameter of the specimen = 22mm (ii) Gauge Length of extensometer = 200mm
(iii) Least count of extensometer = 0.001mm (iv) Yield load = 95 kN
(v) At a load of 22 kN, extensometer reading = 60 divisions
(vi) At a load of 36 kN, extensometer reading = 94 divisions (vii) Maximum load = 157 kN
(viii) Neck diameter = 15mm (ix) Final extension over 110mm original length = 132mm

Determine: (i) Young’s Modulus of elasticity (ii) Yield stress (iii) Ultimate stress
(iv)Percentage elongation (v) Percentage reduction in cross sectional area (vii) True breaking
stress, if breaking load = 125 kN (viii) Safe Stress, taking factor of safety as 2.0

Solution:

{Reference: An extensometer is a measuring device used measure the deformations of the

specimen up to elastic limit, by mounting it directly on the specimen subjected to tension test.
The deformations are recorded in terms of number of divisions of the extensometer dial.

Deformation of the specimen = (No. of divisions recorded on extensometer dial x

Least Count of the extensometer)}

(i) Young’s Modulus of Elasticity:

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝝈
W.K.T. Young’s Modulus of elasticity, E = ( ) =( )
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜺

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃
Also, Stress, σ = ( )=( ) and
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝛿𝑙
Strain, ε= ( )=( )
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙

The extensometer readings at loads of 22 kN and 36 kN are given as 60 div. and 94 div.
respectively. The Young’s Modulus of elasticity can be determined by calculating the stress
and strain corresponding to these values of loads and extensometer readings as follows.

Stress (s )

Young's Modulus, E = Slope of the straigth line portion

2
s2 = (dy/dx)

dy = (s 2 - s1 ) / ( e 1 - e 2)
1
s1
dx

e1 e2
Strain (e )
Fig. PB. NO.12
 𝑃 22
Stress, σ1 at a load of 22 kN = ( )= = 0.05786 kN/mm2
𝐴 𝜋∗222
( )
4
𝑃 36
Stress, σ2 at a load of 36 kN = ( )= 2 = 0.09469 kN/mm
2
𝐴 𝜋∗22
( )
4

𝛿𝑙
Strain, ε1 = ( ) ;
𝑙

𝛿𝑙 = (Extensometer reading at 22 kN x Least Count of extensometer)

= (60 x 0.001) = 0.06mm
𝑙 = Original length = Gauge length of extensometer = 200mm
0.06
∴ Strain, ε1 = ( ) = 3 x 10-4
200

𝛿𝑙
Strain, ε2= ( ) ;
𝑙

𝛿𝑙 = (Extensometer reading at 36kN x Least Count of extensometer)

= (94 x 0.001) = 0.094mm
𝑙 = Original length = Gauge length of extensometer = 200mm
0.094
∴ Strain, ε2 = ( ) = 4.7 x 10-4
200

Referring to Fig. PB. NO.12, we can write,

𝒅𝒚 (𝝈 −𝝈 ) 𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟔𝟖𝟑
Young’s Modulus, E = (𝒅𝒙 ) = [ (𝜺𝟐 −𝜺𝟏 ] = [𝟏.𝟕∗𝟏𝟎−𝟒 ] = 216.647 kN/mm2
𝟐 𝟏)

(ii) Yield Stress:

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

W.K.T. Yield Stress =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

Given that the Yield Load = 95 kN,

𝜋𝑑 2
Original Cross sectional area, A = ( ) ; d = diameter of the specimen = 22mm
4

𝟗𝟓
∴ Yield Stress = 𝟐 = 0.2499 kN/mm2
𝝅∗𝟐𝟐
( )
𝟒
(iii) Ultimate Stress:

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑)

W.K.T. Ultimate stress =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

Given that the Maximum load = 157 kN,

𝜋𝑑 2
Original Cross sectional area, A = ( 4
) ; d = diameter of the specimen = 22mm

𝟏𝟓𝟕
∴ Ultimate Stress = 𝟐 = 0.413 kN/mm
2
𝝅∗𝟐𝟐
( )
𝟒

(iv) Percentage elongation:

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ −𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

W.K.T The percentage elongation = ( ) x 100
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Given that the final extension over 110mm initial length = 132mm
i.e., Final length = 132mm & Initial length = 110mm

𝟏𝟑𝟐−𝟏𝟏𝟎
∴ The percentage elongation = ( ) x 100 = 20%
𝟏𝟑𝟐

(v) Percentage reduction in cross sectional area:

W.K.T In a tension test up to failure, the percentage reduction in cross sectional area

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 −𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

= ( ) x 100
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝜋𝑑 2
The final cross sectional area corresponding to neck diameter = ( 4
)
d = neck diameter = 15mm

𝟐 𝟐
(
𝝅∗𝟐𝟐 ) −( 𝝅∗(𝟏𝟓) )
𝟒 𝟒
Or The percentage reduction in cross sectional area = 𝟐 x 100
𝝅∗𝟐𝟐
(
𝟒 )
[ ]

∴ The percentage reduction in cross sectional area = 53.51%

(vii) True breaking stress:

𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 )

W.K.T. True breaking stress =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝜋𝑑 2
Actual cross sectional area at failure = ( 4
)
Where d = Neck diameter or diameter at failure = 15mm and

Given that the Breaking load = 125 kN

𝟏𝟐𝟓
∴ True breaking stress = 𝟐 = 0.7072 kN/mm
2
𝝅∗(𝟏𝟓)
( )
𝟒

(vi) Safe Stress:

𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
W.K.T. Factor of safety based on yield stress =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠)

𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
∴ Safe stress Or Working stress =
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦

Factor of Safety = 2.0 and Yield Stress = 0.2499 kN/mm2

𝟎.𝟐𝟒𝟗𝟗
Or Safe stress =( 𝟐.𝟎 ) = 0.1249 kN/mm2

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Also, Factor of safety based on Ultimate Stress =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠(𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 )

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
∴ Safe stress Or Working stress = ; Ultimate Stress = 0.413 kN/mm2
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦

𝟎.𝟒𝟏𝟑
Or Safe stress =( 𝟐.𝟎 ) = 0.2065 kN/mm2
 MODULE - 3

SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT IN BEAMS

Beam: A beam is a horizontal structural member used to support external loads at right
angles to its longitudinal axis and transfers the loads to the supports on which it is mounted.

Beams are generally made of wood or steel or reinforced cement concrete or composites.

In the process of transferring external loads to the supports or columns or walls, t he beams
will be subjected to bending moments and shear forces all along its cross section.

Shear force in beams: The shear force in beams may be defined as the algebraic sum of all
the forces acting on the beam, either towards the left or the right of any reference section
along the length of the beam.
The shear force may be expressed in kilo Newton ( kN) or Newton (N).

Bending moment in beams: A bending moment is the rotational reaction force developed in
a structural member which results in bending of the member when an external load is applied
on it.
The bending moment in beams may be defined as the algebraic sum of the moments due to
all the forces acting on the beam, either towards the left or the right of any reference section
along the length of the beam.
The bending moment is generally expressed in N-m or kN-m or N-mm or kN-mm.

The main functions of beams are:

 To resist external loads
 To resist bending moment and shear force
 To connect the structure together
 To provide uniform distribution of loads.

Beams are the most common members in the applications such as buildings, bridges,
towers, machines, engines, automobiles, aircrafts, ships etc.,

Classification of beams:
The beams are classified according to the following criteria;

a) Based on type of support:

i. Simply supported beam

ii. Cantilever beam
iii. Overhanging beam
iv. Continuous beam
v. Fixed beam
 b) Based on geometry
i. Straight beam – Beam with straight profile
ii. Curved beam – Beam with curved profile
iii. Tapered beam – Beam with tapered cross section

c) Based on the shape of cross section:

i. I-beam – Beam with ‘I’ cross section
ii. T-beam – Beam with ‘T’ cross section
iii. C-beam – Beam with ‘C’ cross section
iv. Rectangular – Beam with rectangular cross section
d) Based on equilibrium conditions:
i. Statically determinate beam – For a statically determinate beam,
equilibrium conditions alone can be used to solve reactions (unknowns).
ii. Statically indeterminate beam – For a statically indeterminate beam,
equilibrium conditions are not enough to solve reactions. Additional
conditions of statics are needed to solve reactions (unknowns).

Classification of beams based on the type of supports is discussed in detail below :

a(i) Simply supported beam:

P P
Hinged Roller
Simple support support
support A B A
B

l l
Fig. a (i)

AB : Simply supported beam P : Point load or Concentrated load

A simply supported is one that rests on supports at its extreme ends which are free to rotate
about horizontal axis perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam.
A fully stable simply supported beam is provided with a hinged support (Pinned support) at
one of its extreme end and a roller support at the other extreme end as indicated in Fig. a(i)
above.
The distance between the supports is called span of the beam. In a simply supported beam
the span is equal to the length of the beam.
a(ii) Cantilever beam:

Fixed
support P
Fixed P
support Roller
C D support

A B
l Fig. a (ii) l

AB : Cantilever beam CD : Propped Cantilever beam

P : Point load or Concentrated load

A cantilever beam is one in which one end of the beam is fixed rigidly and the other end is
free as indicated in Fig. a(ii) above.
A beam with one end fixed and the other end supported on a roller support is called propped
cantilever beam. A propped cantilever beam CD is shown in Fig. c(ii).

a(iii) Overhanging beam:

P1 P2 P1 P2 P3

A B C
B C D
A

Simple
Span Span
support Roller
Hinged
support support

Single overhanging beam Fig. a (iii) Double overhanging beam

An overhanging beam is one which some portion of the beam extends beyond supports.
An overhanging beam may be single overhanging wherein the beam extends beyond support
on only one side of the support or it may be double overhanging wherein the beam extends
on either sides of the supports as indicated in Fig. a(iii).
The distance between supports is called span of the beam.

a(iv) Continuous beam:

P1 P2 P3

A D
B C E

Simple
support
Fig. a(iv)

Continuous beam
A continuous beam is one in which the beam is supported on more than two supports
indicated in Fig. a(iv).

a(v) Fixed beam:

P1 P2

A B C D

Fixed
support
Fig. a(v) : Fixed beam

A fixed beam is one in which both the ends of the beam are fixed rigidly as indicated in
Fig. a(v) above. A fixed beam is also called Built-in or encastre beam.
Types of supports used in beams:
A support at any point on a beam is one which restricts the movement/displacement
(Translational or rotational or both translational & rotational) of the beam at that point by
developing reaction force in the direction opposite to the direction of support.

The types of supports used in beams may be categorized into the following:

a) Simple support
b) Roller support
c) Hinged or Pin support
d) Fixed support

a) Simple support:
A simple support is one which restricts the translational movement of the beam at the point of
support in a direction normal to the contact surface and towards the support. A simple
support develops reaction force in a direction opposite to the direction of support.
A simple support cannot restrict lateral movements or movements due to lateral forces (axial
forces) like roller supports.
A beam AB, provided with a simple support is shown in Fig. a below
P
Beam
Simple
support A B

Fig. a
b) Roller support:
A roller support is one which restricts the translational movement of the beam at the point of
support in a direction normal to the contact surface and towards the support. A roller support
develops reaction force in a direction opposite to the direction of support.
Roller support can translate along the surface upon which it rests and resists movements
due to lateral forces.
Roller supports are commonly located at one end of long bridges which allows the bridge
structure to expand or contract when temperature changes.

A beam AB, provided with a roller support is shown in Fig. b below

P
Roller
support
A
B

OR
l
Representation of roller supports
Fig b

c) Hinged support or Pin Support:

A hinged or pin support is one which restricts all the translational (Horizontal & Vertical)
movements of the beam at the point of support by developing horizontal and vertical reaction
forces. But a hinged support cannot restrict the rotational movement of the beam at the point
of support.
At the point of a hinged support, there exists one horizontal reaction and one vertical reaction
force.
A beam AB, provided with a hinged or pin support is shown in Fig. c below

P
Hinged
support
A OR
B

l Representation of Hinged or Pin supports

Fig c

d) Fixed Support:
A fixed support (Rigid support) is one which restricts both translational and rotational
movements of the beam at the point of support by developing a horizontal reaction force, a
vertical reaction force and a reaction moment.
A fixed support is also called built-in or encastre support.
At the point a fixed support there exits one horizontal reaction force, one vertical reaction
force and a reaction moment (reaction couple).
A beam provided with a fixed support is shown in Fig. d below
 P1 P2

A B C D

Fixed
support
Fig. d

Types of loads applied on beams:

The following are the types of external loads that are generally applied on beams;

a) Concentrated or Point load

b) Uniformly Distributed load(UDL)
c) Uniformly Varying Load(UVL)
(i) Triangular UVL
(ii) Trapezoidal UVL

a) Concentrated or Point load:

A concentrated load in one which acts on an area that is negligibly small when compared to
the total surface area of the beam. Since it is assumed to be acting at a point on the beam
and is not spread over any appreciable length or area of the beam, it is also called Point
load.
Concentrated or Point load may be expressed in Newton (N) or kilo Newton (kN).
A beam subjected to Concentrated or Point loads is shown in Fig. a below.

P1 P2 P3

B C
D
A

Fig. a

P1 , P2 & P3 : Concentrated or Point Loads

b) Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL):

A uniformly distributed load is one whose intensity per unit length remains constant and
spreads over a definite length on the beam surface.
The magnitude of load will be uniform throughout the length over which it spreads.
A UDL may be expressed in N/m or kN/m.
A beam AB, subjected to a UDL of intensity 20 kN/m, is shown in Fig. b below.
For all calculation purposes, a UDL in converted into its equivalent point load as follows;

Equivalent point load of UDL = (Intensity of UDL x Length UDL)

Referring to Fig. b below, the equivalent point load of a UDL of intensity 20 kN/m is
= (20 kN/ m x 3 m)
Or Equivalent point load = 60 kN
This equivalent point load always acts at the midpoint of UDL as indicated in Fig. b below.

Equivalent Point Load

60 kN

UDL 20 kN/m 20 kN/m

20 kN/m

A
B OR

1.5 m Representation of UDL

3m
Fig. b

c) Uniformly Varying Load (UVL):

A uniformly varying load is one whose intensity per unit length varies uniformly from one end
to the other end and spreads over a definite length on the beam surface.
A UVL may be expressed may be expressed in N/m or kN/m.
For all calculation purposes, a UVL is converted into its equivalent point load which acts at
the centroid of UVL.

A Uniformly Varying Load may be of the following two types:

(i) Triangular UVL
(ii) Trapezoidal UVL

(i) Triangular UVL: If the intensity of UVL varies uniformly from zero at one end to a
maximum at the other end of its length, it is called triangular UVL.

The equivalent point load of a triangular UVL is calculated as follows;

The equivalent point load of a triangular UVL = Area of triangular profile of UVL
= (½ x Base x Height) kN
This equivalent point load acts at the centroid of triangle, i.e., at a distance of 2/3 of its base
from the apex or 1/3 of its base from the right angle face.

(ii) Trapezoidal UVL: If the intensity of UVL varies uniformly from a definite value (other than
zero) at one to another definite value (other than zero) at the other end of its length, it is
called trapezoidal UVL.
The equivalent point load of trapezoidal UVL acts at its centroid.
A trapezoidal UVL can be conveniently split up into a UDL and a tri angular UVL. The
equivalent point loads of UDL and triangular UVL may be considered separately for
calculations.

A beam, AB subjected to a triangular UVL and a trapezoidal UVL, is shown in Fig. c below.

45 kN
Equivalent Point Load Trapezoidal UVL
30 kN/m 30 kN/m
40 kN/m 40 kN/m 20 kN/m
Triangular UVL 20 kN/m

A B C D E

Representation of Representation of
triangular UVL trapezoidal UVL
2m 1m
4m
3m
Fig. c

Referring to Fig. c above, the equivalent point load of triangular UVL is

= (½ x Base x Height)
= (½ x 3 m x 30 kN/m)
Or Equivalent point load of triangular UVL = 45 kN
This equivalent point load acts at a distance of one-third of its base from the right angle face
i.e., (1/3) x 3 = 1 m or two-thirds of its base from the apex i.e., (2/3) x 3 = 2m as indicated in
Fig. c above.

Shear force in beams: Shear force in beams may be defined as the algebraic sum of the
vertical forces (transverse forces) and reaction forces acting either to the left or right of any
reference section along the length of the beam.

Sign conventions for shear force and bending moment in beams:

Sign conventions for shear forces in beams:

The sign conventions for shear forces in beams, with reference to any section along the
length of the beam, are represented in Fig (i) below.
Referring to the Fig.(i) below, it can be stated that, towards left of any reference section
along the length of the beam, upward forces are treated as positive and downward forces
are treated as negative. Towards right of any reference section along the length of the beam,
upward forces are treated as negative and downward forces are treated as positive.
 Reference Section
X
Left of Section Right of Section

P1 P2 P3 P4
-ve -ve +ve +ve

A D
B C
+ve +ve -ve -ve
RB RC RD
RA

Fig (i)

Sign conventions for bending moments in beams:

The sign conventions for bending moments in beams, with reference to any section along the
length of the beam, are represented in Fig (ii) & Fig(iii) above.

Positive Bending Moment or Sagging Bending Moment:

Fig (ii) represents positive bending moment or sagging bending moment wherein, towards
left of any reference section XX along the length of the beam, clockwise bending moments
are treated as positive and towards right of that reference section, counter clockwise bending
moments are treated as positive.
A clockwise moment at the left end and a counter clockwise moment at the right end of the
beam together results in sagging bending effect on the beam as indicated in fig.(ii) and is
called sagging bending moment or positive moment.

X
Sagging bending Moment (Positive Bending Moment) Reference
Section XX
X
Left of the Section Right of the Section Beam
Reference
Section XX

CW Moment CCW Moment

+ve CCW Moment CW Moment
+ve
- ve - ve

Left of the Section Right of the Section

Beam
X
X Hogging bending Moment (Negative Bending Moment)

Fig. (ii) Fig. (iii)

Negative Bending Moment or Hogging Bending Moment:

Fig (iii) represents negative bending moment or hogging bending moment wherein, towards
left of any reference section XX along the length of the beam, counter clockwise bending
moments are treated as negative and towards right of that reference section, clockwise
bending moments are treated as negative.

A counter clockwise moment at the left end and a clockwise moment at the right end of the
beam together results in hogging bending effect on the beam as indicated in fig.(iii) and is
called hogging bending moment or negative moment.

Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD):

The shear force and bending moment in beams, due to transverse loads, vary from one point
to another point along the length of the beam. The variations in the values of shear force and
bending moment may be represented graphically along the length of the beam. This
graphical representation of variations in the values of shear force and bending moment is
called shear force diagram and bending moment diagram respectively.

Shear Force Diagram (SFD): The Shear force diagram is the graphical representation of
variation in the values of shear force along the length of the beam. The ordinate at any point
on the shear force diagram, represents the magnitude and sign of shear force in beam at that
point.

Bending Moment Diagram (BMD): The bending moment diagram is the graphical
representation of variation in the values of bending moment along the length of the beam.
The ordinate at any point on the bending moment diagram represents the magnitude and
sign of bending moment
Problems on Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD):

PB. NO. 1 A simply supported beam carries concentrated loads as shown in Fig. PB. NO.1
below. Draw the SFD and BMD to an approximate scale.

40 kN 80 kN

2m 3m 2m

Fig. PB. NO. 1

Solution:
The reference points at the points of supports and points of application of forces (loads) may
be chosen on the loading diagram (space diagram) as indicated in Fig. PB. NO.1a below and
the solution is obtained in steps as follows:
40 kN 80 kN

A B
C D
2m 3m 2m
RA RB

Fig. PB. NO. 1a

Step 1: To find the reaction forces at the supports (Support reactions):

Let RA and RB be the reaction forces at the supports A and B respectively as indicated in Fig.
PB. NO.1a above.

Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑉 = 0 (Algebraic sum of all the vertical forces acting on the
beam = 0), we get

RA - 40 – 80 + RB = 0
Or RA + RB = 120 kN ----------------- (1)

Now, Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0(Algebraic sum of the moments due to all the
forces about support A = 0), we get

40 x 2 + 80 x 5 - RB x 7 = 0
∴ RB = 68.572 kN
And from equation (1), RA = 120 - R B = 51.428 kN
Step 2: Shear force calculations for SFD:
{(The below mentioned detailed explanation is only for the Reference: While calculating
shear forces at the salient points, the following procedure may be used:

 Starting from the left most salient point (i.e., point A in this problem), calculate the
algebraic sum of all the forces towards left of that salient point A including reaction
forces at the supports & the force at that salient point A. This will be the shear force at
the salient point A = FA (Upward forces are treated as positive & downward forces are
treated as negative)
∴ FA = RA = 51.428 kN

 Move to the next salient point C and calculate the algebraic sum of all the forces
towards left of that salient point C including reaction forces at the supports & the force
at that salient point C. This will be the shear force at the salient point C = FC

∴ FC = RA – 40
= 51.428 – 40
Or FC = 11.428 kN

 Next, moving to salient point D calculate the algebraic sum of all the forces towards
left of that salient point D including reaction forces at the supports & the force at that
salient point D. This will be the shear force at the salient point D = FD

∴ FD = RA – 40 – 80
= 51.428 - 40 - 80
Or FD = - 68.572 kN

 Next, moving to salient point B calculate the algebraic sum of all the forces towards
left of that salient point B including reaction forces at the supports & the force at that
salient point B. This will be the shear force at the salient point B = FB

∴ FB = RA – 40 – 80 + RB
= 51.428 – 40 – 80 + 68.572
Or FB = 0 kN

Note: The shear force calculations, as a part of solution, may be directly shown as
indicated below.) }

Shear force calculations for SFD:

Shear force at A, FA = RA = 51.428 kN

Shear force at C, FC = RA – 40
= 51.428 – 40
Or FC = 11.428 kN

Shear force at D, FD = RA – 40 – 80
= 51.428 - 40 - 80
Or FD = - 68.572 kN
 Shear force at B, F B = RA – 40 – 80 + RB
= 51.428 – 40 – 80 + 68.572
Or FB = 0 kN

The Shear Force Diagram (SFD) is drawn to an approximate scale as shown in

Fig. PB. NO. 1b below.

Step 3: Bending Moment calculations for BMD:

{(The below mentioned detailed explanation is only for the Reference: While calculating
bending moment at the salient points, the following procedure may be used:

 Starting from the left most salient point (i.e., point A in this problem), calculate the
algebraic sum of the moments about that salient point A, due to all the forces towards
left of that salient point A including the reaction forces at the supports. This will be the
bending moment at that salient point A = MA
(Clockwise moments are treated as positive and Counter Clockwise moments
are treated as negative)
∴ MA = 0 kN-m (since there are no forces towards left of point A)

 Move to the next salient point C and calculate the algebraic sum of the moments
about that salient point C, due to all the forces towards left of that salient point C
including the reaction forces at the supports. This will be the bending moment at that
salient point C = MC
(Clockwise moments are treated as positive and Counter Clockwise moments
are treated as negative)

∴ MC = RA x 2
= 51.428 x 2
Or MC = 102.856 kN-m

 Next, move to salient point D and calculate the algebraic sum of the moments about
that salient point D, due to all the forces towards left of that salient point D including
the reaction forces at the supports. This will be the bending moment at that salient
point D = MD
∴ MD = RA x 5 – 40 x 3
= 51.428 x 5 – 40 x 3
Or MD = 137.14 kN-m

 Next, moving to salient point B and calculate the algebraic sum of the moments about
that salient point B, due to all the forces towards left of that salient point B including
the reaction forces at the supports. This will be the bending moment at that salient
point B = MB

∴ MB = RA x 7 – 40 x 5 – 80 x 2
= 51.428 x 7 – 40 x 5 – 80 x 2
Or MB = 0 kN-m
 Note: The bending moment calculations, as a part of solution, may be directly shown
as indicated below.) }

Bending Moment calculations for BMD :

Bending moment at A, MA = 0 kN-m (since there are no forces towards left of A)

Bending moment at C, MC = RA x 2
= 51.428 x 2
Or MC = 102.856 kN-m

Bending moment at D, MD = RA x 5 – 40 x 3
= 51.428 x 5 – 40 x 3
Or MD = 137.14 kN-m

Bending moment at B, MB = RA x 7 – 40 x 5 – 80 x 2
= 51.428 x 7 – 40 x 5 – 80 x 2
Or MB = 0 kN-m

The Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) is drawn to an approximate scale as shown in

Fig. PB. NO. 1b below.
40 kN 80 kN

A B
C D
2m 3m 2m
RA RB

Shear Force Diagram (SFD)

51.428 51.428
+ve
11.428 11.428
+ve
Shear Force
+ve
(kN) 0 0 Base
B Line
A C D
-ve
-ve 68.572 68.572

Bending Moment Diagram(BMD)

137.14
ar
Line
+ve 102.856 Li
ne
ar
r
ea +ve
Bending Lin
Moment 0 0 Base
(kN-m) Line
A C D B

-ve
Fig. PB. NO.1b
PB. NO. 2: Draw the SFD and BMD for the cantilever beam subjected to concentrated loads
as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 2 below. Also locate the points of contra flexure, if there are any.

10 kN 40 kN 20 kN

2m 3m 4m

Fig. PB. NO. 2

Solution:
Considering the salient points at the points of supports and points of application of forces
(loads), may be chosen on the loading diagram (space diagram) as indicated in
Fig. PB. NO.2a below.

10 kN 40 kN 20 kN

MR

A B C D

R AH 2m 3m 4m

Fig. PB. NO. 2a

R AV

Step 1: To find the reaction force and reaction moment at the fixed support of the
cantilever beam (Support reactions):

At the point of fixed support, there will be one vertical reaction force, one horizontal reaction
force and a reaction moment (reaction couple). Let RAV and RAH and MR be the vertical
reaction force, horizontal reaction force and reaction moment (CW) at the fixed support A
respectively as indicated in Fig. PB. NO.2a above.

In case of a cantilever beam, the reaction moment at the fixed support, is also to be
determined.

Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑉 = 0 (Algebraic sum of all the vertical forces acting on the
beam = 0), we get

RAV - 10 – 40 + 20 = 0
∴ RAV = 30 kN ----------------- (1)

Now, Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0(Algebraic sum of the moments due to all the
forces about support A and the reaction moment MR = 0), we get
 10 x 2 + 40 x 5 – 20 x 9 + MR = 0
∴ MR = - 40 kN-m
Since the calculated of M R is negative, the assumed direction for M R (i.e., CW) is not correct
and it is to be reversed.

Step 2: Shear force calculations for SFD:

Shear force calculations for SFD:

Shear force at A, FA = RAV = 30 kN

Shear force at B, FB = RAV – 10

= 30 – 10
Or FB = 20 kN

Shear force at C, FC = RAV – 10 – 40

= 30 - 10 - 40
Or FC = - 20 kN

Shear force at D, FD = RA – 10 – 40 + 20
= 30 – 10 – 40 + 20
Or FB = 0 kN

The Shear Force Diagram (SFD), drawn to an approximate scale, is shown in

Fig. PB. NO. 2b below.

Step 3: Bending Moment calculations for BMD:

(a) Bending Moment calculations:

Bending moment at A, MA = M R = - 40 kN-m (Due to the reaction moment at the fixed

support A)

Bending moment at B, MB = MR + RAV x 2

= - 40 + 30 x 2
Or MB = 20 kN-m

Bending moment at C, MC= MR + RAV x 5 – 10 x 3

= - 40 + 30 x 5 – 10 x 3
Or MC = 80 kN-m

Bending moment at D, MD = MR + RAV x 9 – 10 x 7 – 40 x 4

= - 40 + 30 x 9 – 10 x 7 – 40 x 4
Or MB = 0 kN-m

The Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) is drawn to an approximate scale as shown in

Fig. PB. NO. 2b below.
 10 kN 40 kN 20 kN

A B C D

2m 3m 4m

Shear Force Diagram (SFD)

30 30

+ve
20 20

Shear +ve
Force 0 0 Base
(kN) A D Line
B C -ve

-ve 20 20

80
ar
Line Li
+ve ne
20 ar
ar

+ve
ne

Bending
0 A
Li

Moment 0 Base
(kN-m) P B C D Line
-ve
ar
ne

-ve Bending Moment Diagram(BMD)

Li

40 (2 - x) x

Fig. PB. NO. 2b

(b) To find the point of contraflexure:

Point of contraflexure(POC): It is a point or section in a beam at which the value of bending

moment is zero and the value of bending moment changes its sign on either sides of this
point, from positive to negative or negative to positive. This point is also called point of
inflexion or virtual hinge.

In this problem, one point of contraflexure exists in the portion AB of the bending moment
diagram and is indicated by P as shown in Fig. 3b above.

The point of contraflexure may be located as follows;

Let x be the distance of POC P from point B.
By considering the similar triangles of BMD in the portion AB, we can write,

𝑥 20
= (Only absolute values of the ordinates are to be considered)
(2−𝑥) 40
∴ 𝒙 = 0.667 m
∴ The POC, P is located at a distance of 0.667 m from B or (2 – 0.667) = 1.333 m from
the fixed support A.
PB. NO. 3: Draw the SFD and BMD to an approximate scale for the beam subjected to
concentrated loads as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 3 below. Also locate the points of contra
flexure, if there are any.

20 kN 15 kN 10 kN

A B C D E

2.5 m 1.5 m 1m 1m

Fig. PB. NO. 3

Solution:
The reference points at the points of supports and points of application of forces (loads) may
be chosen on the loading diagram (space diagram) as indicated in Fig. 3a below and the
solution is obtained in steps as follows:

20 kN 15 kN 10 kN

A B C D E

2.5 m 1.5 m 1m 1m
RA
RD
Fig. 3a

Step 1: To find the reaction forces at the supports (Support reactions):

Let RA and R D be the reaction forces at the supports A and D respectively as indicated in
Fig. 3a above.

Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑉 = 0 (Algebraic sum of all the vertical forces acting on the
beam = 0), we get

RA - 20 – 15 + RD - 10 = 0
Or RA + RD = 45 kN ----------------- (1)

Now, Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0(Algebraic sum of the moments due to all the
forces about support A = 0), we get

20 x 2.5 + 15 x 4 – RD x 5 + 10 x 6 = 0
∴ RD = 34 kN
 And from equation (1), RA = 45 – R D
= 45 – 34 = 11 kN
∴ RA = 11 kN

Step 2: Shear force calculations for SFD:

Shear force at A, FA = RA = 11 kN

Shear force at B, FB = RA – 20
= 11 – 20
Or FB = - 9kN
Shear force at C, F C = RA – 20 – 15
= 11 - 20 - 15
Or FC = - 24 kN

Shear force at D, FD = RA – 20 – 15 + RD
= 11 – 20 – 15 + 34
Or FD = 10 kN

Shear force at E, FE = RA – 20 – 15 + RD -10

= 11 – 20 – 15 + 34 - 10
Or FE = 0 kN

The Shear Force Diagram (SFD) is drawn to an approximate scale as shown in

Fig. 3b below.

Step 3: Bending Moment calculations for BMD:

(a) Bending Moment calculations:

Bending moment at A, MA = 0 kN-m (since there are no forces towards left of A)

Bending moment at B, MB = RA x 2.5

= 11 x 2.5
Or MB = 27.5 kN-m

Bending moment at C, MC = RA x 4 – 20 x 1.5

= 11 x 4 – 20 x 1.5
Or MC = 14 kN-m

Bending moment at D, MD = RA x 5 – 20 x 2.5 – 15 x 1

= 11x 5 – 20 x 2.5 – 15 x 1
Or MD = - 10 kN-m

Bending moment at E, ME = RA x 6 – 20 x 3.5 – 15 x 2 + RD x 1

= 11 x 6 – 20 x 3.5 – 15 x 2 + 34 x 1
Or ME = 0 kN-m
The Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) is drawn to an approximate scale as shown in
Fig. 3b below.

20 kN 15 kN 10 kN

A B C D E

2.5 m 1.5 m 1m 1m
RA
RD

Shear Force Diagram (SFD)

11 11
+ve 10 10

Shear Force +ve +ve

(kN) 0 0 Base
E Line
A B C D
-ve
9 9
-ve

27.5 24 24
Lin
ear
Bending Moment Diagram(BMD)
ar
ne

+ve
14
Li

+ve
Bending
Moment 0 P D 0 Base
(kN-m) E Line
A B C Li -ve
ne ear
ar Lin
-ve 10
(1-x) x

Fig. 3b

(b) To find the point of contra flexure:

Point of contra flexure(POC): It is a point or section in a beam at which the value of

bending moment is zero and the value of bending moment changes its sign on either sides
of this point, from positive to negative or negative to positive. This point is also called point of
inflexion or virtual hinge.

In this problem, one point of contra flexure exists in the portion CD of the bending moment
diagram and is indicated by P as shown in Fig. 3b above.
The bending moment diagram in the portion is a straight line (linear). Therefore, the location
of point of contra flexure may be determined using the Method of similar triangles as
follows;
Let x be the distance of POC P from point D.
By considering the similar triangles of BMD in the portion CD, we can write,

𝑥 10
= (Only absolute values of the ordinates are to be considered)
(1−𝑥) 14
∴ 𝒙 = 0.4165 m
∴ The POC, P is located at a distance of 0.4165 m from D or (1 – 0.4165) = 0.5834 m
from C.

PB. NO. 4: A simply supported beam is subjected to various types of loads as shown in Fig.
4 below. Draw the SFD and BMD to an approximate scale. Indicate all the salient values of
shear force and bending moment on the diagram.

30 kN 20 kN

10 kN/m

2m 2m 4m

Fig. 4

Solution:
The salient points and also the equivalent point load of UDL of intensity 10 kN/m, which acts
at the midpoint of DB, are indicated on the loading diagram as shown in Fig. 4a below.

Equivalent Point Load of UDL

30 kN 20 kN
40 kN
10 kN/m

A C D B

2m 2m

2m 2m
4m
RA RB

Fig. 4a

Step 1: To find the reaction forces at the supports (Support reactions):

Let RA and RB be the reaction forces at the supports A and B respectively as indicated in
Fig. 4a above.

Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑉 = 0 (Algebraic sum of all the vertical forces acting on the
beam = 0), we get

RA - 30 – 20 - 40 + RB = 0 (Considering equivalent point load of UDL)

 Or RA + RB = 90 kN ----------------- (1)

Now, Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0(Algebraic sum of the moments due to all the
forces about support A = 0), we get

30 x 2 + 20 x 4 + 40 x 6 - RB x 8 = 0 (Considering equivalent point load of UDL)

∴ RB = 47.5 kN

And from equation (1), RA = 90 – R B

= 90 – 47.5
∴ RA = 42.5 kN

Step 2: Shear force calculations:

Shear force at A, FA = RA = 42.5 kN

Shear force at C, FC = RA – 30
= 42.5 – 30
Or FC = 12.5 kN

Shear force at D, FD = RA – 30 – 20
= 42.5 – 30 – 20
Or FD = - 7.5 kN

Note: Whenever a UDL or UVL is acting on any portion of the beam, calculate the two
values of shear forces (refer first one as From D to B & the second one as at B, in
this case) for that portion of the beam as follows.

For the portion DB of the beam, which is subjected to a UDL of intensity 10 kN/m;

(i) Shear force from D to B, FB1 = RA – 30 – 20 – 40 (First consider only

equivalent point load of UDL)

FB1 = 42.5 – 30 – 20 – 40
Or FB1 = - 47.5 kN

(ii) Shear force at B, FB2 = RA – 30 – 20 – 40 + RB (Now consider the

force/load at the end of the UDL i.e., RB at B along with equivalent point
load of UDL)

Shear force at B, FB2 = 42.5 – 30 – 20 – 40 + 47.5

Or FB2 = 0 kN
While drawing the SFD, mark off both F B1 and F B2 along the vertical at the end of
the UDL i.e., at B (in this case).
The Shear Force Diagram (SFD) is drawn to an approximate scale as shown in
Fig. 4b below.

Step 3: Bending Moment calculations:

 Bending moment at A, MA = 0 kN-m (since there are no forces towards left of A)

Bending moment at C, MC = RA x 2
= 42.5 x 2
Or MC = 85 kN-m

Bending moment at D, MD = RA x 4 – 30 x 2
= 42.5 x 4 – 30 x 2
Or MC = 110 kN-m

Bending moment at B, MB = RA x 8 – 30 x 6 – 20 x 4 – 40 x 2
= 11x 5 – 20 x 2.5 – 15 x 1
Or MB = 0 kN-m

The Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) is drawn to an approximate scale as shown in

Fig. 4b below.
Equivalent Point Load of UDL
30 kN 20 kN
40 kN
10 kN/m

A C D B

2m 2m

2m 2m
4 m RD
RA RB

Shear Force Diagram (SFD)

42.5 42.5

+ve
12.5 12.5
+ve
0 D B Base
A C 0 Line
7.5 -ve

-ve
Lin
ear

Bending Moment Diagram(BMD)

47.5
110
ar
Line pa
rab
85 ola
+ve r
ea
Lin
Bending +ve
Moment 0 0 Base
(kN-m) Line
A C D B

-ve
Fig. 4b
PB. NO. 5: For the simply supported beam subjected to loading conditions as shown in
Fig. 5 below, draw the SFD and BMD to an approximate scale. Indicate all the salient values
on the diagrams.

30 kN/m

80 kN

10 kN/m

3m 1m 2m

Fig. 5

Solution:
The salient points and the equivalent point loads of UDL & UVL are indicated on the loading
diagram as shown in Fig. 5a below.

30 kN/m
Equivalent Point Load of UVL 45 kN 20 kN Equivalent Point Load of UDL
80 kN

10 kN/m

A B
C D
2m 1m 1m 1m

RA
3m 1m 2m
RB
Fig. 5a

Step 1: To find the reaction forces at the supports (Support reactions):

Let RA and RB be the reaction forces at the supports A and B respectively as indicated in
Fig. 5a above.

Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑉 = 0 (Algebraic sum of all the vertical forces acting on the
beam = 0), we get

RA - 45 – 80 - 20 + RB = 0 (Considering Equivalent point loads of UVL & UDL)

Or RA + RB = 145 kN ----------------- (1)

Now, Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0(Algebraic sum of the moments due to all the
forces about support A = 0), we get

45 x 2 + 80 x 4 + 20 x 5 - RB x 6 = 0 (Considering Equivalent point loads of UVL & UDL)

∴ RB = 85 kN
 And from equation (1), R A = 145 – RB
= 145 - 85
∴ RA = 60 kN

Step 2: Shear force calculations:

Shear force at A, FA = RA = 60 kN

For the portion AC subjected to UVL:

(i) Shear force from A to C, FC1 = RA – 45
= 60 – 45
Or FC1 = 15 kN

(ii) Shear force at C, FC2 = RA – 45 – 0 (since no additional load is acting at point C)

= 60 – 45 – 0
Or FC2 = 15 kN

Shear force at D, F D = RA – 45 – 0 - 80
= 60 – 45 – 0 – 80
Or FD = - 65 kN

For the portion DB subjected to UDL:

(i) Shear force from D to B, FB1 = RA – 45 – 0 – 80 – 20

= 60 – 45 – 0 – 80 – 20
Or FB1 = - 85 kN

(ii) Shear force at B, FB2 = RA – 45 – 0 – 80 – 20 + RB

= 60 – 45 – 0 – 80 – 20 + 85
Or FB2 = 0 kN

While drawing the SFD, mark off both F C1 and FC2 along the vertical at the end of
UVL i.e., at C and mark off both F B1 and F B2 along the vertical at the end of UDL
i.e., at B

Step 3: Bending Moment calculations:

Bending moment at A, MA = 0 kN-m (since there are no forces towards left of A)

Bending moment at C, MC = RA x 3 – 45 x 1
= 60 x 3 – 45 x 1
Or MC = 135 kN-m

Bending moment at D, MD = RA x 4 – 45 x 2
= 60 x 4 – 45 x 2
Or MD = 150 kN-m

Bending moment at B, MB = RA x 6 – 45 x 4 – 80 x 2 – 20 x 1
 = 60 x 6 – 45 x 4 – 80 x 2 – 20 x 1
Or MB = 0 kN-m

The Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) are drawn to an
approximate scale as shown in Fig. 5b below.

30 kN/m
Equivalent Point Load of UVL 45 kN 20 kN Equivalent Point Load of UDL
80 kN

10 kN/m

A B
C D
2m 1m 1m 1m

RA
3m 1m 2m
RB

Shear Force Diagram (SFD)

60 Par
abo
la
+ve
15 15
Shear Force +ve
(kN) 0 0 Base
A C D B Line
-ve
-ve
65 Line
ar
150 85
ar
Line
Pa
bola 135 ra
a bo
par la
bic +ve
+ve Cu

Bending Bending Moment Diagram(BMD)

Moment 0 0
Base
(kN-m) A C D B Line

-ve Fig. 5b
PB. NO. 6: For the beam shown in Fig. 6 below, draw the SFD and BMD. Also locate the
points of contra flexure, if there are any.

30 kN 40 kN

20 kN/m
10 kN/m

2m 2m 2m 2m

Fig. 6

Solution:
The salient points and the equivalent point loads of UDL are indicated on the loading
diagram as shown in Fig. 6a below.

Equivalent Point Equivalent Point

Equivalent Point
Load of UDL Load of UDL
Load of UDL
30 kN 40 kN
20 kN 40 kN 40 kN
20 kN/m
10 kN/m

A
C D B E
1m 1m 1m 1m 1m 1m

RA RB

2m 2m 2m 2m

Fig. 6a

Step 1: To find the reaction forces at the supports (Support reactions):

Let RA and RB be the reaction forces at the supports A and B respectively as indicated in
Fig. 6a above.

Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑉 = 0 (Algebraic sum of all the vertical forces acting on the
beam = 0), we get

RA - 20 – 30 - 40 – 40 + RB – 40 = 0 (Considering Equivalent point loads of UDL)

Or RA + RB = 170 kN ----------------- (1)

Now, Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0(Algebraic sum of the moments due to all the
forces about support A = 0), we get
(20 x 1 + 30 x 2 + 40 x 4 + 40 x 5 - RB x 6 + 40 x 7) = 0
(Considering Equivalent point loads of UDL)
 ∴ RB = 120 kN
And from equation (1), R A = 170 – RB
= 170 - 120
∴ RA = 50 kN

Step 2: Shear force calculations:

Shear force at A, FA = RA = 50 kN

For the portion AC subjected to UDL:

(i) Shear force from A to C, FC1 = RA – 20

= 50 – 20
Or FC1 = 30 kN

(ii) Shear force at C, FC2 = RA – 20 – 30

= 50 – 20 – 30
Or FC2 = 0 kN

Shear force at D, F D = RA – 20 – 30 – 40
= 50 – 20 – 30 – 40
Or FD = - 40 kN

For the portion DB subjected to UDL:

(i) Shear force from D to B, FB1 = RA – 20 – 30 – 40 – 40

= 50 – 20– 30 – 40 – 40
Or FB1 = - 80 kN

(ii) Shear force at B, F B2 = RA – 20 – 30 – 40 – 40 + RB

= 50 – 20 – 30 – 40 – 40 + 120
Or FB2 = 40 kN

For the portion BE subjected to UDL:

(i) Shear force from B to E, FE1 = 50 – 20 – 30 – 40 – 40 + RB - 40

= 50 – 20 – 30 – 40 – 40 + RB - 40
Or FE1 = 0 kN

(ii) Shear force at E, FE2 = 50 – 20 – 30 – 40 – 40 + RB - 40

= 50 – 20 – 30 – 40 – 40 + 120 – 40 – 0
Or FE2 = 0 kN

(While drawing the SFD, mark off both F C1 and FC2 along the vertical at C, mark
off both FB1 and F B2 along the vertical at B and mark off both F E1 and F E2 along
the vertical at E.)
Step 3: (a) Bending Moment calculations:

Bending moment at A, MA = 0 kN-m

Bending moment at C, MC = RA x 2 – 20 x 1
= 50 x 2 – 20 x 1
Or MC = 80 kN-m

Bending moment at D, MD = RA x 4 – 20 x 3 – 30 x 2
= 50 x 4 – 20 x 3 – 30 x 2
Or MD = 80 kN-m

Bending moment at B, MB = RA x 6 – 20 x 5 – 30 x 4 – 40 x 2 – 40 x 1
= 50 x 6 – 20 x 5 – 30 x 4 – 40 x 2 – 40 x 1
Or MB = - 40kN-m

Bending moment at E, ME = RA x 8 – 20 x 7 – 30 x 2 – 40 x 4 – 40 x 3 – 40 x 1
= 50 x 8 – 20 x 7 – 30 x 2 – 40 x 4 – 40 x 3 – 40 x 1
Or ME = 0 kN-m

The Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) are drawn to an
approximate scale as shown in Fig. 6b below.

(b) To locate point of contra flexure (POC):

In this problem, the point of contra flexure occurs in the portion DB of the bending
moment diagram as indicated in Fig. 6b below.
Let x be the distance of POC, P from the right end (Point E) of the beam.

The bending moment diagram in the portion DB, is a parabolic curve and hence the
method of similar triangles cannot be used to locate the POC. The location of POC
may be determined by the Method of Sections as follows.

In the method of sections, the following steps are used to determine the point of
contra flexure, P:

 The point of contra flexure, P is projected on to the loadi ng diagram as

indicated in Fig. 6b below.

 The portion of the loading diagram between the POC, P and the end point E of
the beam, is separated as shown if Fig. 6c below.

 For the separated portion of the loading diagram, indicated in Fig. 6c, the
moment equilibrium equation is applied to determine the distance (x) of the
POC, P.
 Equivalent Point Equivalent Point
Equivalent Point
Load of UDL Load of UDL
Load of UDL
30 kN 40 kN
20 kN 40 kN 40 kN
20 kN/m
10 kN/m P

A
C D B E
1m 1m 1m 1m 1m 1m
RA RB

2m 2m 2m 2m

Shear Force Diagram (SFD)

50
40
+ve
30
+ve
Shear Force +ve
(kN) 0 0 Base
A C D B E Line
-ve
-ve 40

Bending Moment Diagram(BMD) 80

80 80
la
bo
Pa

ra
ra

+ve Pa
bo

X
la

Bending +ve
Moment 0 P B 0 Base
(kN-m) C D E Line
A -ve
ola
arab
P
40
-ve
Fig. 6b

Equivalent Point load of UDL of intensity 20 kN/m and

20 X length X meters

(X/2) (X/2)
20 kN/m

P B E

(X-2) RB
2m
X

Fig. 6c
 Referring to Fig. 6c and applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑀𝑃 = 0 (Algebraic sum of the
moments due to all the forces about P = 0), we get,

- RB (x – 2) + 20 x (X/2) = 0
Or -120x -120 x + 10 x2 = 0
Or 10 x2 - 120 x - 120 x = 0 -------------- (2)

This is of the form of quadratic equation;

a x2 + b x + c = 0 -------------- (3)
and the solution of which is given by
−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
x= --------------- (4)
2𝑎
Comparing equations (2) and (3) a = 10, b = -120 & c = 240

On solving equation (2) using (4), we get

X = 9.4641 m or X = 2.5359 m

The value X = 9.4641 m is not possible since the total length of the beam is 8 m.

Therefore, X = 2.5359 m and the point of contra flexure, P is located at a distance of

2.5359 m from the end point E of the beam.

PB. NO. 7: Draw the SFD and BMD for the beam subjected to loading conditions shown in
Fig.7 below. Locate the points of contra flexure, if there are any. Also determine the
maximum bending moment.

40 kN 10 kN

20 kN/m
10 kN/m

A E
C D B

2m 1m 2m 2m

Fig. 7

Solution:
The salient points and the equivalent point loads of UDL are indicated on the loading
diagram as shown in Fig. 7a below.
 Equivalent Point Equivalent Point
40 kN 30 kN 10 kN
Load of UDL Load of UDL 20 kN

20 kN/m
10 kN/m

A
C D B E
1m 1m 1m 1m

RA RB
2m 1m 2m 2m

Fig. 7a

Step 1: To find the reaction forces at the supports (Support reactions):

Let RA and RB be the reaction forces at the supports A and B respectively as indicated in
Fig. 7a above.

Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑉 = 0 (Algebraic sum of all the vertical forces acting on the
beam = 0), we get

RA - 40 – 30 + RB – 20 – 10 = 0 (Considering Equivalent point loads of UDL)

Or RA + RB = 100 kN ----------------- (1)

Now, Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0(Algebraic sum of the moments due to all the
forces about support A = 0), we get
(40 x 1 + 30 x 3 - RB x 5 + 20 x 6 + 10 x 7) = 0
(Considering Equivalent point loads of UDL)
∴ RB = 64 kN
And from equation (1), R A = 100 – RB
= 100 - 64
∴ RA = 36 kN

Step 2: Shear force calculations:

Shear force at A, FA = RA = 36 kN

For the portion AC subjected to UDL:

(i) Shear force from A to C, FC1 = RA – 40

= 36 – 40
Or FC1 = - 4 kN

(ii) Shear force at C, F C2 = RA – 40 – 0

= 36 – 40 – 0
 Or FC2 = - 4 kN

Shear force at D, F D = RA – 40 – 0 - 30
= 36 – 40 – 0 - 30

Or FD = - 34 kN

Shear force at B, F B = RA – 40 – 0 – 30 + RB
= 36 – 40 – 0 – 30 + 64
Or FB = 30 kN

For the portion BE subjected to UDL:

(i) Shear force from B to E, FE1 = RA – 40 – 0 – 30 + RB – 20

= 36 – 40 – 0 – 30 + 64 - 20

Or FE1 = 10 kN

(ii) Shear force at E, FE2 = RA – 40 – 0 – 30 + RB – 20 – 10

= 36 – 40 – 0 – 30 + 64 – 20 – 10

Or FE2 = 0 kN

(While drawing the SFD, mark off both F C1 and FC2 along the vertical at C, and
mark off both F E1 and FE2 along the vertical at E.)
The shear force diagram is drawn to an approximate scale as indicated in Fig.7b below.

(Note: It is found that the shear force diagram crosses the base line in the portion AC at
point N and SFD changes the sign from positive to negative. At all the points like this where
the Shear Force varies gradually and SFD crosses the base line changing the sign from
positive to negative or negative to positive, the bending moment is to be calculated as shown
in step 3(a) below and these points are also to be included while drawing bending moment
diagram as indicated in Fig. 7b below).

Step 3: (a) Bending Moment calculations:

Bending moment at A, MA = 0 kN-m

Bending moment at N, M N : (where the shear force varies gradually and SFD
crosses the base line changing the sign from positive to negative as indicated
in Fig. 7b below).

The bending moment at point N is determined as follows:

 The point N is projected on to the loading diagram as indicated in Fig. 7b

below..

 The portion of the loading diagram between the point N and support A, is
 separated as shown if Fig. 7c below.

 The distance of point N from the support A, is determined from the similar
triangles of SFD in the portion AC.

 For the separated portion of the loading diagram, indicated in Fig. 7c below, the
algebraic sum of the moments due to all the forces about N from the left end A,
gives the bending moment in the beam at N.

Equivalent Point load of

UDL of intensity 20 kN/m and length x
20x

20 kN/m

A
N
(x/2) (x/2)

RA
x

Fig. 7c

(i) To find the distance of point N:

Let X be the distance of point N from the support A as indicated in Fig. 7b.
From the similar triangles of SFD in the portion AC, we can write,

𝑥 36
= (Only absolute values of the ordinates are to be considered)
(2−𝑥) 4
∴ 𝒙 = 1.8 m
Therefore, the point N is located at a distance of 1.8 m from the support A.

(ii) To find the bending moment at N:

Referring to Fig. 7c above, considering the algebraic sum of the moments due to
all the forces about N, we get,
∑ 𝑀𝑁 = RA X – 20 X (X/2)
Substituting for X = 1.8 m and RA = 36 kN
Or = 36 x 1.8 – 10 (1.8)2

Or the bending moment, MN = 32.4 kN-m

Bending moment at C, MC = RA x 2 – 40 x 1
= 36 x 2 – 40 x 1
Or MC = 32 kN-m

Bending moment at D, MD = RA x 3 – 40 x 2
= 36 x 3 – 40 x 2
 Or MD = 28 kN-m

Bending moment at B, MB = RA x 5 – 40 x 4 - 30 x 2
= 36 x 5 – 40 x 4 – 30 x 2
Or MB = - 40kN-m

Bending moment at E, ME = RA x 7 – 40 x 6 - 30 x 4 + RB x 2 - 20 x 1
= 36 x 7 – 40 x 6 - 30 x 4 + 64 x 2 - 20 x 1
Or ME = 0 kN-m

The Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) are drawn to an
approximate scale as shown in Fig. 7b below.
Equivalent Point Equivalent Point
40 kN 30 kN 10 kN
Load of UDL Load of UDL 20 kN

20 kN/m
N 10 kN/m

A
C D B E
1m 1m 1m 1m

RA RB
2m 1m 2m 2m

x
Shear Force Diagram (SFD)
36
30 Linea
Li

+ve r
ne
ar

+ve 10
+ve
0 C D B Base
A N E 0 Line

4 4 -ve
(2- x)
-ve
x
34 34

32.4 Bending Moment Diagram(BMD)

32
28
lic

Linea
bo

r
+ve
ra

Li
Pa

ne

+ve
ar

Bending
Moment 0 N P B 0 Base
(kN-m) A C D -ve E Line
ic
bol
ra
-ve Pa

x1 ( 2 - x 1) 40
Fig. 7b
 (b) To locate point of contra flexure (POC):

In this problem, one point of contra flexure occurs in the portion DB of the bending
moment diagram as indicated in Fig. 7b above.
Let x1 be the distance of POC, P from the point D.

Since the bending moment diagram in the portion DB, is a straight line (Linear), the
location of POC may be determined by the Method of similar triangles as follows:

From the similar triangles of BMD in the portion DB, we can write,

𝑥1 28
= (Only absolute values of the ordinates are to be considered)
(2−𝑥1 ) 40
∴ 𝑥1 = 0.823 m
Therefore, the point of contra flexure, P is located at a distance of 0.823 m
from the point D or (2 – 0.823) = 1.177 m from the support B.

In this problem, as shown in the bending moment diagram (Fig. 7b), the maximum bending
moment occurs at point N and is equal to 32.4 kN-m

PB. NO. 8: Draw the Shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam subjected to
the loading conditions as shown in Fig. 8 below. Also find the maximum bending moment
and the points of contra flexure, if there are any.

40 kN

20 kN/m 120 kN-m

D
A C B

3m 1.5 m 1.5 m

Fig. 8

Solution:
The salient points and the equivalent point load of UDL are indicated on the loading diagram
as shown in Fig. 8a below.
 Equivalent Point 40 kN
Load of UDL 60 kN

20 kN/m 120 kN-m

D
A C B
1.5 m 1.5 m

RA RB
3m 1.5 m 1.5 m

Fig. 8a

Step 1: To find the reaction forces at the supports (Support reactions):

Let RA and RB be the reaction forces at the supports A and B respectively as indicated in
Fig. 8a above.

Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑉 = 0 (Algebraic sum of all the vertical forces acting on the
beam = 0), we get

RA - 60 – 40 + RB = 0 (Considering Equivalent point load of UDL)

Or RA + RB = 100 kN ----------------- (1)

Now, Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0(Algebraic sum of the moments due to all the
forces about support A = 0), we get
(60 x 1.5 + 40 x 3 + 120 - RB x 6) = 0
(Considering Equivalent point load of UDL)
∴ RB = 55 kN
And from equation (1), R A = 100 – RB
= 100 - 55
∴ RA = 45 kN

Step 2: Shear force calculations:

Shear force at A, FA = RA = 45 kN

For the portion AC subjected to UDL:

(i) Shear force from A to C, FC1 = RA – 60

= 45 – 60
Or FC1 = - 15 kN

(ii) Shear force at C, F C2 = RA – 60 - 40

 = 45 – 60 – 40
Or FC2 = - 55 kN

Shear force at D, F D = RA – 60 – 40 – 0
(Since there is no point load/vertical load at D and also the moments should not
be considered for shear force calculations)
= 45 – 60 – 40 - 0
Or FD = - 55 kN

Shear force at B, F B = RA – 60 – 40 – 0 + RB
= 36 – 40 – 0 – 30 + 55
Or FB = 0 kN

(While drawing the SFD, mark off both F C1 and FC2 along the vertical at C)
The shear force diagram is drawn to an approximate scale as indicated in Fig.8b below.

(Note: It is found that the shear force diagram crosses the base line in the portion AC at
point P and SFD changes the sign from positive to negative. At all the points like this where
the Shear Force varies gradually and SFD crosses the base line changing the sign from
positive to negative or negative to positive, the bending moment is to be calculated as shown
in step 3(a) below and these points are also to be included while drawing bending moment
diagram as indicated in Fig. 8b below).

Step 3: (a) Bending Moment calculations:

Bending moment at A, MA = 0 kN-m

Bending moment at C, MC = RA x 3 – 60 x 1.5

= 45 x 3 – 60 x 1.5
Or MC = 45 kN-m

Bending moment at P, MP : (where the shear force varies gradually and SFD
crosses the base line changing the sign from positive to negative as indicated
in Fig. 8b below).

. The bending moment at point P is determined as follows:

 The point P is projected on to the loading diagram as indicated in Fig. 8b below.

 The portion of the loading diagram between the point P and support A, is
separated as shown if Fig. 8c below.

 The distance of point P from the support A, is determined from the similar
triangles of SFD in the portion AC.

 For the separated portion of the loading diagram, indicated in Fig. 8c below, the
algebraic sum of the moments due to all the forces about P from the left end A,
gives the bending moment in the beam.
 Equivalent Point load of
UDL of intensity 20 kN/m and length x
20x

20 kN/m

A
P
(x/2) (x/2)

RA
x

Fig. 8c

(i) To find the distance of point P:

Let X be the distance of point P from the support A as indicated in Fig. 8b.
From the similar triangles of SFD in the portion AC, we can write,

𝑥 45
= (Only absolute values of the ordinates are to be considered)
(3−𝑥) 15
∴ 𝒙 = 2.25 m
Therefore, the point P is located at a distance of 2.25 m from the support A.

(ii) To find the bending moment at P:

Referring to Fig. 8c above, considering the algebraic sum of the moments due to
all the forces about P, we get,
∑ 𝑀𝑃 = RA X – 20 X (X/2)
Substituting for X = 2.25 m and RA = 45 kN
Or = 36 x 2.25 – 10 (2.25)2

Or the bending moment at P, MP = 50.625 kN-m

Bending moment at D:

(Note: At all the points wherever external moments/couples are acting, the two values of the
bending moments are to be calculated. The first one, without considering the external
moment/couple and the second one with the external moment/couple. Both of these values
are to be marked off along the vertical at the same points in the BMD.)

(i) Without considering external CW moment of 120 kN-m:

MD1 = RA x 4.5 – 60 x 3 – 40 x 1.5
= 45 x 4.5 – 60 x 3 – 40 x 1.5
Or MD1 = - 37.5 kN-m

(ii) With the external CW moment of 120 kN-m:

 MD2 = RA x 4.5 – 60 x 3 – 40 x 1.5 + 120
= 45 x 4.5 – 60 x 3 – 40 x 1.5 + 120
Or MD2 = 82.5 kN-m

(Both of these values MD1 & MD2 are to be marked of along the vertical at the same
point in the BMD)

Bending moment at B, MB = RA x 6 – 60 x 4.5 – 40 x 3 + 120

= 45 x 6 – 60 x 4.5 – 40 x 3 + 120
Or MB = 0 kN-m

The Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) are drawn to an
approximate scale as shown in Fig. 8b below.

Equivalent Point 40 kN
Load of UDL 60 kN

20 kN/m P 120 kN-m

D
A C B
1.5 m 1.5 m

RA RB
3m 1.5 m 1.5 m

45 Shear Force Diagram (SFD)

Li
ne
+ve ar

Shear Force +ve

(kN) 0 C D 0 Base
A P B Line
15 -ve
-ve x (3-x)

55 55 55

Bending Moment Diagram(BMD)

82.5

50.625
Li
ne

a
ol 45
ar

+ve ab
r
Pa
Li

+ve +ve
ne
ar

Bending
Moment 0 C D 0 Base
(kN-m) A P -ve B Line

37.5
-ve
x1

Fig. 8b (1.5 - x 1)
 (b) To locate point of contra flexure (POC):

In this problem, one point of contra flexure occurs in the portion CD of the bending
moment diagram as indicated in Fig. 8b above.
Let x1 be the distance of POC, P from the point C.

Since the bending moment diagram in the portion CD, is a straight line (Linear), the
location of POC may be determined by the Method of similar triangles as follows:
From the similar triangles of BMD in the portion CD, we can write,

𝑥1 45
= (Only absolute values of the ordinates are to be considered)
(1.5−𝑥1 ) 37.5
∴ 𝑥1 = 0.8181m
Therefore, the point of contra flexure, P is located at a distance of 0.8181 m
from point C or (1.5 – 0.8181) = 0.6818 m from D.

In this problem, as shown in the bending moment diagram (Fig. 8b), the maximum bending
moment occurs at point D and is equal to 82.5 kN-m

PB. NO. 9: For the beam AC shown in Fig. 9 below, determine the magnitude of load P
acting at C if the reactions at the supports are equal and draw the SFD and BMD. Find the
maximum bending moment and also the POCs, if there are any.

P=?

45 kN/m 30 kN-m

A C
D B

4m 2m 1m

Fig. 9

Solution:
The salient points and the equivalent point load of UDL are indicated on the loading diagram
as shown in Fig. 9a below.

Equivalent Point P=?

Load of UDL
180 kN
30 kN-m
45 kN/m

A C
D B
2m 2m
RA RB
4m 2m 1m

Fig. 9a
Step 1: To find the reaction forces at the supports (Support reactions):

Let RA and RB be the reaction forces at the supports A and B respectively as indicated in
Fig. 9a above.

Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑉 = 0 (Algebraic sum of all the vertical forces acting on the
beam = 0), we get

RA - 180 + RB - P = 0 (Considering Equivalent point load of UDL)

Or RA + RB = (180 + P)

Given that RA = RB

∴ 2 RB = (180 + P)
(180 + P)
Or RB = -------------------- (1)
2

Now, Applying equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0(Algebraic sum of the moments due to all the
forces about support A = 0), we get
(180 x 2 + 30 + 120 - RB x 6 + P x 7) = 0
(Considering Equivalent point load of UDL)
(390 + 7P)
∴ RB = ------------------ (2)
6
From (1) and (2), we can write,
(180 + P) (390 + 7P)
=
2 6

∴ P = 37.5 kN
From (1) RB = 108.75 kN and
RA = R B = 108.75 kN

Step 2: Shear force calculations:

Shear force at A, FA = RA = 108.75 kN

For the portion AD subjected to UDL:

(i) Shear force from A to D, FD1 = RA – 180
= 108.75 – 180
Or FD1 = - 71.25 kN

(ii) Shear force at D, FD2 = RA – 180 – 0

(Since there is no point load/ vertical load at D and also t he moments should not be c onsidered
for shear force calculations)
 = 108.75 – 180 – 0

Or FD2 = - 71.25 kN

Shear force at B, FB = RA – 180 – 0 + RB

= 108.75 – 180 – 0 +108.75
Or FB= - 37.5 kN

Shear force at C, FC = RA – 180 – 0 + RB - P

= 108.75 – 180 – 0 + 108.75 – 37.5
Or FB = 0 kN

(While drawing the SFD, mark off both F D1 and FD2 along the vertical at D)

The shear force diagram is drawn to an approximate scale as indicated in Fig.9b below.

(Note: It is found that the shear force diagram crosses the base line in the portion A D at
point P and SFD changes the sign from positive to negative. At all the points like this where
the Shear Force varies gradually and SFD crosses the base line, changing the sign from
positive to negative or negative to positive, the bending moment is to be calculated as shown
in step 3(a) below and these points are also to be included while drawing bending moment
diagram as indicated in Fig. 9b below).

Step 3: (a) Bending Moment calculations:

Bending moment at A, MA = 0 kN-m

Bending moment at P, MP : (where the shear force varies gradually and SFD
crosses the base line, changing the sign from positive to negative as indicated
in Fig. 9b below).

. The bending moment at point P is determined as follows:

 The point P is projected on to the loading diagram as indicated in Fig. 9b below.

 The portion of the loading diagram between the point P and support A, is
separated as shown if Fig. 9c below.

 The distance of point P from the support A, is determined from the similar
triangles of SFD in the portion AD.

 For the separated portion of the loading diagram, indicated in Fig. 9c below, the
algebraic sum of the moments due to all the forces about P from the left end A,
gives the bending moment in the beam.
 Equivalent Point load of
UDL of intensity 45 kN/m and length x
45x

45 kN/m

A
P
(x/2) (x/2)

RA
x

Fig. 9c

(i) To find the distance of point P:

Let X be the distance of point P from the support A as indicated in Fig. 9b.
From the similar triangles of SFD in the portion AD, we can write,

𝑥 108.75
= (Only absolute values of the ordinates are to be considered)
(4−𝑥) 71.25
∴ 𝒙 = 2.416 m
Therefore, the point P is located at a distance of 2.25 m from the support A.

(ii) To find the bending moment at P:

Referring to Fig. 9c above, considering the algebraic sum of the moments due to
all the forces about P, we get,
∑ 𝑀𝑃 = RA X – 45 X (X/2)
Substituting for X = 2.416 m and RA = 108.75 kN
Or = 108.75 x 2.416 – 22.5 (2.416)2

Or the bending moment at P, MP = 131.406 kN-m

Bending moment at D:

(Note: At all the points wherever external moments/couples are acting, the two values of the
bending moments are to be calculated. The first one, without considering the external
moment/couple and the second one with the external moment/couple. Both of these values
are to be marked off along the vertical at the same points in the BMD.)

(i) Without considering external CW moment of 30 kN-m:

MD1 = RA x 4 – 180 x 2
= 108.75 x 4 – 180 x 2
Or MD1 = 75 kN-m
 (ii) With the external CW moment of 30 kN-m:
MD2 = RA x 4 – 180 x 2 + 30
= 108.75 x 4 – 180 x 2 + 30
Or MD2 = 105 kN-m

(Both of these values MD1 & MD2 are to be marked of along the vertical at the same
point D in the BMD)

Bending moment at B, MB = RA x 6 – 180 x 4 + 30

= 108.75 x 6 – 180 x 4 + 30
Or MB = - 37.5 kN-m

Bending moment at C, MC = RA x 7 – 180 x 5 + 30 + RB x 1

= 108.75 x 7 – 180 x 5 + 30 + 108.75 x 1
Or MC = 0 kN-m

The Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram (BMD) are drawn to an
approximate scale as shown in Fig. 9b below.
Equivalent Point P = 37.5 kN
Load of UDL
180 kN
30 kN-m
45 kN/m

A P C
D B

RA 2m 2m
RB
4m 2m 1m
x
108.75
Shear Force Diagram (SFD)
Li
ne

+ve
ar

+ve 37.5 37.5

Shear Force
(kN) 0 P +ve 0 Base
A D B C Line
-ve
71.5 71.5
-ve
x (4-x)

Bending Moment Diagram(BMD)

131.406
105
lic
bo
ra
Pa

Li

+ve
ne
ar

75
Bending
Moment 0 P D Q B 0 Base
(kN-m) A C Line

ear
37.5 Lin
-ve
x1 (2 - x1)

Fig. 9b
 (b) To locate point of contra flexure (POC):

In this problem, one point of contra flexure occurs in the portion DB of the bending
moment diagram as indicated in Fig. 9b above.
Let x1 be the distance of POC, Q from the point C.
Since the bending moment diagram in the portion DB, is a straight line (Linear), the
location of POC may be determined by the Method of similar triangles as follows:
From the similar triangles of BMD in the portion DB, we can write,

𝑥1 105
= (Only absolute values of the ordinates are to be considered)
(2−𝑥1 ) 37.5
∴ 𝑥1 = 1.473 m
Therefore, the point of contra flexure, Q is located at a distance of 1.473 m
from point D or (2 – 1.473 ) = 0.527 m from B.

In this problem, as shown in the bending moment diagram (Fig. 9b), the maximum bending
moment occurs at point P and is equal to 131.406 kN-m

Exercise Problems:

PB. NO. 10: For the beam subjected to the loading conditions as shown in the Fig. 10 below,
draw the SFD and BMD. Find the maximum bending moment and locate POCs, if there are
any.

5 kN/m

2m 10 m 2m

Fig. 10

Solution: The salient points and the equivalent point load of UDL are indicated on the
loading diagram as shown in Fig. 10a below.

10 kN Equivalent Point 20 kN 10 kN Equivalent Point

Load of UDL Load of UDL

5 kN/m

C D
A B
1m 1m 5m 5m 1m 1m
RA RB

2m 10 m 2m

Fig. 10a
Answers:
 Support reactions: R A = 35 kN and RB = 35 kN

 Shear force values at the salient points:

Shear force at, FC = 0 kN (Since no loads at C and towards left of C)

Shear force values for the UDL portion CA:

(i) Shear force from C to A, F A1 = - 10 kN

(ii) Shear force at A, F A2 = 25 kN

Shear force values for the UDL portion AB:

(i) Shear force from A to B, F B1 = - 25 kN

(ii) Shear force at B, FB2 = 10 kN

Shear force values for the UDL portion BD:

(i) Shear force from B to D, F D1 = 0 kN

(ii) Shear force at D, F D2 = 0 kN

 Bending moment values at the salient points:

Bending moment at C, MC = 0 kN-m

Bending moment at A, MA = - 10 kN-m

Bending moment at P, MP = 52.5 kN-m

(The location of point P can be calculated from the similar triangles of SFD in the portion AB
and is found to be 5 m from the support A. The bending moment at P is calculated by
projecting point P on to the loading diagram and considering the loading diagram between P
and C as indicated in Fig 10c below).

10 kN 25 kN
Equivalent Point
5 kN/m Load of UDL

C P
A
1m 1m 2.5 m 2.5 m

RA
2m 5m

Fig. 10c

Bending moment at B, MB = - 10 kN-m

Bending moment at D, MD = 0 kN-m

The shear force and bending moment values at the salient points are indicated on SFD and
BMD shown in Fig. 10b below.
 Points of contra flexure:

In this problem, two points of contra flexure, i.e. Q and R, exist in the portion AB of the
BMD as indicated in Fig. 10b. Their locations are obtained by solving the quadratic
equation resulting from the bending moment equation, M P for the loading diagram
between POC Q and C as indicated in Fig.10d. Out of the two values obtained by
solving the quadratic equation for M P, one value corresponds to the location of Q and
the other value corresponds to the location of R, since both Q and R are located on
the same parabolic curve of BMD in the portion AB.

Equivalent Point load of

5 x1 UDL of intensity 5 kN/m and length x1

(x1/2) (x1/2)

5 kN/m

C Q
A

RA
2m (x1 - 2)

x1

Fig. 10d

The POC Q is located at a distance of 2.42 m from C and POC R is located at a

distance of 11.52 m from C.

 Maximum bending moment:

The maximum bending moment occurs at point P and is equal to 52.5 kN-m.
 10 kN Equivalent Point 20 kN 10 kN Equivalent Point
Load of UDL Load of UDL

5 kN/m

C D
A Q P B
1m 1m 5m 5m 1m 1m
RA RB

2m 10 m 2m

Shear Force Diagram (SFD)

25

+ve Li 10
ne
ar Lin
Shear Force ear
0 C +ve +ve
(kN) A P B D Base
0 Line
-ve -ve
Lin Li
ea ne The point P is located at a distance of
r ar
-ve x = 5 m from support A
10 (10-x)
x 25

Bending Moment Diagram(BMD) 52.5

c
oli

Pa
rab

rab

+ve
Pa

oli
c

Bending
Moment 0 C A P B D Base
(kN-m) Par Q R Line
c
abo boli
lic ra
Pa POC Q is at a distance of 2.42 m from C
-ve 10 POC R is at a distance of 11.52 m from C
( x 1 - 2) 10
x1
(2.42 m) Fig. 10b
PB. NO. 11: For the beam subjected to the loading conditions as shown in the Fig. 11 below,
draw the SFD and BMD. Find the maximum bending moment and locate POCs, if there are
any.

50 kN 80 kN
20 kN/m

2m 10 m 3m

Fig. 11

Solution: The salient points and the equivalent point load of UDL are indicated on the
loading diagram as shown in Fig. 11a below.

40 kN Equivalent Point 200 kN 60 kN

Load of UDL Equivalent Point 80 kN
50 kN
Load of UDL
20kN/m

C D
A B 1.5 m 1.5 m
1m 1m 5m 5m
RA RB

2m 10 m 3m

Fig. 11a

Answers:
 Support reactions: R A = 171 kN and RB = 259 kN

 Shear force values at the salient points:

Shear force at, FC = - 50 kN

Shear force values for the UDL portion CA:

(i) Shear force from C to A, F A1 = - 90 kN

(ii) Shear force at A, F A2 = 81 kN

Shear force values for the UDL portion AB:

(i) Shear force from A to B, F B1 = - 119 kN

(ii) Shear force at B, F B2 = 140kN

Shear force values for the UDL portion BD:

(i) Shear force from B to D, F D1 = 80 kN

(ii) Shear force at D, F D2 = 0 kN

  Bending moment values at the salient points:

Bending moment at C, MC = 0 kN-m

Bending moment at A, MA = - 140 kN-m

Bending moment at P, MP = 24 kN-m

(The location of point P can be calculated from the similar triangles of SFD in the portion AB
and is found to be 4.05 m from the support A. The bending moment at P is calculated by
projecting point P on to the loading diagram and considering the loading diagram between P
and C as indicated in Fig 11c below).

40 kN 81 kN
50 kN Equivalent Point 20kN/m
Load of UDL

C A P
1m 1m 2.025 m 2.025 m

RA
2m 4.05 m

Fig. 11c

Bending moment at B, MB = - 330 kN-m

Bending moment at D, MD = 0 kN-m

The shear force and bending moment values at the salient points are indicated on SFD and
BMD shown in Fig. 11b below.

 Points of contra flexure:

In this problem, two points of contra flexure, i.e. Q and R, exist in the portion AB of the
BMD as indicated in Fig. 11b. Their locations are obtained by solving the quadratic
equation resulting from the bending moment equation, M P for the loading diagram
between POC Q and C as indicated in Fig.11d. Out of the two values obtained by
solving the quadratic equation for M P, one value corresponds to the location of Q and
the other value corresponds to the location of R, since both Q and R are located on
the same parabolic curve of BMD in the portion AB.
 Equivalent Point load of
20 x1 UDL of intensity 20 kN/m and length x1

(x1/2) (x1/2)
50 kN
20 kN/m

C Q
A

RA
2m (x1 - 2)

x1

Fig. 11d

 Maximum bending moment:

The maximum bending moment occurs at point P and is equal to 24 kN-m.

 40 kN Equivalent Point 200 kN 60 kN
Load of UDL Equivalent Point 80 kN
50 kN
Load of UDL
20kN/m

C D
A P B 1.5 m 1.5 m
1m 1m 5m 5m
RA RB
2m 10 m 3m

Shear Force Diagram (SFD)

140 Lin
ear
81 Lin
+ve ea 80
r
+ve
Shear Force +ve
0 C P 0
(kN) Base
A B D Line
50 -ve -ve
The point P is located at a
Li distance of x = 4.05 m from
-ve Lin ne
ear ar support A
90

x (10-x) 119

Bending Moment Diagram(BMD)

+ve 24 Pa
lic

ra
bo

bo
Bending +ve lic
ra

Moment 0 0
Pa

Base
(kN-m) C A Q P R B Line
Pa -ve -ve D
c
rab
oli boli
c ra
-ve Pa
140
( x 1 - 2) 330
x1
Fig. 11b
 Relationship between Load intensity, Shear Force and Bending Moment:

(Derivation of relationship between Intensity of load W, Shear force F

and bending moment M)

Equivalent Point
W dx (F + d F)
Load of UDL
W kN/m
C D
A B
M D (M+ d M)
C
( d x/2 ) ( d x /2 )
x dx F
dx
l
Fig. a2
Fig. a1

Consider a beam AB of length l, subjected to a UDL of intensity W kN/m as shown in Fig a1.
An element CD of length δx at a distance of x from the left end of the beam is considered
and the enlarged view of the free body diagram of the element with shear forces and bending
moments is represented in Fig a2.

Let,
F = Shear force acting on the element at its left end C
(F + δF) = Shear force acting on the element at its right end D
M = Bending moment acting on the element at its left end C
(M + δM) = Bending moment acting on the element at its right end D

Applying the equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑉 = 0 (Algebraic sum of all the vertical forces = 0) for
the FBD of element shown in Fig. a2, we get,
(Upward forces are treated as positive and downward forces are treated as negative)
- F + (F + δF) – W δx = 0
Or δF - W δx = 0

δF
Or =W ------- (1) Where W = Load intensity per unit length
δx

Equation (1) indicates that the rate of change of shear force at any section with respect to the
length of beam is equal to the intensity of load at that section.

Applying the equilibrium equation, ∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0 (Algebraic sum of the moments due to all the
forces about the right end D = 0) for the FBD of element shown in Fig. a2, we get,
(Clockwise moments are treated as positive and Counter clockwise moments are treated as
negative)
M – F δx - W δx (δx/2) - (M + δM) = 0
δx2
Or M – F δx - W ( 2
) - M – δM = 0
 δx2
Neglecting the square of small quantity [i.e., ( 2
) = 0], we get
– F δx – δM = 0

δM
Or =-F ------------ (2)
δx

Equation (2) indicates that the rate of change of bending moment at any section with respect
to the length of beam is equal to the shear force at that section.
 MODULE – 4
TORSION OF CIRCULAR SHAFTS

A circular shaft is said to be in torsion when two equal and opposite moments are applied at
the ends in the plane of its cross section, about the longitudinal axis of the shaft.
The torsion in shafts results in twisting effect which in turn results in shear stress and shear
strain in the plane of its cross section. The torsion, also called torsional moment or torque, is
equal to the product of tangential force and radius of the shaft.

The torsion or torque is generally expressed in N-m or N-mm or kN-m or kN-mm.

Pure Torsion: A circular shaft is said to be in a state of pure torsion when it is subjected to
pure torque and not accompanied by bending or axial thrust.

Due to this torsion, the state of stress at any point along its cross section is of pure shear.
The shearing stress thus induced in the shaft produces a moment of resistance, equal and
opposite to the applied torque in the plane of its cross section.

Theory of pure torsion:

The theory of pure torsion relates the shear stress and angle of twist to the applied torque.

Derivation of relationship between Twisting Moment (Torque), Shear stress and Angle
of Twist:

R
ts
R
fs
A dr
r
f T ts
B'
q
o R
l
B

Fig. 4.1c
Fig. 4.1a Fig. 4.1b
Variation of shear stress over
the cross section of shaft

The following are the assumptions made in the derivation of relationship between twisting
moment, shear stress and angle of twist:

a) The material is homogeneous, elastic, isotropic and obeys Hooke’s law i.e., shear
stress at any point along the cross section of the shaft is directly proportional to the
shear strain at that point.
b) Plane normal sections of circular shaft remain plane after twisting.
c) The twist along the shaft is uniform.
 d) The radial lines remain radial after twisting.
e) The Stresses do not exceed the limit of proportionality.
f) The shaft is of uniform circular cross section throughout the length.

Consider a circular shaft of length l fixed at one end and subjected to a twisting moment or
torque T at the other end as shown in Fig. 4.1a.
The torque T causes the free end of the shaft to rotate through an angle θ . As a result, the
radial line OB is rotated to new position OB’ and the line AB on the surface of the shaft is
twisted to AB’ through an angle ∅ as indicated in Fig. 4.1a.

Let 𝜏𝑠 be the intensity of shear stress at the surface of the shaft.

𝐵𝐵′
Shear strain, tan ∅ = ∅ =
𝐴𝐵

𝐵𝐵′ 𝑅θ
Or Shear strain, ∅ = = ------------- (1)
𝐴𝐵 𝑙

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜏𝑠 )

WKT, Modulus of Rigidity, G =
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛(∅)

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏𝑠
∴ Shear Strain, ∅ = = ------------- (2)
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐺

From (1) and (2) we can write

𝜏𝑠 𝑅θ
=
𝐺 𝑙

𝜏𝑠 𝐺θ
Or = --------------- (3)
𝑅 𝑙

𝐺θ
From (3) it can be stated that, for a particular shaft is constant and therefore 𝜏𝑠 𝛼 R i.e.,
𝑙
shear stress at any point on the cross section of a shaft is directly proportional to the radial
distance of the point from the center of the shaft as shown in Fig. 4.1c.

Consider an annular elementary strip of thickness dr at any radial distance r in the cross
section of the shaft as shown in Fig. 4.1b.

Let
fs = Shear stress set up in the elementary strip
δT = Torque or twisting moment developed in the elementary strip
T = Total torque or twisting moment in the entire circular cross section
R= Radius of the shaft
D = Diameter of the shaft

𝑅
We can write the total torque, T = ∫0 δT
 Also, δT = (Tangential force on the elementary strip) (radial distance)
= (Shear stress ) (area of the elementary strip) r
= (fs ) (2 π r )(dr) r

𝑅
Or Total torque, T = ∫ (fs) (2 π r) (dr) r ------------------ (3)
0

Let 𝜏𝑠 = Maximum shear stress on the outer surface of the shaft which is at the maximum
radial distance R from the center of the shaft as shown in Fig. 4.1b

Considering the ratios of shear stresses and radial distances between the elementary strip
and outer surface of the shaft, we can write,

𝑓𝑠 𝑟
=
𝜏𝑠 𝑅

𝑟 𝜏𝑠
Or 𝑓𝑠 = --------------- (4)
𝑅

Substituting for 𝑓𝑠 in equation (3) we get,

𝑅 𝑟 𝜏𝑠
Total torque, T = ∫ (2 π r) (dr) r
0 𝑅
2 π 𝜏𝑠 𝑅 3
Or T=
𝑅 ∫0
𝑟 dr

𝑅
2 π 𝜏𝑠 𝑟4
Or T= [ ]
𝑅 4 0

2 π 𝜏𝑠 𝑅4
Or = [ ]
𝑅 4

π 𝜏𝑠
Or = 𝑅3
2
𝐷
Substituting for R = , we get
2

π 𝐷3 𝜏𝑠
Total torque, T = ------------- (5)
16

[Equation (5) gives the maximum torque transmitted by a solid circular shaft]

16 𝑇
From (5) we get 𝜏𝑠 =
π 𝐷3
 Substituting for 𝜏𝑠 in equation (3) we get

16 𝑇
π 𝐷3 𝐺θ
=
𝑅 𝑙
𝑇
π 𝐷4 𝐺θ 𝐷
Or = ∵ R=
32 𝑙 2

𝑇 𝐺θ
Or = ---------------- (6)
𝐽 𝑙

π 𝐷4
Where, 𝐽 = = Polar moment of inertia of circular shaft
32

Combining equations (3) and (6) we get,

𝑇 𝜏𝑠 𝐺θ
= = --------------- (7)
𝐽 𝑅 𝑙

Equation (7) gives the relationship between Twisting moment (torque), Shear stress and
Angle of twist for circular shafts subjected to torsion and is also called Torque equation.

Where, T = Applied torque or twisting moment (N-mm)

𝜏𝑠 = Shear stress at the surface of the shaft (N/mm2)
θ = Angle of twist (Radians)
J = Polar moment of Inertia (mm4)
R = Radius of the shaft (mm)
𝑙 = Length of the shaft (mm)
G = Modulus of rigidity (N/mm2)

(Note: All the parameters in equation (7) correspond to maximum values)

The equation (7) may be written in the following two forms:

𝑇 𝜏𝑠
(1) Strength equation: = -------------------- (8)
𝐽 𝑅

𝑇 𝐺θ
(2) Stiffness equation: = ---------------------- (9)
𝐽 𝑙
Polar Modulus: Polar modulus is defined as the ratio of the polar moment of inertia of the
shaft to the maximum radius of the shaft and is generally denoted by Z P. It is also called
torsional sectional modulus and may be expressed in mm 3 or m3.

𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡

Polar Modulus, ZP =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡

(i) For a solid circular shaft of diameter D:

𝐽 π 𝐷4 𝐷
Polar Modulus, ZP = ; J= ,R=
𝑅 32 2

π 𝐷4
32
∴ ZP = 𝐷
2

π 𝐷3
Or Polar Modulus, ZP =
16

(ii) For a hollow circular shaft of external diameter do and internal diameter d i:

𝐽
Polar Modulus, ZP =
𝑅

𝜋 𝑑𝑜
For a hollow shaft, polar moment of inertia, J = (𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ) and R =
32 2

𝜋
(𝑑𝑜4 −𝑑𝑖4 )
32
∴ Polar modulus, ZP = 𝑑𝑜
2

𝜋 (𝑑𝑜4−𝑑4
𝑖)
Or Polar modulus, ZP =
16 𝑑𝑜

Torsional rigidity: The product of modulus of rigidity and the polar moment of inertia of the
shaft is called torsional rigidity of the shaft and is expressed in kN-mm2 or N-mm2

∴ Torsional rigidity = (Modulus of rigidity x Polar moment of inertia)

= (G x J)
Power transmitted by a circular shaft:

The power transmitted by a circular shaft is given by;

2𝜋𝑁𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
Power transmitted, P = kW
60000

Where, N = Speed of the shaft in revolutions per minute (rpm)

𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = Mean torque of the shaft in N-m

Problems on Torsion of shafts:

PB. NO. 1: A shaft is required to transmit 245 kW of power at 240 rpm. The maximum torque
may be 1.5 times of the mean torque. The stress in the shaft should not exceed 40 N/mm 2
and the twist is 1° per meter length of the shaft.

Determine the diameter required if;

(i) The shaft is solid
(ii) The shaft is hollow with the external diameter twice the internal diameter.
Take Modulus of rigidity = 80 N/mm2

Solution:

Data: Power transmitted, P = 245 kW, Speed of the shaft, N = 240 rpm,
Shear stress, 𝜏𝑠 = 40 N/mm2 , Angle of twist, θ = 1° per meter i.e., Length of the
shaft, l = 1 meter, Modulus of rigidity, G = 80 N/mm2 and Tmax = Tmean
(Note: For determining the diameter (size) of the shaft when both shear stress and angle of
twist are given, the diameter (size) of the shaft is to be calculated using both strength
criteria(equation) and stiffness criteria (equation). The maximum of the values of the
diameter, obtained from strength criteria and stiffness criteria, is to be selected as the
required diameter)

(i)(a) To find the diameter of the solid shaft using strength criteria:
Let d be the diameter of the solid shaft.

𝑇 𝜏𝑠
We know that the strength equation is given by =
𝐽 𝑅
4
π𝑑
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, J = Polar moment of inertia = ,
32
𝑑
𝜏𝑠 = shear stress = 40 N/mm2 and R =
2
The maximum torque is determined from the Power equation as follows;
 2𝜋𝑁𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
WKT the power transmitted by a circular shaft, P =
60000
Substituting for the values, we get,

2𝜋∗240∗𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
. 245 =
60000

∴ 𝑻𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 9748.24N-m

Or 𝑻𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 9748.24 x 103 N-mm

Given that Tmax = 1.5 Tmean

∴ Tmax = 1.5 x 9748.24 x 103

Or Tm ax = 14622.36 x 103 N-mm

Substituting the values in equation (1), we get,

14622.36 x 103 40
π 𝑑4 = 𝑑
32 2
∴ The diameter of the solid shaft, d = 123.020 mm

(i)(b) To find the diameter of the solid shaft using stiffness criteria:
Let d be the diameter of the solid shaft.

𝑇 𝐺θ
We know that the stiffness equation is given by : = ---------- (2)
𝐽 𝑙
4
π𝑑
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, J = Polar moment of inertia = ,
32
°
θ = Angle of twist = 1° per meter length = 1180
∗𝜋
radians, 𝑙 = Length of the shaft = 1 m
and G = Modulus of rigidity = 80 kN/mm2 = 80 x 103 N/mm2

Substituting all the values in equation (2), we get,

1° ∗ 𝜋
14622.36 x 103 (80 x 103 )∗ ( )
180
π 𝑑4
= 𝑑
32 2

∴ The diameter of the solid shaft, d = 101.627 mm

∴ The required diameter of the solid shaft , d = 123.020 mm

(ii)(a) To find the diameter of the hollow shaft using strength (shear stress) criteria:

Let do be the external diameter and di be the internal diameter of the hollow shaft.

𝑇 𝜏𝑠
We know that the strength equation is given by = ---------- (1)
𝐽 𝑅
𝑑𝑜
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, R =
2
𝜋
J = Polar moment of inertia of hollow circular shaft =
32
(𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 )
𝜏𝑠 = shear stress = 40 N/mm2

Given that the external diameter do is twice the internal diameter di

𝜋
Or do = 2 di , substituting for do in J =
32
(𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ), we get

𝜋 𝜋 𝑑𝑖4
∴ J=
32
(2𝑑𝑖4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ) = (24 − 14 ) = 1.472 𝑑𝑖4
32
2𝑑𝑖
Or J = 1.472 𝑑𝑖4 and R =
2
Substituting all the values in equation (1), we get

14622.36 x 103 40
𝜋 4 4 = 𝑑𝑜
(𝑑𝑜 −𝑑𝑖 )
32 2

14622.36 x 103 40
Or = 2𝑑
1.472 𝑑𝑖4 𝑖
2

Or The internal diameter of the hollow shaft, di = 62.856 mm and

The external diameter of the hollow shaft, do = 2 di
Or do = 125.712 mm

(ii)(b) To find the diameter of the solid shaft using stiffness (Angle of twist) criteria:
𝑇 𝐺θ
We know that the stiffness equation is given by: = ---------- (2)
𝐽 𝑙
𝑑𝑜
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, R =
2
𝜋
J = Polar moment of inertia of hollow circular shaft = 32 (𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 )
°
θ = Angle of twist = 1° per meter length = 1180
∗𝜋
radians, 𝑙 = Length of the shaft = 1 m
and G = Modulus of rigidity = 80 kN/mm2 = 80 x 103 N/mm2

Substituting all the values in equation (2), we get,

 1° ∗ 𝜋
14622.36 x 103 (80 x 103 )∗ ( 180 )
𝜋 = 𝑑𝑜
(𝑑𝑜4 −𝑑𝑖4 )
32 2

1° ∗ 𝜋
14622.36 x 10 3 (80 x 103 )∗ ( 180 ) 2𝑑𝑖
Or = 2𝑑 𝑖 ; ∵ = 1.472 𝑑𝑖4 and R =
1.472 𝑑𝑖4 2
2

Or The internal diameter of the hollow shaft, di = 51.645 mm and

The external diameter of the hollow shaft, do = 2 di
Or do = 103.291 mm

∴ The required internal diameter of the hollow shaft, di = 62.856 mm and

The external diameter of the hollow shaft, do = 125.712 mm

PB. NO. 2: A mild steel shaft is 100 mm in diameter. The modulus of rigidity of the shaft
material is 80 kN/mm2 and the allowable shear stress in mild steel is 50 N/mm 2. Determine
the maximum torque which the shaft can transmit without failure. Also determine the angle of
twist per meter length of the shaft.

Solution:

Data: Shear stress, 𝜏𝑠 = 50 N/mm2, Length of the shaft, l = 1 meter,

Diameter of the shaft, d = 100 mm and Modulus of rigidity, G = 80 kN/mm 2

𝑇 𝜏𝑠 𝐺θ
WKT the torque equation is given by = =
𝐽 𝑅 𝑙

𝑇 𝜏𝑠
And the strength equation is given by = ---------- (1)
𝐽 𝑅
4
π𝑑
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, J = Polar moment of inertia = ,
32
𝑑
𝜏𝑠 = shear stress = 50 N/mm2 and R = ; d = diameter of the shaft = 100 mm
2
Substituting all the values in equation (1), we get

𝑇 50
π 1004 = 100
32 2
∴ The maximum torque transmitted by the shaft, T = 9817.47 x 10 3 N-mm
Or T = 9817.47 N-m
 𝑇 𝐺θ
WKT the stiffness equation is given by = ------------- (2)
𝐽 𝑙

4
π𝑑
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, J = Polar moment of inertia = ,
32
1° ∗𝜋
d = diameter of the shaft = 100 mm, θ = Angle of twist = 1° per meter length = 180 radians,
𝑙 = Length of the shaft = 1 m =1000 mm and
G = Modulus of rigidity = 80 kN/mm2 = 80 x 103 N/mm2

Substituting all the values in equation (2), we get,

9817.47 x 103 (80 x 103 )∗θ

π 1004
=
1000
32

∴ The angle of twist, 𝛉 = 0.01256 radians

180
= 0.01256 ( )
𝜋
= 0.7161 degrees

PB.NO. 3: Determine the size of the shaft which will transmit 70 kW at 180 rpm. The shear
stress is limited to 40 N/mm2 and the twist of the shaft is not to exceed 1° in 2.5 m length of
the shaft. Take G = 0.8 x 105 N/mm2. Assume torque to be uniform.

Solution:

Data: Power transmitted, P = 70 kW, Speed of the shaft, N = 180 rpm,

Shear stress, 𝜏𝑠 = 40 N/mm2 , Angle of twist, θ = 1° per 2.5 meter length og the shaft
i.e., Length of the shaft, l = 2.5 meter, Modulus of rigidity, G = 0.8 x 10 5 N/mm2

(a) To find the diameter of the shaft using strength (shear stress) criteria:
Let d be the diameter of the shaft.
𝑇 𝜏𝑠 𝐺θ
WKT the torque equation is given by = =
𝐽 𝑅 𝑙
𝑇 𝜏𝑠
And the strength equation is given by = ---------- (1)
𝐽 𝑅
4
π𝑑
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, J = Polar moment of inertia = ,
32
𝑑
𝜏𝑠 2
= shear stress = 40 N/mm and R =
2
The maximum torque is determined from the Power equation as follows;

2𝜋𝑁𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
WKT the power transmitted by a circular shaft, P =
60000
 Substituting for the values, we get,

2𝜋∗180∗𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
. 70 =
60000

∴ 𝑻𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 3713.61 N-m

Or 𝑻𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 3713.61 x 103 N-mm

Assuming that Tmax = Tmean and Substituting all the values in equation (1), we get,

3713.61 x 103 40
π 𝑑4 = 𝑑
32 2
∴ The diameter of the shaft, d = 77.9 mm

(b) To find the diameter of the shaft using stiffness (Angle of twist) criteria:

𝑇 𝐺θ
We know that the stiffness equation is given by : = ---------- (2)
𝐽 𝑙
4
π𝑑
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, J = Polar moment of inertia = ,
32
°
θ = Angle of twist = 1° per 2.5 meter length = 1180
∗𝜋
radians,
𝑙 = Length of the shaft = 2.5 m = 2500 mm and
5 2
G = Modulus of rigidity = 0.8 x 10 N/mm

Substituting all the values in equation (2), we get,

1° ∗ 𝜋
3713.61 x 103 (0.80 x 105 )∗ ( )
180
π 𝑑4 =
2500
32
∴ The diameter of the shaft, d = 120.775 mm

∴ The required diameter of the shaft , d = 120.775 mm

PB. NO. 4: A shaft is required to transmit 60 kW power at 240 rpm. The shear stress in the
shaft should not exceed 40 N/mm2 and the twist 1° per meter length of the shaft. Determine
the diameter of the shaft required if the shaft is hollow with the external diameter twice the
internal diameter. Take G = 80 kN/mm2.

Solution:

Data: Power transmitted, P = 60 kW, Speed of the shaft, N = 240 rpm,

Shear stress, 𝜏𝑠 = 40 N/mm2 , Angle of twist, θ = 1° per meter i.e., Length of the
shaft, l = 1 meter, Modulus of rigidity, G = 80 kN/mm2

(a) To find the diameter of the hollow shaft using strength (shear stress) criteria:

Let do be the external diameter and di be the internal diameter of the hollow shaft.
Let do be the external diameter and di be the internal diameter of the hollow shaft

𝑇 𝜏𝑠 𝐺θ
WKT the torque equation is given by = =
𝐽 𝑅 𝑙

𝑇 𝜏𝑠
And the strength equation is given by = ---------- (1)
𝐽 𝑅
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque,
𝜋
J = Polar moment of inertia of hollow circular shaft =
32
(𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 )
𝑑𝑜
𝜏𝑠 = shear stress = 40 N/mm2 and R =
2

The torque is determined from the Power equation as follows;

2𝜋𝑁𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
WKT the power transmitted by a circular shaft, P =
60000
Substituting for the values, we get,

2𝜋∗240∗𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
. 60 =
60000

∴ 𝑻𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 2387.324 N-m

Or 𝑻𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 2387.324 x 103 N-mm

Given that the external diameter do is twice the internal diameter di

𝜋
Or do = 2 di , substituting for do in J = 32 (𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ), we get
 𝜋 𝜋 𝑑𝑖4
∴ J = 32 (2𝑑𝑖4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ) = (24 − 14 ) = 1.472 𝑑𝑖4
32
2𝑑𝑖
Or J = 1.472 𝑑𝑖4 and R =
2
Assuming that Tmax = Tmean and Substituting all the values in equation (1), we get,

2387.324 x 103 40
𝜋
(𝑑𝑜4 −𝑑𝑖4 )
= 𝑑𝑜
32 2

2387.324 x 103 40
Or = 2𝑑 𝑖
1.472 𝑑𝑖4
2

Or The internal diameter of the hollow shaft, di = 54.528 mm and

The external diameter of the hollow shaft, do = 2 di
Or do = 109.056 mm

(ii)(b) To find the diameter of the hollow shaft using stiffness (Angle of twist) criteria:
𝑇 𝐺θ
We know that the stiffness equation is given by: = ---------- (2)
𝐽 𝑙
𝑑𝑜
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, R =
2
𝜋
J = Polar moment of inertia of hollow circular shaft = 32 (𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 )
°
θ = Angle of twist = 1° per meter length = 1180
∗𝜋
radians, 𝑙 = Length of the shaft = 1 m
and G = Modulus of rigidity = 80 kN/mm2 = 80 x 103 N/mm2

Assuming that Tmax = Tmean and Substituting all the values in equation (1), we get,

1° ∗ 𝜋
2387.324 x 10 3 (80 x 103 )∗ ( 180 )
𝜋 =
(𝑑𝑜4 −𝑑𝑖4 ) 1000
32

1° ∗ 𝜋
2387.324 x 103 (80 x 103 )∗ ( 180 )
Or = ; ∵ J = 1.472 𝑑𝑖4 and l = 1000mm
1.472 𝑑𝑖4 1000

Or The internal diameter of the hollow shaft, di = 32.825 mm and

The external diameter of the hollow shaft, do = 2 di
Or do = 65.65 mm
 ∴ The required internal diameter of the hollow shaft, di = 54.528 mm and
The external diameter of the hollow shaft, do = 109.056 mm

PB. NO. 5: In a hollow circular shaft, the external diameter is 100 mm and internal diameter
is 60mm. the allowable shear stress for the shaft material is 50 N/mm 2. Determine the angle
of twist in a length twenty times the external diameter of the shaft. Take G = 8 x 10 4 N/mm2.

Solution:
Data: External diameter, do = 100 mm, Internal diameter, di = 60 mm,
Modulus of rigidity, G = 8 x 10 4 N/mm2, Shear stress, 𝜏𝑠 = 50 N/mm2,
Length of the shaft, l = 20 x external diameter = 20 x 100 = 2000 mm

𝑇 𝜏𝑠 𝐺θ
WKT the torque equation is given by = =
𝐽 𝑅 𝑙
𝑇 𝜏𝑠
Using the strength criteria of torque equation, i.e., = ---------- (1)
𝐽 𝑅
𝜋
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, J = Polar moment of inertia = 32 (𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ),
𝑑𝑜
𝜏𝑠 = shear stress = 50 N/mm2 and R = ;
2
Substituting all the values in equation (1), we get

𝑇 50
𝜋 = 100
(1004 −604 )
32 2

∴ The maximum torque transmitted by the shaft, T = 8545.132 x 103 N-mm

Or T = 8545.132 N-m

𝑇 𝐺θ
Now, using the stiffness criteria of torque equation, i.e., = ------------- (2)
𝐽 𝑙

𝜋
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, J = Polar moment of inertia =
32
(𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ),
θ = Angle of twist 𝑙 = Length of the shaft = 2000 mm and
G = Modulus of rigidity = 8 x 10 4 N/mm2

Substituting all the values in equation (2), we get,

𝑇 (80 x 104 )∗θ

𝜋 =
(1004 −604 ) 2000
32
∴ The angle of twist, 𝛉 = 0.024 radians
180
= 0.024 ( ) = 1.432 degrees
𝜋
PB. NO. 6: A hollow shaft has an external diameter of 300 mm and bore (internal diameter)
of 180 mm. While transmitting a power, it is found that the angle of twist is 0.5° in a length of
3.5 m.
Find: (i) The power transmitted if the speed of the shaft is 300 rpm
(ii) The maximum shear stress in the shaft
Take G = 8.5 x 104 N/mm2 and Tmax = 1.4 x Tmean

Data: External diameter, do = 300 mm, Bore (Internal diameter), di = 180 mm,
Modulus of rigidity, G = 8.5 x 10 4 N/mm2, Length of the shaft, l = 3.5 m = 3500 mm,
°
θ = Angle of twist = 0.5° in a length of 3.5 m = 0.5
180
∗𝜋
radians and Tmax = 1.4 x Tmean

(i) To find the power transmitted by the shaft:

𝑇 𝜏𝑠 𝐺θ
WKT the torque equation is given by = =
𝐽 𝑅 𝑙
𝑇 𝐺θ
Using the stiffness criteria of torque equation, i.e., = -------- (1)
𝐽 𝑙
𝜋
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, J = Polar moment of inertia = 32 (𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ),
𝑑𝑜
and R = ;
2
Substituting all the values in equation (1), we get,

°
0.5 ∗ 𝜋
(8.5 x 104 )∗( )
𝑇 180
𝜋 =
(3004 −1804 ) 3500
32

∴ Maximum Torque, Tm ax = 146.644 x 103 N-mm

Or Tmax = 146.644 N-m

2𝜋𝑁𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
WKT the power transmitted by a shaft, P = ----------- (2)
60000
Where N = Speed of the shaft = 300 rpm, 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = Mean torque transmitted

Given that Tmax = 1.4 x Tmean

𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 146.644 x 103

∴ Tmean = = = 104.746 x 103 N-mm
1.4 1.4

Substituting for Tmean in equation (2), we get

2∗𝜋∗300∗104.746 x 103
Power transmitted by the shaft, P =
60000
Or Power Transmitted, P = 3.290 kW
(ii) To find the maximum shear stress:
𝑇 𝜏𝑠
Using the strength criteria of torque equation, i.e., = ---------- (3)
𝐽 𝑅
𝜋
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, J = Polar moment of inertia =
32
(𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ),
𝑑𝑜
𝜏𝑠 = shear stress and R = ;
2

Substituting all the values in equation (3), we get

146.644 x 103 𝜏𝑠
𝜋 = 300
(3004 −1804 )
32 2
∴ The maximum shear stress in the shaft, 𝝉𝒔 = 31.779 N/mm2

PB. NO. 7: Determine diameter of the shaft and the actual working stress to transmit 736 kW
at 200 rpm. Take shear modulus (or Rigidity modulus/Modulus of rigidity) as 80 GN/m 2 . The
shaft twist must not exceed 1° in a length 15 times the diameter and the shear stress must
not exceed 80 MN/m2.

Solution:
Data: Power Transmitted, P = 736 kW, Length of the shaft, l = 15d
Modulus of rigidity, G = 80 GN/m2 = 80 GPa = 80 kN/mm2 = 80 x 103 N/mm2,
1° ∗𝜋
θ = Angle of twist = 1° = radians in a length 15 times the diameter = 15d
180
Shear stress, 𝜏𝑠 = 80 MN/m2 = 80 MPa = 80 N/mm2

(i)(a) To find the diameter of the shaft using strength (shear stress) criteria:
Let d be the diameter of the shaft.
𝑇 𝜏𝑠 𝐺θ
WKT the torque equation is given by = =
𝐽 𝑅 𝑙
𝑇 𝜏𝑠
Using the strength criteria of torque equation, i.e., = ---------- (1)
𝐽 𝑅
4
π𝑑
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, J = Polar moment of inertia = ,
32
𝑑
𝜏𝑠 = shear stress = 80 N/mm2 and R =
2
The torque is determined from the Power equation as follows;

2𝜋𝑁𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
WKT the power transmitted by a circular shaft, P =
60000

Given that N = 200 rpm & P = 736 kW

 Substituting for the values, we get,

2𝜋∗200∗𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
736 =
60000

∴ 𝑻𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 35141.411 N-m

Or 𝑻𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 35141.411 x 103 N-mm

Assuming that Tmax = Tmean and Substituting all the values in equation (1), we get,

35141.411 x 103 80
π 𝑑4 = 𝑑
32 2
∴ The diameter of the shaft, d = 130.787 mm

(i)(b) To find the diameter of the shaft using stiffness (Angle of twist) criteria:

𝑇 𝐺θ
Using the stiffness criteria of the torque equation. i.e., = ---------- (2)
𝐽 𝑙
4
π𝑑
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, J = Polar moment of inertia = ,
32
°
θ = Angle of twist = 1° in a length = 15d = 1180
∗𝜋
radians,
𝑙 = Length of the shaft = 15d and
G = Shear Modulus/Modulus of rigidity = 80 x 10 3 N/mm2

Assuming that Tmax = Tmean and Substituting all the values in equation (2), we get
1° ∗ 𝜋
35141.411 x 103 (80 x 103 )∗ ( 180 )
π 𝑑4
=
15 𝑑
32
∴ The diameter of the shaft, d = 156.667 mm

The maximum of the above two values of diameters satisfies the criteria that the
shear stress must not exceed 80MN/m2 = 80 N/mm2

∴ The required diameter of the shaft , d = 156.667 mm

(ii) To find the actual working stress (𝜏𝑠 ) corresponding to the diameter,
d = 156.667 mm:
𝑇 𝜏𝑠
Using the strength criteria of torque equation, i.e., = ----------- (3)
𝐽 𝑅
4 𝑑
π𝑑
Where T = 35141.411 x 103 N-mm, J = and R = ; d = 156.667 mm
32 2
 Substituting all the values in equation (3), we get

35141.411 x 103 𝜏𝑠
π 𝑑4
= 𝑑
32 2

35141.411 x 103 𝜏𝑠
Or π∗156.6674 = 156.667
32 2

∴ The actual working stress, 𝝉𝒔 = 46.5427 N/mm2 (< 80 N/mm2)

PB. NO. 8: Prove that a hollow shaft is stronger and stiffer than the solid shaft of the same
material, length and weight.

Solution:
Let do = External diameter of the hollow shaft.
di = Internal diameter of the hollow shaft.
d = Diameter of the solid shaft
l = Length of the shaft
ρ = Weight density of the shaft
Ts = Torque transmitted by the solid shaft
Th = Torque transmitted by the hollow shaft

(a) To prove that the hollow shaft is stronger than the solid shaft:

To prove that the hollow shaft is stronger is tha the solid shaft, it is required to
prove that Th > Ts using strength (equation) criteria of torque equation.

From the strength criteria of torque equation, we have,

𝑇 𝜏𝑠
= -------------- (1)
𝐽 𝑅
For a solid shaft, equation (1) may be written as

𝑇𝑠 𝜏𝑠 4 𝑑
π𝑑
= ; Where, 𝑱𝒔 =
32
and R =
𝐽𝑠 𝑅 2

π 𝑑4
𝜏𝑠 𝐽𝑠 𝜏𝑠 ∗
32
Or 𝑇𝑠 = = 𝑑
𝑅
2
 𝜋𝑑 3 𝜏𝑠
Or 𝑇𝑠 = ---------------- (2)
16

For a hollow shaft, equation (1) may be written as

𝑇ℎ 𝜏𝑠 𝜋 𝑑𝑜
= ; Where, 𝑱𝒉 = (𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ) and R =
𝐽ℎ 𝑅 32 2

𝜋
𝜏𝑠 𝐽ℎ 𝜏𝑠 ∗ (𝑑4𝑜−𝑑𝑖4 )
32
Or 𝑇ℎ = = 𝑑𝑜
𝑅
2

𝜋 (𝑑𝑜4 −𝑑𝑖4 )∗𝜏𝑠

Or 𝑇ℎ = ------------- (3)
16 𝑑𝑜

From (2) and (3), we can write

𝑇ℎ (𝑑𝑜4 −𝑑𝑖4 )
𝑇𝑠
= 𝑑𝑜 𝑑 3

𝑇ℎ (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑2 2 2
𝑖 )(𝑑 𝑜 + 𝑑 𝑖 )
Or = ----------------- (4)
𝑇𝑠 𝑑𝑜 𝑑3

The two shafts have equal weight and length, and are of the same material.
Hence equating the weight of solid shaft to that of hollow shaft, we get

𝜋 𝜋
𝑑 2 l ρ = (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 ) l ρ
4 4

Or 𝑑 2 = (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 ) ---------- (5)

Also 𝑑 3 = 𝑑 𝑑 2
2 2
But from (5) 𝑑 = √(𝑑𝑜 − 𝑑𝑖 )

∴ 𝑑 3 = 𝑑 𝑑 2 = √(𝑑2𝑜 − 𝑑2𝑖 ) ∗ (𝑑2𝑜 − 𝑑2𝑖 )

2 2 2 2
Or Substituting for 𝑑 3 = √(𝑑𝑜 − 𝑑𝑖 ) ∗ (𝑑𝑜 − 𝑑𝑖 ) in (4), we get
 𝑇ℎ (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 )(𝑑𝑜2 + 𝑑𝑖2 )
=
𝑇𝑠
𝑑𝑜 √(𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 ) ∗ (𝑑2𝑜− 𝑑𝑖2 )

𝑇ℎ (𝑑𝑜2 + 𝑑𝑖2 )
Or =
𝑇𝑠
𝑑𝑜 √(𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 )

𝑑 2 𝑑 2
𝑑𝑜2 [1+( 𝑖 ) ] 𝑑𝑜2 [1+( 𝑖 ) ]
𝑇ℎ 𝑑𝑜 𝑑𝑜
Or = =
𝑇𝑠 2 2
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑜 ∗ 𝑑𝑜√1−( 𝑖 ) 𝑑𝑜2 √1−( 𝑖 )
𝑑𝑜 𝑑𝑜

𝑑 2
[1+( 𝑖 ) ]
𝑇ℎ 𝑑𝑜
Or = ------------- (6)
𝑇𝑠 2
𝑑
√1−( 𝑖 )
𝑑𝑜

From equation (6), it is clear that the numerator is greater than the denominator.

𝑇ℎ
∴ >1
𝑇𝑠

Or 𝑻𝒉 > 𝑻𝒔 ------------- (7)

From (7), it can be stated that the hollow shaft is stronger than the solid shaft for the same
material, weight and length.

(b) To prove that the hollow shaft is stiffer than the solid shaft:

To prove that the hollow shaft is stiffer is than the solid shaft, it is required to prove that the
torsional stiffness (or Torsional rigidity i.e., the product of modulus of rigidity and polar
moment of inertia of the shaft) of hollow shaft is greater than that of the solid shaft using
stiffness (equation) criteria of torque equation.

The stiffness of the shaft may be defined as the torque required to produce unit rotation in
unit length.
Let Gh = Modulus of rigidity of hollow shaft
Gs = Modulus of rigidity of solid shaft
Jh = Polar moment of inertia of hollow shaft
Js = Polar moment of inertia of solid shaft
Kh = Stiffness of hollow shaft = Gh Jh
 Ks = Stiffness of the solid shaft = Gs Js
do = External diameter of the hollow shaft.
di = Internal diameter of the hollow shaft.
d = Diameter of the solid shaft

It is required to prove that Kh > Ks or Gh Jh > Gs Js

𝐾ℎ
Or >1
𝐾𝑠

𝜋 4
Where 𝑱𝒉 = (𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ) and 𝑱𝒔 = π 𝑑
32 32

For the same material of the hollow and solid shafts, Gh = Gs

𝐾ℎ 𝐺ℎ ∗𝐽ℎ 𝐽ℎ
= = ∵ Gh = Gs
𝐾𝑠 𝐺𝑠 ∗𝐽𝑠 𝐽𝑠

𝜋
𝐾ℎ (𝑑𝑜4 −𝑑𝑖4 ) (𝑑𝑜4 −𝑑𝑖4 )
32
Or = π 𝑑4
=
𝐾𝑠 𝑑4
32

𝐾ℎ (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 )(𝑑2𝑜+ 𝑑𝑖2 )

Or = ; From (5) 𝑑 2 = (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 )
𝐾𝑠 𝑑2 ∗ 𝑑2

𝐾ℎ (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 )(𝑑𝑜2 + 𝑑𝑖2 )

Or =
𝐾𝑠 (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 )∗(𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 )

𝐾ℎ (𝑑𝑜2 + 𝑑𝑖2 )
Or = ------------- (8)
𝐾𝑠 (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 )

From equation (8), it is clear that numerator is greater than the denominator.

𝑲𝒉
∴ >1
𝑲𝒔

Or 𝑲𝒉 > 𝑲𝒔 ------------------ (9)

From (9) it can be stated that the hollow shaft is stiffer than the solid shaft for the
same material, weight and length.
PB.NO. 9: A solid shaft transmits 250 kW at 100 rpm. If the shear stress is not to exceed
75 N/mm2, what should be the diameter of the shaft? If this shaft is to be replaced by a
hollow shaft, whose internal diameter is equal to 0.6 times the external diameter, find the size
and percentage saving in weight.

Solution:

Data: Power transmitted, P = 250 kW, Speed of the shaft, N = 100 rpm,
Shear stress, 𝜏𝑠 = 75 N/mm2,

(a) To find the diameter of the shaft using strength (shear stress) criteria:

Let d be the diameter of the shaft.

𝑇 𝜏𝑠 𝐺θ
WKT the torque equation is given by = =
𝐽 𝑅 𝑙
𝑇 𝜏𝑠
And the strength equation is given by = ---------- (1)
𝐽 𝑅
4
π𝑑
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, J = Polar moment of inertia = ,
32
𝑑
𝜏𝑠 = shear stress = 75 N/mm2 and R =
2
The maximum torque is determined from the Power equation as follows;

2𝜋𝑁𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
WKT the power transmitted by a circular shaft, P =
60000
Substituting for the values, we get,

2𝜋∗100∗𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
. 250 =
60000

∴ 𝑻𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 23873.24 N-m

Or 𝑻𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 23873.24 x 103 N-mm

Assuming that Tmax = Tmean and Substituting all the values in equation (1), we get,

23873.24 x 103 75
π 𝑑4 = 𝑑
32 2

∴ The diameter of the shaft, d = 117.473 mm

(b) To find the size of the hollow shaft using strength (shear stress) criteria:

Let do be the external diameter and di be the internal diameter of the hollow shaft.

𝑇 𝜏𝑠 𝐺θ
WKT the torque equation is given by = =
𝐽 𝑅 𝑙

𝑇 𝜏𝑠
And the strength equation is given by = ---------- (1)
𝐽 𝑅
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque,
𝜋
J = Polar moment of inertia of hollow circular shaft = 32 (𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 )
𝑑𝑜
𝜏𝑠 = shear stress = 75 N/mm2 and R =
2

Given that internal diameter di is 0.6 times the external diameter do

𝜋
Or di = 0.6 do substituting for di in J = 32 (𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ), we get

𝜋 𝜋 𝑑𝑜4
∴ J=
32
[(𝑑4𝑜 ) − (0.6𝑑𝑜 )4 ] = [(14) − (0.6)4 ] = 0.08545 𝑑𝑜4
32
𝑑𝑜
Or J = 0.08545 𝑑𝑜4 and R =
2
Assuming that Tmax = Tmean and Substituting all the values in equation (1), we get,

23873.24 x 103 75
𝜋
(𝑑𝑜4 −𝑑𝑖4 )
= 𝑑𝑜
32 2

23873.24 x 103 75
Or
0.08545 𝑑𝑜4
= 𝑑𝑜
2

Or The external diameter of the hollow shaft, do = 123.037 mm and

The internal diameter of the hollow shaft, di = 0.6 do
Or di = 73.822 mm

(c) To find the percentage saving in weight:

(𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡−𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 )

Percentage saving in weight = x 100
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡
 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Weight density =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

∴ Weight = (Weight density) x (Volume)

= (ρ )x (Axl )

= ρAl

∴ Weight of solid shaft = 𝜌𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝑙𝑠 and Weight of hollow shaft = 𝜌ℎ 𝐴ℎ 𝑙ℎ

(𝜌𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝑙𝑠 −𝜌ℎ 𝐴ℎ 𝑙ℎ )
∴ Percentage saving in weight = x 100
𝜌𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝑙𝑠
Given that the material and length are same for the solid and hollow shafts.
∴ 𝜌𝑠 = 𝜌ℎ and 𝑙𝑠 = 𝑙ℎ
( 𝐴𝑠 − 𝐴ℎ )
∴ Percentage saving in weight = x 100
𝐴𝑠
(i.e., Weight is proportional to the cross sectional area when lengths are same)

𝜋 𝜋
As = Cross sectional area of solid shaft = 𝑑2 = (117.473)2 = 10838.420 mm2
4 4
𝜋
Ah = Cross sectional area of hollow shaft = (𝑑2𝑜 − 𝑑𝑖2 )
4
π
= (123.0372 − 73.8222 )
4
= 7609.263 mm2

(10838.420 −7609.263)
Or Percentage saving in weight = x 100
10838.420

∴ Percentage saving in weight = 29.793 %

PB. NO. 10: A hollow circular shaft of 200mm external diameter and thickness 25mm is
transmitting power at 200 rpm. The angle of twist over a length of 2m was found to be 0.5°.
Calculate the power transmitted and maximum shear stress induced in the section.
Take G = 84 GPa.

Solution:
1° ∗ 𝜋
Data: Speed of the shaft, N = 200rpm, Angle of twist, θ = 0.5° = 0.5 x ( ) radians
180
Length of the shaft, l = 2m = 2000mm, External diameter, do = 200mm, thickness, t = 25mm
Internal diameter, di = (do – 2 t) = 150mm and Modulus of rigidity, G = 84 GPa = 84 kN/mm 2

t
di = Internal diameter
do = Exernal diameter
di do
di = ( do - 2 t )

End view of
a hollow circular shaft

(a) To find the power transmitted by the hollow shaft:

Let do be the external diameter and di be the internal diameter of the hollow shaft

𝑇 𝜏𝑠 𝐺θ
WKT the torque equation is given by = =
𝐽 𝑅 𝑙
𝑇 𝜏𝑠
Also, strength criteria of torque equation is given by = ---------- (1)
𝐽 𝑅
𝑇 𝐺θ
and the stiffness criteria of the torque equation is given by = --------- (2)
𝐽 𝑙
𝑑𝑜
Where T = Tmax = Maximum torque, R =
2
𝜋
J = Polar moment of inertia of hollow circular shaft = 32 (𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 )

The torque is determined from the stiffness criteria of the torque equation as follows;
𝑇 𝐺θ
=
𝐽 𝑙
𝐺θ∗J
∴ The maximum torque, T =
𝑙
1° ∗ 𝜋 𝜋
84 𝑥 103 ∗0.5 x ( )∗ (2004−1504)
180 32
Substituting for all the values, we get T =
2000
∴ Torque, T = 39.356 x 10 N-m 3
 Or T = 39.356 x 106 N-mm

Assuming that Tmax. = Tmean, the power transmitted can be calculated using

2𝜋𝑁𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
Power transmitted, , P = ; Tmean = 39.356 x 103 N-m
60000

Substituting for all the values, we get,

2𝜋∗200∗ 35.396 ∗ 103

P=
60000

∴ P = 740.956 kW

(b) To find the maximum shear stress:

The maximum shear stress can be calculated using the strength criteria of torque
equation
𝑇 𝜏𝑠 𝑑𝑜 200
i.e., = ; R= = = 100 mm
𝐽 𝑅 2 2

Assuming that Tmax = Tmean and Substituting all the values in equation the above
equation, we get,

39.356 x 106 𝜏𝑠
𝜋
(2004 −1504 )
= 200
32 2

∴ The maximum shear stress = 36.652 N/mm2

PB. NO. 11: A hollow steel shaft, 220mm external diameter and 140mm internal diameter, is
to be replaced by a solid alloy shaft. If both the shafts should have the same polar modulus,
find the diameter of the solid alloy shaft and the ratio of their torsional rigidities.
Take Ghollow = 2.5 Gsolid
If alternately, the two shafts should have the same torsional rigidities, find the diameter of
solid shaft and also the ratio of their polar modulii.

Solution:
Data: External diameter, do = 220mm, Internal diameter, d i =140mm and Modulus of rigidity
of hollow shaft = 2.5 times the modulus of rigidity of solid shaft i.e., G h = 2.5 Gs
Let d be the diameter of the solid shaft
do be the external diameter of hollow shaft
di be the internal diameter of the hollow shaft.

(a) To find the diameter of the solid alloy shaft when the polar modulii of the two
shafts are equal:

WKT the polar modulus of a solid circular shaft of diameter d,

𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡, 𝐽

ZP =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡, 𝑅

𝐽 4 𝑑
π𝑑
Or ZP = ; J= , R=
𝑅 32 2

3
π𝑑
Or Polar Modulus, ZP =
16

Similarly, for hollow circular shaft of external diameter do and internal diameter di,

𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 , 𝐽

ZP =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡, 𝑅

𝐽 𝜋 𝑑𝑜
Polar Modulus, ZP = ; J= (𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ) and R =
𝑅 32 2

𝜋 (𝑑 4 4
𝑜 −𝑑 𝑖 )
Or Polar modulus, ZP =
16 𝑑𝑜

Given that their polar modulii are equal.

∴ (ZP)hollow = (ZP)solid

𝜋 (2204−1404) π𝑑
3
Or =
16 220 16

3
π𝑑
Or 1.748 x 106 =
16

∴ The diameter of solid alloy shaft, d = 207.254mm

(i) (b) To find the ratio of torsional rigidities of solid shaft and hollow shaft:

WKT, the torsional rigidity of circular shafts, K = G J

Where G = Modulus of rigidity and J = Polar moment of Inertia
Let, Kh =Torsional stiffness of hollow shaft
Ks =Torsional stiffness of solid shaft
Gh = Modulus of rigidity of hollow shaft
Gs = Modulus of rigidity of solid shaft
Jh = Polar moment of inertia of hollow shaft
Js = Polar moment of inertia of solid shaft

Now, considering the ratios of torsional rigidities

𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝐺ℎ 𝐽ℎ

=
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝐺𝑠 𝐽𝑠

𝐾ℎ 𝐺ℎ 𝐽ℎ
Or = ; Given that Gh = 2.5 Gs
𝐾𝑠 𝐺𝑠 𝐽𝑠

𝜋
2.5∗𝐺𝑠 (𝑑𝑜4 −𝑑𝑖4 )
32
Or = π 𝑑4
𝐺𝑠
32
Substituting all the values, we get
𝜋
𝐾ℎ 2.5∗ (2204 −140 4 )
32
= π (207.254)4
𝐾𝑠
32
𝑲𝒉
Or The ratio torsional rigidities, = 2.6527
𝑲𝒔

(ii)(a) To find the diameter of solid shaft when torsional rigidities are equal:

i. e., 𝐾ℎ = 𝐾𝑠
Or 𝐺ℎ 𝐽ℎ = 𝐺𝑠 𝐽𝑠 ; Given that Gh = 2.5 Gs

𝜋 π 𝑑4
Or 2.5 Gs (𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ) = Gs
32 32
Or 2.5 (2204 − 1404 ) = 𝑑 4
∴ The diameter of solid alloy shaft, d = 264.52 mm

(i) (b) To find the ratio of polar modulii of solid shaft and hollow shaft:

Considering the ratios of polar modulii

 4 4
𝜋 (𝑑𝑜 −𝑑 𝑖 )
𝑍𝑝ℎ 16 𝑑𝑜
i.e., = π 𝑑3
𝑍𝑝𝑠
16

(𝑑 4 4
𝑜 −𝑑 𝑖 )
𝑍𝑝ℎ 𝑑𝑜
Or =
𝑍𝑝𝑠 𝑑3

Substituting for all the values, we get

(2204 −1404 )
𝑍𝑝ℎ 220
=
𝑍𝑝𝑠 (264.52)3

𝒁𝒑𝒉
Or The ratio of polar modulii, = 0.481
𝒁𝒑𝒔

PB. NO. 12: A solid aluminium shaft 1m length and 50mm diameter is to be replaced by a
tubular shaft of same length and same outside diameter (i.e., outside diameter of 50mm)
such that each of the shafts could have the same angle of twist per unit of angle of twist per
unit of torsional moment over total length. What must be the inner diameter of the tubular
shaft? Take Gh = 2.5 Gs

Solution:
Data: Diameter of the solid shaft, d = 50mm, Length of the solid shaft, l = 1m = 1000mm

Let d be the diameter of the solid shaft

do be the external diameter of the tubular/hollow shaft
di be the internal diameter of the tubular/hollow shaft.
θ𝑠 be the angle of twist in solid shaft
θℎ be the angle of twist in tubular shaft

𝑇 𝜏𝑠 𝐺θ
WKT the torque equation is given by = = -------------- (1)
𝐽 𝑅 𝑙
𝑇 𝐺θ
The stiffness criteria of the torque equation is given by = --------- (2)
𝐽 𝑙
𝑇∗𝑙
From (2), the angle of twist, θ =
𝐺∗𝐽

𝑇ℎ 𝑙ℎ
∴ For the tubular shaft, angle of twist, θℎ = and
𝐺ℎ 𝐽ℎ
 𝑇𝑠 𝑙𝑠
For the solid shaft, angle of twist, θℎ = ;
𝐺𝑠 𝐽𝑠

Given that θℎ = θ𝑠 , 𝑙ℎ = 𝑙𝑠 and Gh = 2.5 Gs

∴ 𝐺ℎ 𝐽ℎ = 𝐺𝑠 𝐽𝑠

𝜋 π 𝑑4
Or 2.5 Gs (𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ) = Gs
32 32
Substituting for all the values, we get

4
2.5 (504 − 𝑑𝑖 ) = 504

∴ The inner diameter of the tubular shaft, di = 44 mm

Elastic constants: The elastic constants are the property parameters which indicate the
proportionality constant between the various types of stresses and strains. They specify
elastic strength of the material bodies.

Some of the various elastic constants are listed below:

a) Young’s Modulus of elasticity (E)

b) Poisson’s ratio (µ or 1/m)
c) Modulus of rigidity(G or C)
d) Bulk modulus (K)

Bulk Modulus (K): The Bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of normal stress to the
volumetric strain and is generally denoted by K.
The Bulk modulus may be expressed in MPa (N/mm2) or GPa (kN/mm2)

𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
∴ Bulk modulus, K =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Denoting normal stress as σ and volumetric strain as 𝜺𝒗 , we can write

σ
Bulk modulus, K =
𝜀𝑣

Relationship between elastic constants:

(a) Relationship between Young’s Modulus E, Modulus of rigidity G and

Poisson’s ratio µ:

E = 2G (1 + µ)

(b) Relationship between Young’s Modulus E, Bulk modulus K and

Poisson’s ratio µ:

E = 3K (1 - 2 µ)

(C) Relationship between Young’s Modulus E, Modulus of rigidity G and Bulk

modulus K

𝟗𝑲𝑮
E= ( )
𝑮+𝟑𝑲
PB. NO. 13: In a tension test on a mild steel specimen of 12mm diameter and 120mm
gauge length, the elongation was found to be 0.0625mm when a load of 10 kN was applied.
In a torsion test on the same specimen, the angle of twist is found to be 0.5° in length of
120mm under a torque of 10 kN-mm.
Determine the following from these data:
(i) Young’s Modulus (ii) Modulus of rigidity (iii) Poisson’s ratio (iv) Bulk modulus

Solution:
Data: Diameter, d = 12mm, Length, l = 120mm, Elongation, δl = 0.0625mm,
Load, P = 10 kN, Angle of twist, θ = 0.5° and Torque, T = 10 kN-mm

(i) Young’s Modulus:

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 , σ
We have, Young’s Modulus, E =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝜀

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑, P
Also Stress, σ =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 , 𝐴

10 10
Or Stress, σ = 𝜋𝑑2 = 𝜋(12)2 = 0.0884 kN/mm2
4 4

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ , 𝛿𝑙 0.0625

And Strain, 𝜀 = = = 5.2083 x 10-4
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑙 120

0.0884
∴ Young’s Modulus, E = = 169.72 kN/mm2
5.2083 x 10−4

Or Young’s Modulus, E = 169.72x 10 3 N/mm2

(ii) Modulus of rigidity:

𝑇 𝐺θ
WKT the stiffness criteria of the torque equation is given by =
𝐽 𝑙
𝑇∗𝑙
∴ Modulus of rigidity, G = ;
θ∗𝐽
4
π𝑑
Where J = , 𝑙 = 120mm, T = 10 kN-mm = 10 x 103 N-mm and
32
0.5° ∗ 𝜋
θ =( ) radians
180

Substituting all the values, we get

 10∗ 103 ∗120
Modulus of rigidity, G =
0.5°∗ 𝜋 π (12)4
( )∗
180 32

Or Modulus of rigidity, G = 0.675 x 10 5 N/mm2

(iii) Poisson’s ratio:

We have the relationship between Young’s Modulus E, Modulus of rigidity G and Poisson’s
ratio µ is given by

E = 2G (1 + µ)
Substituting all the values, we get

169.72x 103 = 2 x 0.675 x 105 (1 + µ)

∴ Poisson’s ratio, µ = 0.258

(iv) Bulk modulus:

We have, the relationship between Young’s Modulus E, Bulk modulus K and

Poisson’s ratio µ is given by

E = 3K (1 - 2 µ)
Substituting all the values, we get

169.72x 103 = 3 x K [1- 2(0.258)]

∴ Bulk modulus, K = 116.9 x 103 N/mm2

PB. NO.14: In a tension test on a sample of steel bar of 25mm diameter, it is found that the
pull of 50 kN produces an extension of 0.095mm over a length of 200mm. In a torsion test on
the same specimen, a torque of 200 N-m produces an angular twist of 0.9° over a length of
250mm.
Find the following:
(i) Young’s Modulus (ii) Modulus of rigidity (iii) Poisson’s ratio (iv) Bulk modulus

Data: For Tension test: Diameter, d = 25mm, Length, l = 200mm,

Elongation, δl = 0.095mm, P = 50 kN
For Torsion test: Length, l = 250mm, Angle of twist, θ = 0.9° and
Torque, T = 200 N-m
 (i) Young’s Modulus:

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 , σ
We have, Young’s Modulus, E =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝜀

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑, P
Also Stress, σ =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 , 𝐴

50 50
Or Stress, σ = 𝜋𝑑2 = 𝜋(25)2
= 0.1018 kN/mm2
4 4

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ , 𝛿𝑙 0.095

And Strain, 𝜀 = = = 4.75 x 10-4
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑙 200

0.1018
∴ Young’s Modulus, E = = 214.315 kN/mm2
4.75 x 10−4

Or Young’s Modulus, E = 214.315 x 103 N/mm2

(ii) Modulus of rigidity:

𝑇 𝐺θ
WKT the stiffness criteria of the torque equation is given by =
𝐽 𝑙
𝑇∗𝑙
∴ Modulus of rigidity, G = ;
θ∗𝐽
4
π𝑑
Where J = , 𝑙 = 250mm, T = 200N-m = 200 x 103 N-mm and
32
0.9° ∗ 𝜋
θ =( ) radians
180

Substituting all the values, we get

200∗ 103 ∗250
Modulus of rigidity, G =
0.9°∗ 𝜋 π (25)4
( )∗
180 32

Or Modulus of rigidity, G = 82.980 x 103 N/mm2

(iii) Poisson’s ratio:

We have the relationship between Young’s Modulus E, Modulus of rigidity G and Poisson’s
ratio µ is given by
 E = 2G (1 + µ)
Substituting all the values, we get

214.315 x 103 = 2 x 82.980 x 103 (1 + µ)

∴ Poisson’s ratio, µ = 0.2917

(iv) Bulk modulus:

We have, the relationship between Young’s Modulus E, Bulk modulus K and

Poisson’s ratio µ is given by

E = 3K (1 - 2 µ)
Substituting all the values, we get

214.315 x 103 = 3 x K [1- 2(0.2917)]

∴ Bulk modulus, K = 171.479 x 103 N/mm2

PB. NO.14: In a tension test on a sample of steel bar of 25mm diameter, it is found that the
pull of 50 kN produces an extension of 0.095mm over a length of 200mm. In a torsion test on
the same specimen, a torque of 200 N-m produces an angular twist of 0.9° over a le ngth of
250mm.
Find the following:
(i) Young’s Modulus (ii) Modulus of rigidity (iii) Poisson’s ratio (iv) Bulk modulus

Data: For Tension test: Diameter, d = 25mm, Length, l = 200mm,

Elongation, δl = 0.095mm, P = 50 kN
For Torsion test: Length, l = 250mm, Angle of twist, θ = 0.9° and
Torque, T = 200 N-m

(i) Young’s Modulus:

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 , σ
We have, Young’s Modulus, E =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝜀

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑, P
Also Stress, σ =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 , 𝐴
 50 50
Or Stress, σ = 𝜋𝑑2 = 𝜋(25)2 = 0.1018 kN/mm2
4 4

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ , 𝛿𝑙 0.095

And Strain, 𝜀 = = = 4.75 x 10-4
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑙 200

0.1018
∴ Young’s Modulus, E = = 214.315 kN/mm2
4.75 x 10−4

Or Young’s Modulus, E = 214.315 x 103 N/mm2

(ii) Modulus of rigidity:

𝑇 𝐺θ
WKT the stiffness criteria of the torque equation is given by =
𝐽 𝑙
𝑇∗𝑙
∴ Modulus of rigidity, G = ;
θ∗𝐽
4
π𝑑
Where J = , 𝑙 = 250mm, T = 200N-m = 200 x 103 N-mm and
32
0.9° ∗ 𝜋
θ =( ) radians
180

Substituting all the values, we get

200∗ 103 ∗250
Modulus of rigidity, G =
0.9°∗ 𝜋 π (25)4
( )∗
180 32

Or Modulus of rigidity, G = 82.980 x 103 N/mm2

(iii) Poisson’s ratio:

We have the relationship between Young’s Modulus E, Modulus of rigidity G and Poisson’s
ratio µ is given by

E = 2G (1 + µ)
Substituting all the values, we get

214.315 x 103 = 2 x 82.980 x 103 (1 + µ)

∴ Poisson’s ratio, µ = 0.2917

(iv) Bulk modulus:

We have, the relationship between Young’s Modulus E, Bulk modulus K and
Poisson’s ratio µ is given by

E = 3K (1 - 2 µ)
Substituting all the values, we get

214.315 x 103 = 3 x K [1- 2(0.2917)]

∴ Bulk modulus, K = 171.479 x 103 N/mm2

Exercise Problems:

PB. NO. 15: A hollow circular shaft, 250mm external diameter and thickness 25mm, is
transmitting power at 180rpm. The angle of twist over a length of3m was found to be 0.72°.
Calculate the power transmitted and maximum shear stress induced in the shaft section.
Take G = 84 GPa.

Answers:
(Power transmitted, P = 1499.39 kW and Maximum shear stress, 𝝉𝒔 = 43.96 N/mm2)

PB. NO. 16: A shaft has to transmit 250 kW power at 140 rpm. The allowable shear stress
is 70 MPa. Determine:
(a) Necessary diameter of solid circular shaft
(b) The necessary size of hollow shaft, given that the inside diameter is 0.8 times the
outside diameter.
(c) The percentage saving in the material (i.e., weight of the material), given that the
density (weight density) of the material of the shaft is 75 kN/mm 3

Answers:
(Diameter of solid shaft, d = 107.45mm, Outside diameter of the hollow shaft,
do = 128.132mm and Inside diameter of the hollow shaft, d i =102.505mm and Percentage
saving in the material = 48.806%)
PB. NO. 17: A hollow shaft with diameter ratio 2/3 (i.e., ratio of internal diameter to external
diameter) is required to transmit 400 kW at 110rpm with a uniform torque. The shear stress
is not to exceed 70 N/mm2 and twist in a length of 3m must not exceed 0.75°. Calculate the
minimum internal diameter of the shaft satisfying above conditions.

Answers:
(Considering shear stress criteria: Internal diameter, d i = 146.43mm and
Considering stiffness criteria: Internal diameter, d i = 123.69mm. Therefore the required
Internal diameter satisfying the given conditions is d i = 146.43mm)

PB. NO. 18: A shaft is required to transmit 60 kW power at 240rpm. The shear stress in the
shaft should not exceed 40 MPa and the twist should not exceed 1° per meter length.
Determine the size of the shaft required if the shaft is hollow with the external diameter
twice the internal diameter. Take G = 80GPa.

Answers:
From the strength criteria: External diameter of the shaft, d o = 109.056mm.
Internal diameter of the shaft, d i = 54.528mm

From the stiffness criteria: External diameter of the shaft, d o = 65.65mm.

Internal diameter of the shaft, d i = 32.825mm

Therefore the required size of the hollow shaft is: External diameter, do = 109.056mm.
Internal diameter, di = 54.528mm
 MODULE – 5
STRAIN ENERGY

Strain Energy: When an elastic material body is loaded within elastic limit, it deforms. On
removal of load, it regains original shape and size. While undergoing deformation, it absorbs
energy from the external load and stores within it. While regaining the original shape & size,
it releases the energy stored within it. This energy stored in the material body during
deformation, is called strain energy and is equal to the work done by the external load.

Strain energy is generally denoted by U and may be expressed in N-m or kN-m or N-mm or
kN-mm.

When the energy stored in the material body is expressed per unit volume, it is called strain
energy density or resilience and may be expressed in N-mm/mm3 or kN-mm/mm3 or N-m/m3
or kN-m/m3.

Strain energy in axially loaded prismatic bars:

Before deformation
A B Stress
(s )
d P
Elastic limit
s
l
Area under straight line portion
dl of stress-strain diagram
A'
B'
P
d'

l'
e Strain
After deformation (e )
Fig. 5.2
Fig. 5.1

Figure 5.1 represents the deformation phenomenon in an axially loaded prismatic bar of
length l and diameter d due to an axial load P.
Let E be the Young’s modulus of the material of the bar
A be the cross sectional area of the bar
δl be the deformation due to axial load P

We know that the strain energy, U = Work done by the external load P
= (Force x Distance by which the load is displaced)
Since the load is gradually applied from zero to a maximum value P and the deformation
gradually increases accordingly, the average force is to be considered for evaluating the
work done. Also, the distance by which the load is displaced, is equal to the total deformation
or displacement δl.

∴ Strain energy, U = (Average Force x Deformation)

(0 + 𝑃)
= x δl
2
P ∗ δl 𝑃𝑙
= ; But δl =
2 𝐴𝐸
Substituting for δl , we get

𝑷𝟐 𝒍
Strain energy, U = -------------------- (1)
𝟐𝑨𝑬

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 , 𝑃 𝑃
WKT Stress, σ = or σ = or P = σ A
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 , 𝐴 𝐴

Substituting for P = σ A in equation (1), we get

𝜎2 𝐴2 𝑙
Strain energy, U =
2𝐴𝐸

𝜎2 𝐴 𝑙
= ; But 𝐴 𝑙 = Volume of the prismatic bar
2𝐸

𝝈𝟐
Or Strain energy, U = (Volume) ------------ (2)
𝟐𝑬

𝝈𝟐
Or Strain energy/Volume = Strain energy per unit volume, u = ----------- (3)
𝟐𝑬

Equation (3) gives the strain energy per unit volume up to the elastic limit and is called
Resilience. It is generally denoted by u.

Equation (2) gives the total strain energy up to the elastic limit and is equal to the area under
the stress-strain diagram up to the elastic limit. It is the value of resilience at the elastic limit
and is called Proof Resilience or Modulus of resilience.

The proof resilience may be expressed as total strain energy as given by equation(2) or may
be expressed as strain energy per unit volume as given by equation (3).
Equation (2) may be mathematically represented as follows:

𝒗 𝝈𝟐
Strain energy, U = ∫ 𝐝𝐕 ----------- (4)
𝟎 𝟐𝑬

𝒍 𝝈𝟐
Or Strain energy, U = ∫ 𝐀. 𝐝𝐱 ------------ (5) ∵ dV = (A dx)
𝟎 𝟐𝑬

{Substituting for σ = (P/A) in equation (5), we get

𝑷 𝟐
𝒍( ) 𝑨
Strain energy, U = ∫𝟎 𝟐𝑬
𝐀. 𝐝𝐱

𝑷𝟐 𝒍
Or Strain energy, U =
𝟐 𝑨𝑬
∫𝟎 𝐝𝐱

𝑷𝟐 𝒍
Or Strain energy, U = which is same as equation (1)}
𝟐 𝑨𝑬

Resilience: Resilience is defined as the strain energy per unit volume in simple tension or
compression up to elastic limit. It indicates the ability of a material body to regain its original
shape and size when external load acting on it is removed.

Resilience is also called strain- energy density and is denoted by u.

Stress
(s )

Elastic limit
s

Strain Energy
(Area under straight line portion of
stress-strain diagram)

e Strain
Fig. 5.3 (e )

The area under stress-strain diagram up to elastic limit, as indicated in Fig. 5.3, gives the
strain energy per unit volume and is equal to resilience.
 i.e., Area under stress-strain diagram up to elastic limit = ½ x Base x Height
Or Resilience, u = ½ x 𝜀 x 𝜎
𝝈𝟐 𝜎
Or Resilience, u = Strain energy per unit volume = ∵𝜀=
𝟐𝑬 𝐸

Proof Resilience: The proof resilience is defined as the maximum strain energy that an
elastic material body can absorb without undergoing permanent deformation. It can be
calculated by integrating the stress–strain diagram from zero to the elastic limit.

𝒗 𝝈𝟐
i.e., Proof resilience = Strain energy, U = ∫ 𝐝𝐕
𝟎 𝟐𝑬

𝒍 𝝈𝟐
= ∫ 𝐀. 𝐝𝐱 -------- (1) ∵ dV = (A dx)
𝟎 𝟐𝑬

Substituting for σ = (P/A) in equation (1), we get

𝑷 𝟐
𝒍( ) 𝑨
Proof Resilience = ∫𝟎 𝟐𝑬
𝐀. 𝐝𝐱

𝑷𝟐 𝒍
=
𝟐 𝑨𝑬
∫𝟎 𝐝𝐱

𝑷𝟐 𝒍
Or Proof Resilience =
𝟐 𝑨𝑬

Modulus of Resilience: The value of proof resilience per unit volume is called Modulus of
resilience or it is the value of resilience at the elastic limit.

(The proof resilience is the total strain energy up to the elastic limit and the modulus of
resilience is the maximum strain energy per unit volume up to the elastic limit)
Modulus of Toughness: Modulus of toughness is defined as the strain energy per unit
volume, required to cause the rupture in the material. It is the area under the stress -strain
diagram up to the breaking point or rupture as shown in Fig. 5.4. Thus it is the measure of
ability of a material to absorb energy before rupture.

Breaking Point

Stress
(s )
Modulus of
Toughness
(Area under stress-strain diagram
upto breaking point)

e Strain
Fig. 5.4
(e )
PB. NO. 1: A rectangular bar is subjected to an axial load of 3000 N. Calculate the strain
energy in the bar if E = 200 GPa, l = 100mm, b = 20mm and t = 10mm.

Solution:

𝑃2 𝑙
We have, the strain energy in an axially loaded prismatic bar, U = -------- (1)
2 𝐴𝐸

Given that the axial load, P = 3000 N = 3 kN, Length of the bar, l = 100mm,
Cross sectional area of the bar, A = (b x t) = (20mm x 10mm) and
Young’s Modulus, E = 200 GPa.

Substituting all the values in equation (1), we get

32 ∗ 100
Strain energy, U =
2 (20∗10)200

Or Strain energy, U = 0.01125 kN-mm

PB. NO. 2: A rod of area 90 square mm has a length of 3 m. Then find out the strain energy
if the stress of 300 MPa is applied when stretched. Young’s modulus is 200 GPa.

Solution:

We have, the strain energy in an axially loaded prismatic bar,

𝑃2 𝑙
U= ------------ (1)
2 𝐴𝐸

Given that stress, σ = 300 MPa = 300 N/mm2, Cross sectional area, A = 90 mm2,
Young’s Modulus, E = 200 GPa = 200 kN/mm2 =200 x 103 N/mm2 and
Length, l = 3m = 3000mm

Also, axial Load, P = σ A

Substituting the values in equation (1), we get

(300∗90)2 ∗ 3000
Strain energy, U =
2∗90∗ 200∗103

Or Strain energy, U = 2.25 N-mm

PB. NO. 3: For the axially loaded bar shown in Fig. PB. NO. 3, find the value of load P for
equilibrium of the bar. Also find the strain energy in the bar if E = 2.1 x 10 5 N/mm2.

2
2500 mm
2
2
1250 mm
625 mm

45kN P 130kN

450kN

1200 mm 600 mm 900 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 3

Solution:

The given loading diagram may be divided into three different sections i.e., section 1(AB),
section 2 (BC) and section 3 (CD) as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 3a

2 3
2
1 B 2500 mm C 2
2 1250 mm D
A 625 mm

45kN P 130kN

450kN

1200 mm 600 mm 900 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 3a

(i) To find the value of load P for the equilibrium of the bar:

Applying equilibrium equation ∑𝐻 = 0, we get

- 45 + P – 450 + 130 = 0
∴ P = 365 kN

(ii) To find the strain energy in the bar:

Let P1, A1, l1, & E1 be the resultant load, cross sectional area, length and Young’s modulus
for section 1(AB) respectively.
 P2, A2, l2, & E2 be the resultant load, cross sectional area, length and Young’s modulus
for section 2(BC) respectively

P3, A3, l3, & E3 be the resultant load, cross sectional area, length and Young’s modulus
for section 3(CD) respectively.

U1, U2 and U3 be strain energies in the sections1, 2 and 3 respectively.

The total strain energy in the bar is equal to the algebraic sum of the strain energies in the
individual sections.

i.e., Total strain energy, Ut = U1 + U2 + U3 --------------- (1)

𝑃2 𝑙
We have, the strain energy in an axially loaded prismatic bar, U = -------- (2)
2 𝐴𝐸

Substituting for the strain energies U1, U2 and U3 in equation (1) from equation (2), we get

𝑃12 𝑙1 𝑃22 𝑙2 𝑃32 𝑙3

Total strain energy, Ut = + + ----------- (3)
2∗𝐴1 𝐸1 2∗𝐴2 𝐸2 2∗𝐴3 𝐸3

Given that E1 = E2 = E3 = E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2 = 210 kN/mm2, A1 = 625 mm2,

A2 = 2500mm2, A3 = 1250 mm2, 𝑙1 = 1200mm, 𝑙 2= 600mm and 𝑙 3 = 1250mm,

The resultant loads P 1, P2 and P3 are obtained by drawing the free body diagrams of
individual sections as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 3b

FBD of section 2
FBD of section3
FBD of section 1
2 3
2
1 B 2500 mm C
2
2 C 1250 mm D
A 625 mm B

45kN 45kN 320kN P 320kN 130kN

130kN

1200 mm
900 mm
600 mm

Fig. PB. NO. 3b

From the free body diagrams of individual sections, we get

Resultant load in section 1, P 1 = 45 kN (Tensile)

Resultant load in section 2, P 2 = 320 kN (Compressive)
Resultant load in section 3, P 3 = 130 kN (Tensile)
Substituting for all the values in equation (3), we get

(45)2 ∗1200 ( −320)2 ∗600 (130)2 ∗900

Total strain energy, Ut = + +
2∗625∗210 2∗2500∗210 2∗1250∗210

= (9.2571 + 58.5142 + 28.9714)

Or Total strain energy, U t = 96.7427 kN-mm

PB. NO. 4: A stepped bar of 12.5m length is to a gradual axial load of 120 kN as shown in
Fig. PB. NO. 4. Find the strain energy in the bar.
If the is replaced by a bar of uniform cross section of same length keeping the volume and
load to be the same, calculate the ratio of strain energies of these two bars.
Take E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2.

2
5000 mm 2
2600mm

120 kN 120 kN

6m 6.5 m

Fig. PB. NO. 4

Solution:

The given loading diagram may be divided into two different sections i.e., section 1(AB), and
section 2 (BC) as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 4a

1 2
2
A 5000 mm B 2
2600mm C
120 kN 120 kN

6m 6.5 m

Fig. PB. NO. 4a

(i) To find the strain energy in the stepped bar:

Let P1, A1, l1, & E1 be the resultant load, cross sectional area, length and Young’s modulus
for section 1(AB) respectively.

P2, A2, l2, & E2 be the resultant load, cross sectional area, length and Young’s modulus
for section 2(BC) respectively
 U1, and U2 be strain energies in the sections1, and 2 respectively.

The total strain energy in the bar is equal to the algebraic sum of the strain energies in the
individual sections.

i.e., Total strain energy, Ut = U1 + U2 --------------- (1)

𝑃2 𝑙
We have, the strain energy in an axially loaded prismatic bar, U = -------- (2)
2 𝐴𝐸

Substituting for the strain energies U1, and U2 in equation (1) from equation (2), we get

𝑃12 𝑙1 𝑃22 𝑙2
Total strain energy, Ut = + ----------- (3)
2∗𝐴1 𝐸1 2∗𝐴2 𝐸2

Given that E1 = E2 = E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2 = 210 kN/mm2, A1 = 5000 mm2,

A2 = 2600mm2, 𝑙 1= 6m = 6000mm and 𝑙 2= 6.5m = 6500mm

Since the stepped is subjected to the axial loads at the extreme ends without any
intermediate loads, both the sections of the bar are subjected to the same amount and
nature of the load i.e., 120 kN (Tensile). Therefore, Free Body Diagrams need not be drawn.

∴ The resultant load in section 1, P 1 = 120 kN (Tensile) and

The resultant load in section 2, P 2 = 120 kN (Tensile)

Substituting for all the values in equation (3), we get

(120)2 ∗6000 (120) 2 ∗6500

Total strain energy, Ut = +
2∗5000∗210 2∗2600∗210

= (41.1428 + 85.7142)

Or Total strain energy, U t = 126.857 kN-mm

(ii) The ratio of strain energies if the stepped bar is to be replaced by a bar of
uniform cross section of same total length and total volume, subjected to same axial
load as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 4b.
P Q

A V
120 kN 120 kN

12.5 m

Fig. PB. NO. 4b

Let A be cross sectional area and V be the volume of the bar PQ of uniform cross section as
indicated in Fig. PB. NO.4b.
 The volume of stepped bar, V = (A 1 l1 + A2 l2)
= (5000 x 6000 + 2600 x 6500)
Or V = 46.9 x 106 mm3

The volume of the bar of uniform cross section, V = A x l ; l = 12500mm

Given that, Volume of stepped bar = Volume of the bar of uniform cross section

∴ A x l = 46.9 x 106
Or A x 12500 = 46.9 x 106

Or The cross sectional area of the bar of uniform cross section, A = 3752 mm 2

𝑃2 𝑙
The strain energy of the bar of uniform cross section, U = --------- (4)
2 𝐴𝐸

Here, P = 120 kN, l = 12500mm, A = 3752 mm2 and E = 210 kN/mm2

Substituting all the values in equation (4), we get

(120)2 ∗12500
The strain energy of the bar of uniform cross section, U =
2∗ 3752 ∗210

Or U = 114.23 kN-mm

∴ The ratio of strain energies of the two bars i.e.,

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒂𝒓 𝟏𝟐𝟔.𝟖𝟓𝟕
= = 1.11
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒂𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏𝟏𝟒.𝟐𝟑

PB. NO. 5: A stepped bar is acted upon by forces as shown in the Fig. PB. NO. 5. Determine
the strain energy stored in the bar, if A and E are cross sectional area and Young’s modulus
respectively.

5P 2P P

l /3 l /3 l /3

Fig. PB. NO. 5

Solution:

The given loading diagram may be divided into three different sections i.e., section 1(AB),
section 2 (BC) and section 3 (CD) as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 5a

1 2 3
A B C D

RA 5P 2P P

l /3 l /3 l /3

Fig. PB. NO. 5a

(i) To find the reaction force at the fixed support:

Let RA be the reaction force at the fixed support as indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 5a

Applying equilibrium equation, ∑𝐻 = 0, we get

- RA - 5P +2P + P = 0
∴ RA = - 2P

(ii) To find the strain energy in the bar:

Let P1, A1, l1, & E1 be the resultant load, cross sectional area, length and Young’s modulus
for section 1(AB) respectively.

P2, A2, l2, & E2 be the resultant load, cross sectional area, length and Young’s modulus
for section 2(BC) respectively

P3, A3, l3, & E3 be the resultant load, cross sectional area, length and Young’s modulus
for section 3(CD) respectively.

U1, U2 and U3 be strain energies in the sections1, 2 and 3 respectively.

The total strain energy in the bar is equal to the algebraic sum of the strain energies in the
individual sections.

i.e., Total strain energy, Ut = U1 + U2 + U3 --------------- (1)

𝑃2 𝑙
We have, the strain energy in an axially loaded prismatic bar, U = -------- (2)
2 𝐴𝐸

Substituting for the strain energies U1, U2 and U3 in equation (1) from equation (2), we get
 𝑃12 𝑙1 𝑃22 𝑙2 𝑃32 𝑙3
Total strain energy, Ut = + + ----------- (3)
2∗𝐴1 𝐸1 2∗𝐴2 𝐸2 2∗𝐴3 𝐸3

𝑙
Given that E1 = E2 = E3 = E, A1 = A2 = A3 = A and 𝑙 1= 𝑙 2= 𝑙 3 =
3

The resultant loads P 1, P2 and P3 are obtained by drawing the free body diagrams of
individual sections as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 5b

2 3
1
B B C C D

2P 2P 3P 3P P P

l /3 l /3 l /3

Fig. PB. NO. 5b

From the free body diagrams (FBDs) of individual sections, we get

Resultant load in section 1, P1 = 2P (Compressive)

Resultant load in section 2, P 2 = 3P (Tensile)
Resultant load in section 3, P 3 = P (Tensile)

Substituting for all the values in equation (3), we get

𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
( −2𝑃) 2 ∗ (3𝑃) 2 ∗ (𝑃) 2 ∗
3 3 3
Total strain energy, Ut = + +
2∗𝐴∗𝐸 2∗𝐴∗𝐸 2∗𝐴∗𝐸

𝑙
3
Or = (−2𝑃)2 + (3𝑃)2 + (𝑃)2
2𝐴𝐸

𝟕 𝑷𝟐 𝒍
Or Total strain energy, U t =
𝟑𝑨 𝑬
PB. NO. 6: A steel bar 150mm2 of cross section elongates 0.05mm over a 50mm gauge
length under an axial load of 30 kN. Determine its strain energy. If load at elastic limit is
50 kN, find the proof resilience and elongation.

Solution:

(i) To find the strain energy:

𝑃2 𝑙
WKT the strain energy in an axially loaded bar, U = --------- (1)
2 𝐴𝐸

Given that P = 30 kN, l = 50mm, A = 150 mm2

The Young’s modulus, E is determined as follows;

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 , 𝜎
Young’s modulus, E = ;
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝜀

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝑃 30
Stress, 𝜎 = = = 0.2 kN/mm2
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 , 𝐴 150

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ , 𝛿𝑙 0.05

Strain, 𝜀 = = = 0.001
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ , 𝑙 50

0.2
∴ Young’s modulus, E = = 200 kN/mm2
0.001

Now, substituting all the values in equation (1), we get

(30)2 ∗50
The strain energy, U =
2∗ 150 ∗210

Or U = 0.75 kN-mm

(ii) To find the Proof Resilience at elastic limit:

𝜎2
WKT, Proof Resilience for an axially loaded bar = (A x l)
2𝐸

50
Stress, 𝜎 at elastic limit = = 0.333 kN/mm2
150

0.3332
∴ Proof Resilience = (150 x 50) = 2.083 kN-mm
2 ∗ 210

(iii) Elongation at elastic load (50kN):

𝑃 𝑙 50∗50
WKT elongation, 𝜹𝒍 = = = 0.083mm
𝐴 𝐸 150∗210
PB. NO. 7: A 1.5m long bar has a cross sectional area of 800mm2 . With an elastic limit of
180 MPa, determine its proof resilience. Take E = 205 GPa.

Solution:
Data: Stress at elastic limit, σ = 180 MPa = 180 N/mm2, Length, l = 1.5m = 1500mm &
E = 205GPa = 205 x 103 N/mm2

𝜎2
WKT, Proof Resilience for an axially loaded bar = (A x l)
2𝐸

Substituting all the values, we get

(180)2
Proof resilience = (800 x 1500)
2∗205∗1000

Or Proof resilience = 94830 N-mm

The proof resilience can also be expressed as strain energy per unit volume as follows;

𝜎2
Proof resilience per unit volume =
2𝐸

(180)2
Or Proof resilience per unit volume =
2∗205∗1000

∴ Proof resilience per unit volume = 0.07902 N-mm/mm3

PB. NO. 8: Two elastic bars are of equal length and of same material. One is of circular
cross section of 80 mm diameter and the other is of square cross section of 80mm sides.
Both absorb same amount of energy under axial forces. Compare stresses in the two bars.

Solution:

Given that the two bars absorb the same amount of strain energies.

∴ The strain energy in bar of circular c/s = The strain energy in bar of square c/s

𝜎12 𝜎22
Or 𝐴1 𝑙1 = 𝐴2 𝑙 2 ----------- (1)
2∗𝐸1 2∗𝐸2

Where, σ1, A1, l1 and E1 be the stress at elastic limit, cross sectional area, length and
Young’s modulus of bar of circular cross section respectively and

σ2, A2, l2 and E2 be the stress at elastic limit, cross sectional area, length and
young’s modulus of bar of square cross section respectively.

Also given that the length and material of the two bars are same i.e., 𝑙 1= 𝑙 2 and
E1 = E2
 ∴ From (1), we get

𝜎12 𝐴1 = 𝜎22 𝐴2

𝜎12 𝐴2
Or =
𝜎22 𝐴1

𝜎1 𝐴2
Or =√
𝜎2 𝐴1

𝜎1 802 802
Or = √𝜋 2 = √𝜋 2 = 1.128
𝜎2 𝑑 (80)
4 4

Or 𝝈𝟏 = 1.128 𝝈𝟐

PB. NO. 8a: The maximum stress produced by a pull in a bar of length 100mm is
100 N/mm2. The area of cross section and length are as shown in Fig(i). PB. NO. 8a.
Calculate the strain energy stored in the bar if E = 2 x 10 5 N/mm2.

100 mm2 100 mm2

50 mm 2

P P

500 mm 100 mm 500 mm

Fig (i). PB. NO. 8a

Solution:

The given loading diagram may be divided into three different sections i.e., section 1(AB),
section 2 (BC) and section 3 (CD) as shown in Fig(ii). PB. NO. 8a

1 3
2
2
A 100 mm B C 100 mm2 D
50 mm 2

P P

500 mm 100 mm 500 mm

Fig (ii). PB. NO. 8a

Let P1, A1, l1, & E1 be the resultant load, cross sectional area, length and Young’s modulus
for section 1(AB) respectively.

P2, A2, l2, & E2 be the resultant load, cross sectional area, length and Young’s modulus
for section 2(BC) respectively

P3, A3, l3, & E3 be the resultant load, cross sectional area, length and Young’s modulus
for section 3(CD) respectively.

U1, U2 and U3 be strain energies in the sections1, 2 and 3 respectively.

The total strain energy in the bar is equal to the algebraic sum of the strain energies in the
individual sections.

i.e., Total strain energy, Ut = U1 + U2 + U3 --------------- (1)

𝑃2 𝑙
We have, the strain energy in an axially loaded prismatic bar, U = -------- (2)
2 𝐴𝐸

Substituting for the strain energies U1, U2 and U3 in equation (1) from equation (2), we get

𝑃12 𝑙1 𝑃22 𝑙2 𝑃32 𝑙3

Total strain energy, Ut = + + ----------- (3)
2∗𝐴1 𝐸1 2∗𝐴2 𝐸2 2∗𝐴3 𝐸3

Given that E1 = E2 = E3 = 2 x 105 N/mm2, and P1 = P2 = P3 = P, 𝑙1 = 𝑙 3= 500 mm and

𝑙 2 = 100 mm.

The load P may be determined from the data that the stress in the middle section 2 of length
100 mm is 100N/mm2.

𝑃
i. e., the stress, 𝜎2 in section 2 = (𝐴2 )
2
𝑃
Or 100 = (502 )

Or 𝑃2 = 100× 50 = 5000 N = 5 kN
∴ P1 = P2 = P3 = P = 5 kN

Substituting for all the values in (3), we get

52 ×500 52 ×100 52 ×500

Total strain energy, Ut = + +
2×100×200 2×50×200 2×100×200

Or Total strain energy, U t = 0.75 kN-mm

PB. NO. 8b: A 1.6 m long bar is applied with an axial pull as shown in Fig(i) PB. NO. 8b.
such that the maximum stress induced is 140 MPa. The larger and smaller areas of cross
section are 240 mm2 and 120 mm2 respectively. Determine the strain energy stored in the
bar. Take E = 205 GPa.

240 mm2 240 mm2

2
120 mm

P P

600 mm 400 mm 600 mm

Fig (i). PB. NO. 8b

Solution:

The given loading diagram may be divided into three different sections i.e., section 1(AB),
section 2 (BC) and section 3 (CD) as shown in Fig(ii). PB. NO. 8b

1 3
2
A 240 mm2 B C 240 mm2 D
2
120mm

P P

600 mm 400 mm 600 mm

Fig (ii). PB. NO. 8b

Let P1, A1, l1, & E1 be the resultant load, cross sectional area, length and Young’s modulus
for section 1(AB) respectively.

P2, A2, l2, & E2 be the resultant load, cross sectional area, length and Young’s modulus
for section 2(BC) respectively

P3, A3, l3, & E3 be the resultant load, cross sectional area, length and Young’s modulus
for section 3(CD) respectively.

U1, U2 and U3 be strain energies in the sections1, 2 and 3 respectively.

The total strain energy in the bar is equal to the algebraic sum of the strain energies in the
individual sections.

i.e., Total strain energy, Ut = U1 + U2 + U3 --------------- (1)

𝑃2 𝑙
We have, the strain energy in an axially loaded prismatic bar, U = -------- (2)
2 𝐴𝐸
Substituting for the strain energies U1, U2 and U3 in equation (1) from equation (2), we get

𝑃12 𝑙1 𝑃22 𝑙2 𝑃32 𝑙3

Total strain energy, Ut = + + ----------- (3)
2∗𝐴1 𝐸1 2∗𝐴2 𝐸2 2∗𝐴3 𝐸3

Given that E1 = E2 = E3 = 205 GPa, and P 1 = P2 = P3 = P, 𝑙 1= 𝑙 3= 600 mm and

𝑙 2 = 400 mm.

The load P may be determined from the data that the stress in the smallest section 2 is
140N/mm2.

𝑃
i. e., the stress, 𝜎2 in section 2 = ( 2 )
𝐴2
𝑃
Or 140 = ( 2 )
120
Or 𝑃2 = 140× 120 = 16800 N = 16.8 kN
∴ P1 = P2 = P3 = P = 16.8 kN

Substituting for all the values in (3), we get

16.82 ×600 16.82 ×400 16.82 ×600

Total strain energy, Ut = + +
2×240×205 2×120×205 2×240×205

Or Total strain energy, U t = 5.7342 kN-mm

 Strain Energy in Beams:

When a beam is subjected to transverse loading, the bending stress and bending moment M
will be created in the beam, resulting in bending of the beam. The relationship between
bending stress, σ and bending moment, M induced in the beam, is given by Euler-Bernoulli
bending equation (Euler-Bernoulli bending theory) as follows;

𝐌 𝛔 𝑬
𝐈
=𝒚 =𝑹
Where, M = Bending Moment
I = Moment of Inertia of beam cross section about neutral axis
σ = Bending stress
y = Distance of the fiber (Layer) considered, from the neutral axis
E = Young’s modulus of the material of the beam
R = Radius of curvature of beam after bending

The bending of a beam, due to transverse load P, is illustrated in Fig 5.5.

Before bending

Transverse load
Longitudinal Axis P

Outermost Fibre(Layer) Neutral axis

y
d
N A
R
b
Neutral axis

After Bending Cross sectional view of Beam

Fig. 5.5

Neutral Axis (NA): when a beam is subjected to bending due to transverse loads as shown
in Fig. 5.5, the uppermost fibers (layers) of beam cross section are subjected to compression
& compressive stresses while the lowermost fibers are subjected to tension & tensile
stresses. But there exists a layer in the cross section of beam, which is not subjected to any
stresses. This layer is called Neutral layer and the axis of this layer is called Neutral axis.
i.e., the stresses on this neutral layer are zero. It is also called Neutral plane.
Derivation of an expression for strain energy in beams:
The energy stored in the beam as a result of bending due to transverse loads, is called strain
energy.
Consider a beam subjected of length l subjected to a transverse load P as shown in the
Fig.5.5. Due to transverse load P, the beam bends by absorbing e nergy from the transverse
load resulting in bending stress and bending moment.

V σ2
The strain energy in beams may be given by, U = ∫0 dV ----------- (1)
2E

Where, σ is the bending stress due to transverse load.

According to Euler-Bernoulli theory of bending or bending equation, we have,

𝐌 𝛔 𝑬
= =
𝐈 𝒚 𝑹

Where, M = Bending Moment

I = Moment of Inertia of beam cross section about neutral axis
σ = Bending stress
y = Distance of the fiber (Layer) considered, from the neutral axis
E = Young’s modulus of the material of the beam
R = Radius of curvature of beam after bending

𝐌 𝛔
Considering
𝐈
=𝒚 we get,

My
Bending stress, σ =
I

Substituting for σ in equation (1), we get

My 2
𝑉( I )
Strain energy, U = ∫ 𝑑𝑉
0 2E

𝑉 My 2 1
Or = ∫0 ( ) 𝑑𝑉
I 2𝐸

𝑉 My 2 1
Or = ∫
0
( ) 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑥
I 2𝐸

𝑙 𝑀2 𝐴
Or = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 ∫0 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
2 𝐸 𝐼2
 𝐴
But ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼 , i.e., Moment of inertia of beam cross section about neutral axis
0

𝑙 𝑀2
∴ Strain energy, U = ∫0 𝐼 𝑑𝑥
2 𝐸 𝐼2

𝑙 𝑀2
Or =∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 2𝐸 𝐼

𝒍 𝑴𝟐
Or Strain energy in beams, U = ∫ ( ) 𝒅𝒙
𝟎 𝟐𝑬 𝑰
PB. NO. 9: Determine the strain energy in a cantilever beam of uniform cross section
subjected to a point load at the free end as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 9

X
P P

A B

x=0 x=l
X
l
X
Fig. PB. NO. 9 l
Fig. PB. NO. 9a

Solution:
Considering a section XX at a distance of x from the free end A as shown in the
Fig.PB.NO.9a.
Let the length l of the beam varies from x = 0 at the free A end to x = l at the fixed end B as
indicated in Fig. PB. NO. 9a

𝑙 𝑀2
WKT, the strain energy in beams is given by U = ∫
0
( ) 𝑑𝑥 ----------- (1)
2𝐸 𝐼

Taking moments about XX, we get M = - P x

Substituting for M in equation (1), we get

𝑙 (− 𝑃 𝑥) 2
Strain energy, U = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 2𝐸 𝐼

𝑃2 𝑙
= ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸 𝐼

𝑙
𝑃2 𝑥3
= [ ]
2𝐸𝐼 3 0

𝑷𝟐 𝒍𝟑
Or Strain energy, U =
𝟔𝑬 𝑰
PB. NO. 10: Determine the strain energy of a cantilever beam of span l subjected to a UDL
of P kN/m throughout its length.
Equivalent point
load of UDL
Px X P kN/m
(x/2) (x/2)

x=0 x=l
A B
X
X
l

Fig. PB. NO. 10

Solution:
Consider a cantilever beam AB of length l , varying from x = 0 at the free end A to x = l at
the fixed end B, subjected to a UDL intensity P kN/m as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 10.

Consider a section XX at a distance of x from the free end A as indicated in Fig. PB.NO.10

Taking moments due to all the forces towards left of the section XX, we get

𝑃𝑥2
M = - ----------------- (1)
2

𝑙 𝑀2
WKT the strain energy in beams is given by U = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 ------------ (2)
0 2𝐸𝐼

Substituting for M from equation (1) in equation (2), we get

2
𝑃𝑥2
𝑙 (− 2 )
Strain energy, U = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 2𝐸𝐼

𝑃2 𝑙
Or = ∫0 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥
8𝐸 𝐼

𝑙
𝑃2 𝑥5
= [ ]
2𝐸 𝐼 5 0
Or

𝑷𝟐 𝒍 𝟓
Or Strain energy, U = kN-m
𝟒𝟎 𝑬 𝑰
PB. No. 11: Determine the strain energy of the prismatic beam AB, subjected to a UDL of
25 kN/m as shown in Fig. PB. NO.11. Take E = 2 x 10 5 N/mm2 and I = 195.3 x 103 mm4

25 kN/m

A B

10 m

Fig. PB. NO. 11

Solution:
(i) To find the support reactions:

Let RA and RB be the reaction forces at the supports A and B respectively.

Referring to Fig. PB. NO. 11 and applying the equilibrium equation ∑𝑉 = 0, we get

RA - 250 + RB = 0
Or RA + RB = 250 kN ----------- (1)
Applying the equilibrium equation ∑ MA = 0, we get
250 x 5 - RB x 10 = 0
∴ RB = 125 kN
From (1) RA = 125 kN
[Note: Incase of beams other than cantilever beams, first find the support reactions and then
take reference section XX as indicated in the figure below.]

(ii) To find the strain energy:

Equivalent point
load of UDL 25 kN/m
25 X X

A B

(x/2) (x/2)
RA X RB
X
10 m

Fig. PB. NO. 11a

Considering a section XX at a distance of x from the support A as shown in

Fig. PB. NO.11a and taking moments about section XX due to all the forces towards
left of the section XX, we get

𝑥
M = RA x - 25 x( )
2
 2
Or M = 125 x - 12.5 𝑥 -------------- (2)

𝑙 𝑀2
WKT the strain energy in beams is given by U = ∫0 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 ------------ (3)
2𝐸𝐼

Substituting for M from equation (2) in equation (3), we get

𝑙 (125 𝑥 − 12.5 𝑥2 )2
Strain energy, U = ∫0 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼

1 𝑙
= ∫0 (125 𝑥 − 12.5 𝑥 2 )2 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸 𝐼

E = 2×105 N/mm2 = 200×106 kN/m2

Moment of Inertia of beam cross section, I = 195.3×103 mm4 = 195.3×10-9 m4

1 10
= ∫ (1252 𝑥 2 − 3125𝑥 3 + 12.52 𝑥 4 )𝑑𝑥
2 (200×106 )(195.3×10−9) 0

1 3 10
2 𝑥 𝑥4 2 𝑥
5
= [125 ( ) − 3125 ( ) + 12.5 ( )]
78.12 3 4 5 0

∴ Strain energy, U = 6667.09 kN-m

PB. NO. 12: Determine the strain energy of the beam loaded as shown in Fig(i). PB. NO. 12.
Take E = 200 GPa and beam cross section as (150mm × 25mm)

150 kN

A C B

RA 0.75 m 1.25 m RB

Fig (i) PB. NO. 12

Solution:
(a) To find the support reactions:

Let RA and RB be the reaction forces at the supports A and B respectively.

Referring to Fig. PB. NO. 12 and applying the equilibrium equation ∑𝑉 = 0, we get

RA - 150 + RB = 0
 Or RA + RB = 150 kN ----------- (1)
Applying the equilibrium equation ∑ MA = 0, we get
150 × 0.75 - RB × 2 = 0
∴ RB = 56.25 kN
From (1) RA = 93.75 kN

(b) To find the strain energy:

[Note: In this case, the portions AC and BC of the beam are to be treated separately. First
considering any section XX in the portion AC of the beam as shown in Fig (ii) PB. NO.12,
strain energy in the portion AC is calculated. Next, considering any section XX in the portion
BC of the beam as shown in Fig (iii) PB. NO.12, the strain energy in the portion BC is
calculated. The total strain energy in the beam is calculated as the sum of the strain energies
in the portions AC and BC.]

(i) Considering any section XX in the portion AC at a distance of x from the support A
(x varies from 0 at A to 0.75m at C for the portion AC) as shown in Fig (ii) PB. NO. 12
and taking moments about section XX (due to all the forces towards left of the section
XX), we get,
150 kN
X

A C B

X
RA RB
X
0.75 m 1.25 m

Fig (ii) PB. NO. 12

M = RA x = 93.75 x kN-m ------------- (1)

𝑙 𝑀2
WKT the strain energy in beams is given by U = ∫0 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 ------------ (2)
2𝐸𝐼

Substituting for M from equation (1) in equation (2), we get

𝑙 (93.75 𝑥)2
Strain energy in the portion AC of the beam, UAC = ∫
0
( ) 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼

(93.75)2 0.75
Or UAC = ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼

E = 200 GPa = 200×106 kN/m2

 𝑏 𝑑3
Moment of Inertia of beam cross section, I = ; Given that b = 150mm & d = 25mm
12

150∗ (25)3
∴ I= = 1.953×105 mm4 = 1.953×10-7 m4
12

(93.75)2 0.75
Or UAC = ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2(200×106 )(1.953×10−7)

0.75
(93.75)2 𝑥3
Or UAC = [ ]
2(200×106)(1.953×10−7) 3 0

Or Strain energy in the portion AC of the beam, U AC = 15.82 kN-m

(ii) Considering any section XX in the portion BC at a distance of x from the support B
(x varies from 0 at B to 1.25m at C for the portion BC) as shown in Fig (iii) PB. NO. 12
and taking moments about section XX (due to all the forces towards right of the
section XX), we get,
150 kN
X

A C B
X
RA RB
X

0.75 m 1.25 m

Fig (iii) PB. NO. 12

M = RB x = 56.25 x kN-m ------------- (3)

𝑙 𝑀2
WKT the strain energy in beams is given by U = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 ------------ (4)
0 2𝐸𝐼

Substituting for M from equation (3) in equation (4), we get

𝑙 (56.25 𝑥)2
Strain energy in the portion BC of the beam, UBC = ∫0 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼

(56.25)2 0.75 2
Or UBC = ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼

E = 200 GPa = 200×106 kN/m2

I = 1.953×105 mm4 = 1.953×10-7 m4
 (56.25)2 1.25
Or UBC = 6 −7 ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2(200×10 )(1.953×10 )

1.25
(56.25)2 𝑥3
= [ ]
2(200×106 )(1.953×10−7) 3 0

Or Strain energy in the portion BC of the beam, U BC = 26.37 kN-m

The Total Strain Energy in the beam, U = (UAC + UBC)

= (15.82 + 26.37)

∴ Total Strain Energy in the beam, U = 42.19 kN-m

PB. NO. 13: A beam of length l is simply supported at its ends. The beam carries a UDL of
P kN per unit run (i.e., a UDL of intensity P kN/m) over the whole span. Find the strain
energy stored in the beam.

Solution:
The given simply supported beam with a UDL of intensity P kN/m over the entire span may
be indicated as shown in Fig.(i) PB.NO. 13.
P kN/m

A B

Fig. (i) PB. NO. 13

(i) To find the support reactions:

Let RA and RB be the reaction forces at the supports A and B respectively as indicated in
Fig.(ii) PB. NO.13

Referring to Fig.(i) PB. NO. 13 and applying the equilibrium equation ∑𝑉 = 0, we get

RA - P l + RB = 0

Or RA + RB = P l kN ----------- (1)

Applying the equilibrium equation ∑ MA = 0, we get

𝑙
Pl ( )- RB × 𝑙 = 0
2
 𝑷𝒍
∴ RB = ( ) kN
𝟐
𝑷𝒍
From (1) RA = ( ) kN
𝟐

(ii) To find the strain energy:

Considering a section XX at a distance of x from the support A as shown in

Fig.(ii) PB. NO.13 and taking moments about section XX due to all the forces towards
left of the section XX, we get

Equivalent point
load of UDL P kN/m
PX
X

A B

(x/2) (x/2)
RA X RB
X
l

Fig. (ii) PB. NO. 13

𝑥
M = RA x - P x( )
2

𝑃𝑙 𝑃 𝑥2
Or M =[( )𝑥 −( )] -------------- (2)
2 2

𝑙 𝑀2
WKT the strain energy in beams is given by U = ∫0 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 ------------ (3)
2𝐸𝐼

Substituting for M from equation (2) in equation (3), we get

2
𝑃𝑙 𝑃 𝑥2
𝑙 [( 2 ) 𝑥−( 2 )]
Strain energy, U = ∫0
2𝐸 𝐼

1 2
𝑙 𝑃𝑙 𝑃 𝑥2
= ∫0 [( 2 ) 𝑥 − ( )] 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸 𝐼 2

𝑙 𝑃𝑙 2 𝑃 2 𝑃𝑙𝑥 𝑃 𝑥2
1
= ∫
2𝐸𝐼 0
[( ) 𝑥2 + ( ) 𝑥4 − 2 ( )( )] 𝑑𝑥
2 2 2 2
 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
1 𝑙 𝑃𝑙 2 𝑥3 𝑃 2 𝑥5 𝑃2 𝑙 𝑥4
= ∫0 [( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) − ( )( ) ]
2𝐸𝐼 2 3 0 2 5 0 2 4 0

1 𝑃2 𝑙 5 𝑃2 𝑙 5 𝑃2 𝑙 5
= [ + − ]
2𝐸𝐼 12 20 8

On simplification, we get

𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟏𝟓 𝑷𝟐 𝒍𝟓
Strain energy in the beam, U =
𝑬𝑰

PB. NO. 13a: Determine the strain energy in the cantilever beam shown in Fig. PB NO. 13a.
Take flexural stiffness/rigidity, EI = 25kN-mm2.

0.9 kN

4.5 m

Fig. PB. NO. 13a

Answer: 54.67 kN-mm

PB. NO. 13b: Determine the strain energy in the beam shown in the figure below. Take
flexural stiffness = 25MN-m2.

65 kN

A B

3m 1m

Fig. PB. NO. 13b

Answer: 15.84 kN-mm

Castigliano's theorems:

Castigliano's theorems, named after Carlo Alberto Castigliano, are used for determining the
displacements of a linear-elastic system based on the partial derivatives of the strain energy.

Castigliano's first theorem:

Statement:
The first partial derivative of strain energy in a structure with respect to deflection at a point is
equal to the force applied at that point in the direction of deflection.

Explanation:

For prismatic bar of length l , cross section A and Young's modulus E subjected to an axial
load P as shown in Fig. 5.6, if 𝛿𝑙 is the displacement/deformation at the point of application
of force P and U is the strain energy stored in the bar then according to the Castigliano's first
theorem,
𝝏 (𝐔) 𝑃2 𝑙 𝑃𝑙
= P ; Where, U = & 𝛿𝑙 =
𝝏 (𝜹𝒍) 2𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸

Similarly, for a simply supported beam of length l , Young's modulus E and moment of inertia
I subjected to a point load P at its midpoint as shown in Fig. 5.7, if y is the deflection at the
point of application force P, then according to the Castigliano's first theorem,

𝝏(𝐔) 𝑙 𝑀2 𝑃𝑙 3
= P ; Where, U = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 & y=
𝝏(𝒚) 0 2𝐸𝐼 48 𝐸 𝐼

Illustration 1: An axially loaded prismatic bar

A E I B
l A E

l
Fig. 5.7

Fig. 5.6
Consider a prismatic bar of length l , cross section A and Young's modulus E subjected to an
axial load P as shown in Fig. 5.6
Let 𝛿𝑙 be the displacement/deformation in the prismatic bar at the point of application of axial
load P.
We know that the strain energy in a prismatic bar of length l, cross section A and Young's
modulus E subjected to an axial load P is given by

𝑷𝟐 𝒍
U= -------------- (1)
𝟐𝑨𝑬

and also the displacement/deformation due to axial load P is given by

𝑷𝒍
𝜹𝒍 = ---------------- (2)
𝑨𝑬

The first partial derivative of strain energy w.r.t. displacement/deformation is

𝜕 (𝐔)
= -------------- (3)
𝜕 (𝜹𝒍)
Substituting for U from (1) and 𝛿𝑙 from (2) in equation (3), we get

𝑷𝟐 𝒍
𝜕 (𝐔) 𝜕(𝟐 𝑨 𝑬 )
Or = 𝑷𝒍
𝜕 (𝜹𝒍) 𝜕( )
𝑨𝑬

𝑷𝟐 𝒍
𝜕(𝐔) 𝜕(𝟐 𝑨 𝑬 )
Or = 𝑷𝒍
𝜕(𝜹𝒍) 𝜕( )
𝑨𝑬

𝑙
𝜕 ( 𝑃2 )
2𝐴 𝐸
= 𝑙 =P
𝜕 (𝑃)
𝐴𝐸

𝝏 (𝐔)
Or = P ---------- (4)
𝝏 (𝜹𝒍)

Equation (4) states that the first partial derivative of strain energy with respect to
displacement/deformation is equal to the force applied at that point in the direction of
displacement.
Illustration 2: A simply supported beam subjected to a point load at its mid point

Consider a simply supported beam of length l, Young's modulus E and moment of inertia I
subjected to a point load P at its midpoint as shown in Fig. 5.7.
We know that for a simply supported beam of length l , Young's modulus E and moment of
inertia I subjected to a point load P at its midpoint, the deflection y at the point of application
of point load is given by
𝑃𝑙 3
y= ----------- (1)
48 𝐸 𝐼

and also the strain energy in the beam as a result of deflection due to transverse load P is
given
𝑙 𝑀2
U = ∫0 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 ------------- (2)
2𝐸 𝐼

The first partial derivative of strain energy w.r.t. deflection y is

𝜕 (𝐔)
= -------------- (3)
𝜕 (𝒚)

Substituting for U from (1) and 𝑦 from (2) in equation (3), we get

𝑙 𝑀2
𝜕(𝐔) 𝜕 [ ∫0 ( 2 𝐸 𝐼) 𝑑𝑥]
= 𝑃𝑙3
𝜕(𝒚) 𝜕( )
48 𝐸 𝐼
on solving , we get

𝝏 (𝐔)
=P ---------------- (4)
𝝏(𝒚)

Equation (4) states that the first partial derivative of strain energy with respect to deflection is
equal to the force applied at that point in the direction of deflection.

Castigliano's second theorem:

Statement:
The first partial derivative of strain energy in a structure with respect to force applied is equal
to the deflection/displacement at the point of application of that force in the direction of
application of the force.
Explanation:

For prismatic bar of length l , cross section A and Young's modulus E subjected to an axial
load P as shown in Fig. 5.6, if 𝛿𝑙 is the displacement/deformation at the point of application
of force P and U is the strain energy stored in the bar then according to the Castigliano's
second theorem,
𝝏 (𝐔) 𝑃2 𝑙 𝑃𝑙
= 𝜹𝒍 ; Where, U = & 𝛿𝑙 =
𝝏 (𝑷) 2𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸

Similarly, for a simply supported beam of length l , Young's modulus E and moment of inertia
I subjected to a point load P at its midpoint as shown in Fig. 5.7, if y is the deflection at the
point of application force P, then according to the Castigliano's second theorem,

𝝏(𝐔) 𝑙 𝑀2 𝑃𝑙 3
= 𝒚; Where, U = ∫0 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 & y=
𝝏(𝑷) 2𝐸 𝐼 48 𝐸 𝐼

Illustration 1: An axially loaded prismatic bar

A E I B
l A E

l
Fig. 5.7

Fig. 5.6

Consider a prismatic bar of length l , cross section A and Young's modulus E subjected to an
axial load P as shown in Fig. 5.6
Let 𝛿𝑙 be the displacement/deformation in the prismatic bar at the point of application of axial
load P.
We know that the strain energy in a prismatic bar of length l, cross section A and Young's
modulus E subjected to an axial load P is given by

𝑷𝟐 𝒍
U= -------------- (1)
𝟐𝑨𝑬

and also the displacement/deformation due to axial load P is given by

 𝑷𝒍
𝜹𝒍 = ---------------- (2)
𝑨𝑬

The first partial derivative of strain energy w.r.t. force applied is

𝜕 (𝐔)
= -------------- (3)
𝜕 (𝑷)
Substituting for U from (1) in equation (3), we get
𝑷𝟐 𝒍
𝜕 (𝐔) 𝜕 (𝟐 𝑨 𝑬 )
Or =
𝜕 (𝑷) 𝜕 (𝑷)

𝑙
𝜕 ( 𝑃2 ) 2𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝑙
2 𝐴𝐸
= = = = 𝜹𝒍
𝜕 (𝑃) 2𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸

𝝏 (𝐔)
Or = 𝜹𝒍 ---------- (4)
𝝏 (𝑷)

Equation (4) states that the first partial derivative of strain energy with respect to the force
applied is equal to the displacement/deflection at the point of application of force in the
direction of application of force.

Illustration 2: A simply supported beam subjected to a point load at its mid point

Consider a simply supported beam of length l, Young's modulus E and moment of inertia I
subjected to a point load P at its midpoint as shown in Fig. 5.7.
We know that for a simply supported beam of length l, Young's modulus E and moment of
inertia I subjected to a point load P at its midpoint, the deflection y at the point of application
of point load is given by
𝑃𝑙 3
y= ----------- (1)
48 𝐸 𝐼

and also the strain energy in the beam as a result of deflection due to transverse load P is
given
𝑙 𝑀2
U=∫ (
0 2𝐸 𝐼
) 𝑑𝑥 ------------- (2)

The first partial derivative of strain energy w.r.t. force applied is

𝜕 (𝐔)
= -------------- (3)
𝜕 (𝑷)
Substituting for U from (2) in equation (3), we get

𝑙 𝑀2
𝜕(𝐔) 𝜕 [ ∫0 ( 2 𝐸 𝐼) 𝑑𝑥]
=
𝜕(𝑃) 𝜕(𝑃)
on solving , we get

𝝏 (𝐔) 𝑃𝑙 3
= =y
𝝏 (𝑷) 48 𝐸 𝐼

𝝏 (𝐔)
Or = y -------------- (4)
𝝏 (𝑷)

Equation (4) states that the first partial derivative of strain energy with respect to the force
applied is equal to the deflection at the point of application of force in the direction of
application of force.
PB. NO. 14: Derive an expression for the deflection at the free end of a cantilever beam of
length l carrying a point load of P kN at its free end using Castigliano's theorem.

Solution:

X
P

A B

x=0 x=l
X
X
l

Fig. PB. NO. 14

Consider a cantilever beam of length l varying from 0 at the free end to l at the fixed end,
subjected to a point load of P kN as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 14.

Consider a section XX at a distance of x from the free end as indicated in the figure above.

𝑙 𝑀2
WKT the strain energy in beams is given by U = ∫0 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 ------------- (1)
2𝐸𝐼

According to castigliano's theorem

𝑙 𝑀2
𝜕(𝐔) 𝜕 [ ∫0 ( 2 𝐸 𝐼) 𝑑𝑥]
Deflection, y = =
𝜕 (𝑃) 𝜕(𝑃)

𝜕 𝑙 𝑀2
= ∫ (
) 0
) 𝑑𝑥
𝜕 (𝑃 2𝐸 𝐼

𝑙 1 𝜕
= ∫0 (𝑀 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝐸 𝐼 𝜕𝑃

𝒍 𝟏 𝝏𝑴
Or Deflection, y = ∫ 𝑴 𝒅𝒙 ------------- (2)
𝟎 𝑬𝑰 𝝏𝑷

Taking moment about section XX, we get M = - P x

 𝜕(𝐌)
∴ =-x
𝜕 (𝑃)

𝜕(𝐌)
Substituting for M and in equation (2), we get
𝜕(𝑃)

𝑙 1
Deflection, y = ∫
0 𝐸𝐼
(−𝑃 𝑥 )(−𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

1 𝑙
= ∫0 𝑃 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼

𝑃 𝑙
= ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼

𝑷 𝒍𝟑
Or Deflection, y = -------------- (3)
𝟑𝑬𝑰

Equation (3) gives the deflection at the free end of a cantilever beam subjected to a point
load P at its free end.

PB. NO. 15: Derive an expression for the deflection at the midpoint (mid span) of a simply
supported beam of length l subjected to point load P kN at its midspan (midpoint).

Solution:

P kN

C
A B

RA l/2 l/2
RB

l
Fig. PB. NO. 15

Consider a cantilever beam AB of length (Span) l subjected to a point load P kN at its

midpoint (mid span) as shown in Fig. PB. NO. 15

(a) To find the support reactions:

Let RA and RB be the reaction forces at the supports A and B respectively.

Applying the equilibrium equation ∑𝑉 = 0, we get

RA - P + RB = 0
 Or RA + RB = P kN ----------- (1)

Applying the equilibrium equation ∑ MA = 0, we get

𝑙
P( )- RB × 𝑙 = 0
2
𝑷
∴ RB = ( ) kN
𝟐
𝑷
From (1), RA = ( ) kN
𝟐

(b) To find the deflection at the midpoint (Midspan):

P kN P kN
X X
X X
C C
A B A B

RA l/2 l/2 RA l/2 l/2

RB RB
X X
l l
Fig (ii). PB. NO. 15 Fig (iii). PB. NO. 15

Let E and I be the Young's modulus and Moment of inertia of the beam cross section
respectively.

Let y be the total deflection at the midpoint of the beam.

considering the two portions of the beam AC and BC separately calculating the deflections in
the portions AC (yac ) and BC (ybc ), the total deflection at the midpoint of the beam may be
calculated as

Total deflection at the midpoint, y = (Deflection in the portion AC + Deflection in the portion
BC)

Or y = (yac + ybc )

Considering the Portion AC:

For the portion AC, the length varies from 0 at the support A to l/2 at the midpoint C of the
beam.
Considering a section XX at a distance of x from the support A as indicated in
Fig. (ii) PB. NO.15 and taking moments about due to all the forces towards left of section XX,
we get
M = RA x
 𝑷 𝑃
M=( )x ∵ RA = ( )
𝟐 2

𝜕(𝐌) 𝑥
∴ =( )
𝜕 (𝑃) 2

According to castigliano's theorem,

𝑙 1 𝜕𝑀
The deflection in beams is given by, y = ∫ 𝑀 𝑑𝑥 --------------- (1)
0 𝐸𝐼 𝜕𝑃

For the portion AC of the beam, length varies from 0 to l/2

𝑙/2 1 𝜕𝑀
∴ Deflection in the portion AC of the beam, yac = ∫0
𝐸𝐼
𝑀 𝑑𝑥 -------------- (2)
𝜕𝑃

𝑷 𝜕 (𝐌) 𝑥
Substituting for M = ( )x and = ( ) in equation(2), we get
𝟐 𝜕 (𝑃) 2

𝑙/2 1 𝑷 𝑥
yac = ∫
0
( ) 𝑥 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼 𝟐 2

𝑃 𝑙/2
= ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
4𝐸 𝐼

𝑙/2
𝑃 𝑥3
= [ ]
4𝐸 𝐼 3 0

𝑃 𝑙3
Or Deflection in the portion AC of the beam, yac =
96 𝐸 𝐼

Similarly, for the portion BC (For the portion BC, the length varies from 0 at the support B
to l/2 at the midpoint C of the beam) of the beam, by considering a section XX at a distance
of x from the support B as indicated in Fig. (iii) PB. NO.15, we get

𝑃 𝑙3
Deflection in the portion BC of the beam, ybc =
96 𝐸 𝐼

(Due to symmetric loading, Deflection in the portion AC = Deflection in the portion BC)

Total deflection at the midpoint of the beam, y = (yac + ybc )

 3 3
𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝑙
Or y =( )+( )
96 𝐸 𝐼 96 𝐸 𝐼

𝟑
𝑷𝒍
Or Deflection at the midpoint, y = ( )
𝟒𝟖 𝑬 𝑰

PB. NO. 16: Using Castigliano's theorem find the deflection at the midpoint of a simply
supported beam of length l, carrying a UDL of P kN/m over its entire length.

𝟒
𝟓𝑷𝒍
Answer: Deflection at the midpoint, y = ( )
𝟑𝟖𝟒 𝑬 𝑰
Strain energy due to shear:

Before deformation After deformation

t t
d

h f

b b
l
l

Fig. 5.8a Fig. 5.8b

Consider a block of dimensions l, b & h rigidly fixed to the ground and subjected to a shear
stress 𝜏 applied gradually along the top surface as shown in Fig. 5.8a. As a result of applied
shear stress, the block deforms as shown in Fig. 5.8b

Referring to fig. 5.8b, we can write

Strain energy due to shear, U = Average work done by shear force

1
= (Shear force) × (Displacement)
2

1
= (Shear stress × Area) × (Displacement)
2

1
= (𝜏 × 𝑙 × 𝑏) × (𝛿) ------------ (1)
2

But from the geometry of the deformed figure, we can write

𝛿
Shear strain, ∅ =
ℎ

∴ 𝛿=∅ℎ

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 , 𝜏
Also, Modulus of rigidity, G =
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, ∅

𝜏
∴ ∅=
𝐺
 Substituting for 𝛿 in equation(1), we get

1
Strain energy due to shear, U = (𝜏 × 𝑙 × 𝑏) × (∅ ℎ)
2
𝜏
Again substituting for ∅ = in the above equation, we get
𝐺
1 𝜏
U= (𝜏 × 𝑙 × 𝑏) × × ℎ
2 𝐺

1 𝜏
= (𝜏) × (𝑙 × 𝑏 × ℎ) ×
2 𝐺

𝝉𝟐
Or Strain energy due to shear, U = (Volume) ∵ (𝑙 × 𝑏 × ℎ) = Volume of the block
𝟐𝑮

𝝉𝟐
Or Strain energy due to shear per unit volume =
𝟐𝑮

Strain energy due to Torsion:

f B'
T

q
o R
l
B

Fig. 5.9

The total strain energy stored in a shaft under the action of torque is the work done in
twisting. If a torque of T (Twisting moment) is gradually on a shaft of length l as shown in
Fig. 5.9, the angle of twist 𝜃 varies gradually with the applied torque.

Thus for a gradually applied torque T on a shaft of length l,

Strain energy, U = Average work done by the applied torque

 = Average of ( Applied torque × Angle of twist)
1
= (Applied torque, T) × (Angle of twist, 𝜃)
2

1
Or Strain energy, U = T 𝜃 ---------- (1)
2

We have, from the theory of pure torsion(Torque equation)

𝑇 𝜏 𝐺𝜃
𝐽
= 𝑅
= 𝑙

𝑇 𝐺𝜃
Considering = , we get
𝐽 𝑙

𝑇𝑙
𝜃=
𝐺𝐽
Substituting for 𝜃 in equation (1), we get

1 𝑇𝑙
Strain energy, U = T( )
2 𝐺𝐽

𝑻𝟐 𝒍
Or Strain energy, U =
𝟐𝑮𝑱

The strain energy due to torsion may be also expressed as follows:

𝝅𝒅𝟒 𝒅
(a) For a solid shaft of diameter d, polar moment of inertia , J = ( ) and R =
𝟑𝟐 𝟐
We have, from the theory of pure torsion(Torque equation)

𝑇 𝜏 𝐺𝜃
𝐽
= 𝑅
= 𝑙

𝑇 𝜏
Considering
𝐽
= 𝑅
, we get

𝜏𝐽
𝑇=
𝑅

𝜏 𝐺𝜃
Now considering = , we get
𝑅 𝑙
 𝜏𝑙
𝜃=
𝐺𝑅

Substituting for T and 𝜃 in equation (1), we get

1 𝜏𝐽 𝜏𝑙
Strain energy, U = ( )( ) ------------ (2)
2 𝑅 𝐺𝑅

Substituting for J and R in equation (2), we get

𝜋 𝑑4
1 𝜏 ( 32 ) 𝜏𝑙
Strain energy, U =
2
( 𝑑 )( 𝑑 )
𝐺
2 2

𝜏2
= ( ) (𝜋 𝑑 2 𝑙 )
16 𝐺

𝜏2 𝜋 𝑑2
=( )( )𝑙
4𝐺 4

𝝉𝟐
Or Strain energy, U = (𝟒 𝑮) × (𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆) ------------- (3)

𝜋 𝑑2
( ) 𝑙 = Volume of the solid circular shaft
4

Equation (3) gives the expression for the strain energy in a solid circular shat of diameter d

(b) For a hollow shaft of external diameter d 1 and internal diameter d 2,

𝝅(𝒅𝟒𝟏 −𝒅𝟒𝟐 ) 𝒅𝟏
polar moment of inertia , J = ( ) and R =
𝟑𝟐 𝟐

Strain energy, U = Average work done by the applied torque

= Average of ( Applied torque × Angle of twist)
1
= (Applied torque, T) × (Angle of twist, 𝜃)
2

1
Or Strain energy, U = T 𝜃 ---------- (1)
2

We have, from the theory of pure torsion(Torque equation)

 𝑇 𝜏 𝐺𝜃
𝐽
= 𝑅
= 𝑙

𝑇 𝜏
Considering = , we get
𝐽 𝑅

𝜏𝐽
𝑇=
𝑅

𝜏 𝐺𝜃
Now considering = , we get
𝑅 𝑙
𝜏𝑙
𝜃=
𝐺𝑅

Substituting for T and 𝜃 in equation (1), we get

1 𝜏𝐽 𝜏𝑙
Strain energy, U = ( )( ) ------------ (2)
2 𝑅 𝐺𝑅

Substituting for J and R in equation (3), we get

4 4
𝜋(𝑑 1 −𝑑 2 )
1 𝜏( 32
) 𝜏𝑙
Strain energy, U = ( 𝑑1 )( 𝑑 )
2 𝐺 1
2 2

𝜏2
=( ) 𝜋(𝑑14 − 𝑑24 ) 𝑙
16 𝐺

(𝑑14 − 𝑑24 ) = (𝑑12 − 𝑑22 ) (𝑑12 + 𝑑22 )

𝜏2 𝜋 (𝑑12 −𝑑2
2)𝑙 (𝑑12 +𝑑2
2)
∴ Strain energy, U = ( ) ( )( )
4𝐺 4 𝑑12

𝝉𝟐 (𝒅𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 +𝒅𝟐 )
Or Strain energy, U = ( )( ) × (Volume) ---------- (4)
𝟒𝑮 𝒅𝟐
𝟏

𝜋 (𝑑 12−𝑑22 ) 𝑙
( ) = Volume of hollow circular shaft of external diameter d1 and
4
internal diameter d2,

Equation (3) gives the expression for the strain energy in a hollow shaft of external diameter
d1 and internal diameter d2,
PB. NO. 1: A solid steel shaft of diameter 160mm and length 1m is subjected to a torque of
45 kN-m. If G = 80 GPa, determine the strain energy stored in the shaft.

Solution:

Data: T = 45 kN-m, d = 160mm, l = 1m & G = 80 GPa

𝑇2 𝑙
We have, strain energy due to torsion, U = ----------- (1)
2𝐺𝐽
𝜋𝑑4
Polar moment of inertia, J =( ), l = 1m = 1000mm, G = 80 GPa &
32

T = 45 kN-m = (45 × 1000) kN-mm

Substituting for all the values in equation (1), we get

(45×1000)2 × 1000
Strain energy, U = 𝜋 (160)4
2×80× ( )
32

∴ Strain energy, U = 196.7 kN-mm

PB. NO. 2: A hollow circular shaft of 2m length has an external diameter of 100mm and
thickness 10mm. If it is subjected to a torque of 10 kN-m, determine the strain energy stored
in the shaft. Take G = 80 GPa.

Solution:
Let d1 and d2 be the external and internal diameters of the shaft respectively.
Data: T = 10 kN-m, t = 10mm, d1 = 100mm, d2 = (d1 – 2t) = (100 – 20) = 80mm, l = 2m &
G = 80 GPa

𝑇2 𝑙
We have, strain energy due to torsion, U = ----------- (1)
2𝐺𝐽
𝜋(𝑑14 −𝑑24 )
Polar moment of inertia, J =( ), l = 2m = 2000mm, G = 80 GPa,
32

T = 10 kN-m = (10 × 1000) kN-mm, d1 = 100mm, & d2 = 80mm

Substituting for all the values in equation (1), we get

(10×1000)2 × 2000
Strain energy, U = 𝜋(1004 −804 )
2×80×
32

∴ Strain energy, U = 215.6 kN-mm

PB. NO. 3: Calculate the strain energy due to shear in the structure shown in Fig. PB. NO. 3
Assume G = 92 GPa.

65 kN

0.6 m
Æ 125 mm

Fig. PB. NO.3

Solution:

Data: Shear force, P= 65 kN, d = 125mm, l = 0.6m & G = 92 GPa

𝜏2
We have, strain energy due to shear, U = (Volume)
2𝐺
𝜏2 𝜋(𝑑)2
= × ( )𝑙
2𝐺 4

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝑃
Shear stress, 𝜏 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 , 𝐴

𝜋(𝑑)2
P = 65 kN & A = ; d = 125mm
4

65
Or Shear stress, 𝜏= 𝜋(125)2 = 0.00529 mm2
4

(0.00529)2 𝜋(125)2
∴ Strain energy due to shear, U = × ( ) × 600
2× 92 4

Or Strain energy due to shear, U = 1.123 kN-mm

PB. NO. 4: Determine the strain energy stored in a rectangular bar of 500mm length, 100mm
wide and 50mm thick, when it is subjected to a shear stress of 80MPa. Assume G = 95 GPa.
Strain energy due to Impact load:

Vertical bar

A
Load, P
E
l
s
U
Collar
h

(x) d l

Fig. 5.10

Impact Load :The load applied due to actions of free falling from a definite height or due to
actions of one object hitting another object, is called Impact load.
Impact load may be expressed in N or kN or MN or GN.

The figure 5.10 represents a vertical bar of length l fixed at the upper end and carrying a
collar at the lower end. A load P is dropped over the collar of the vertical bar from a height h
resulting in an extension in the bar byx(𝜹𝒍) due to impact of load P.

Let, 𝜎 = Stress developed in the body due to impact load.

E = Young’s Modulus of the material of the bar
A = Cross sectional area of the bar
l= Length of the vertical bar.
P = Impact load
xor δl= Extension or deformation of the vertical bar due to impact load.
V = Volume of the vertical bar = (A × 𝑙)
U = Strain energy stored in the bar

Strain energy stored in the bar, U = Work done by the impact load in deforming the bar
= (Load ×Displacement)
Or U = P (h +x) ---------- (1)

Also, the strain energy stored in axially loaded bars is given by

 𝜎2
U= × (Volume)
2𝐸
𝜎2
Or U= ×(A l) ---------- (2)
2𝐸

Therefore, from (1) and (2), we can write

𝜎2
P (h +x) = ×(A l) ------------- (3)
2𝐸

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 , 𝜎
We have, from Hooke’s law, E =
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝜀

∴ 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎= E × 𝜀
𝑥 𝛿𝑙 𝑥
= E × ( ) i.e.,𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝜀 = ( )= ( 𝑙 ); 𝛿𝑙 = 𝑥
𝑙 𝑙

𝜎𝑙
Or x =( )
𝐸

Substituting for x in equation (3), we get

𝜎𝑙 𝜎2
P [h + ( )] = [ × (A 𝑙 )]
𝐸 2𝐸

𝑃𝜎𝑙 𝜎2
Or [Ph + ( )] = [ × (A 𝑙 )]
𝐸 2𝐸

Rearranging the terms and dividing throughout by A l, we get

𝜎2 𝑃𝜎 𝑃ℎ
[ − ( )] = [ ]
2𝐸 𝐴𝐸 A𝑙

Multiplying throughout by 2E, we get

2 𝑃𝜎 2𝑃 ℎ𝐸
[𝜎 2 − ( )] = [ ]
𝐴 (A 𝑙 )
 𝑃2
Adding ( 2 ) on both sides, we get
𝐴

2𝑃𝜎 𝑃2 2𝑃 ℎ𝐸 𝑃2
Or [𝜎 2 − ( ) + ( 2) ] = [ + ( 2) ]
𝐴 𝐴 (A 𝑙 ) 𝐴

𝑃 2 2𝑃ℎ 𝐸 𝑃2
Or (𝜎 − ) = [ + ( 2) ]
𝐴 (A 𝑙 ) 𝐴

𝑃 𝑃2 2𝑃ℎ𝐸
Or (𝜎 − ) = √(( 2) + )
𝐴 𝐴 (A 𝑙 )

𝑃 2
Or 𝜎 = ( ) + √((𝑃 2) + 2𝑃ℎ𝐸
(A 𝑙 )
) --------------- (4)
𝐴 𝐴

The equation (4) gives the stress induced in the vertical bar due to impact load.

Now, the strain energy in the vertical bar due to impact load can be calculated by substituting
for 𝜎 from equation (4) in equation (2).
 MODULE - 2

ANALYSIS OF STRESSES ON INCLINED PLANES (Compound Stresses)

In many engineering problems, direct and shear forces act simultaneously on a body. In
such situations, the resultant stress across any section will neither be normal nor tangential
to the plane and act in some other direction than that of the load application. It is, therefore,
necessary to find out stresses on planes other than those of load application i.e., stresses
acting on inclined planes(or Oblique section).

Compound Stress: When a material body is subjected to stresses in more than one
direction (or in all the directions X, Y and Z), the state of stress in the material body is called
compound stress.

If the stresses are acting in only two directions, say X & Y, it is called plane stress or two
dimensional stress system.

In a two dimensional stress system, the thickness of the material body does not affect the
results. For the sake of convenience, the thickness may be taken as unity.

For the analysis of stresses on inclined planes, the following cases are being considered.

a) Direct stress condition

b) Bi-axial stress condition
c) Bi-axial and shear stresses condition.

While analyzing a stress system, the general conventions have been taken as follows:

s2
s2
Y- Face Y- Face

t
t A
X- Face X- Face
A

s1 s1
s1 s1

q B
B Y X- Face
X- Face
t t
Y
Y- Face
Y- Face
X
s2
X s2
Fig. 2.2
Fig. 2.1
Referring to Fig. 2.1 and Fig. 2.2 above, the conventions that have been taken are listed
below:

 Tensile stress is treated as positive and compressive stress is treated as negative.

 The faces perpendicular to X-axis are called X- faces and the faces perpendicular to
Y-axis are called Y-faces
 A pair of shear stresses on parallel X-faces forming a clock wise couple is treated as
positive and a pair of shear stresses on parallel X-faces forming a counter clock wise
couple is treated as negative.
 If thegiven inclined plane is assumed to be obtained by rotating the X- face in
clockwise direction(i.e., Inclined plane AB as indicated in Fig. 2.1), it is treated as
clockwise angle and if the given inclined plane is assumed to be obtained by rotating
the X- face in counter clockwise direction(i.e., Inclined plane AB as indicated in Fig.
2.2), it is treated as counter clockwise angle.
 Clockwise angle of the inclined planeis treated as positive and the counter clockwise
angle of the inclined planeis treated as negative.

Principal Planes and Principal Stresses:

Principal Planes:The planes on which there are no shear stresses, are called principal
planes. Hence, principal planes are the planes of zero shear stresses. These planes carry
only normal stresses.

Principal Stresses: The normal stresses acting on principal planes, are called principal
stresses.

Methods of determining stresses on inclined planes:

The stresses on inclined planes are determined by the following methods:

(1) Analytical Method

(2) Graphical Method(MOHR's Circle Method)
Derivation of expressions for Normal stress and Tangential stress for a member
subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular directions:
(An element subjected to Bi-axial direct stresses)

s2

ne
ed o
Pla
lin t t
Inc ngen
Ta
D
C

q
s1
Pt s1

q P1 = ( s 1 x BC x 1)
F q
A
B No
Pn Inc rma
lin l to
Y ed
Pla
ne

s2
X
P2 = ( s 2 x FB x 1)

Fig. 2.3

Figure 2.2 shows a rectangular bar ABCD of uniform cross sectional area and of unit
thickness, subjected to two mutually perpendicular direct tensile stresses σ 1 and σ2, along X
and Y coordinate axes respectively.

Let FC be the inclined section(Oblique Section) on which stresses are to be calculated. This
can be done by converting stresses σ 1(acting on face BC) and σ 2(acting on faceAB)into
equivalent forces. Then these forces will be resolved along the inclined plane FC and
perpendicular to the inclined plane FC.

Consider the forces acting on the wedge FBC,

Let 𝜃 = Angle made by the oblique section with the normal cross section BC.
σ1 = Tensile stress on faces AD and BC
σ2 = Tensile stress on faces AB and CD
P1 = Tensile force on face BC = (σ 1× Area of face BC) = (σ1× BC× 1)
P2 = Tensile force on face FB = (σ 2× Area of face FB) = (σ2× FB× 1)
The tensile forces P 1 and P2are also acting on inclined FC and each of them can be resolved
into two components i.e., one normal to the plane FC and other along the plane FC.

Let Pn = Total force normal to the section FC

 = (Component of force P 1 normal to FC + Component of force P 2 normal to FC)
= (P1 Cos𝜃 + P2 Sin𝜃)
= (σ1× BCCos𝜃 + σ2× FB× Sin𝜃)

σn = Normal Stress on inclined section FC

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝐶 𝑃𝑛

= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝐶 (𝐹𝐶 × 1)

(σ1× BC Cos𝜃 + σ2× FB × Sin𝜃 )

=
𝐹𝐶
𝐵𝐶 𝐹𝐵
= σ1( ) Cos𝜃 + σ2( ) Sin𝜃
𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐶
= σ1 (Cos𝜃 )Cos𝜃 + σ2 (Sin𝜃 )Sin𝜃
𝐵𝐶 𝐹𝐵
[∵In right angled triangle FBC, ( ) = Cos𝜃&( ) = Sin𝜃 ]
𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐶

= σ1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + σ2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
(1+ cos 2𝜃 ) (1− cos 2𝜃 )
= σ1[ ] + σ2[ ]
2 2
(1 + cos 2𝜃) (1 − cos 2𝜃)
(∵ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = [ ] and 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = [ ])
2 2

𝜎1 𝜎1 cos 2𝜃 𝜎2 𝜎2 cos 2𝜃
= + + -
2 2 2 2

𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟐 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐
∴ Normal Stress on inclined plane, σn = ( )+( ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽---- (1)
𝟐 𝟐

Let Pt = Total force along the section FC (or tangent to the section FC)
= (Component of force P 1 tangent to FC + Component of force P 2 tangent to FC)
= (P1 Sin𝜃 - P2 Cos𝜃)
= (σ1× BCsin𝜃 - σ2× FB × Cos𝜃)

σt = Tangential Stress (or Shear stress) on inclined section FC

 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝐶 𝑃𝑡
= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝐶 (𝐹𝐶 × 1)

(σ1× BC sin𝜃 − σ2× FB × Cos𝜃 )

=
𝐹𝐶
𝐵𝐶 𝐹𝐵
= σ1( ) Sin𝜃- σ2( )Cos𝜃
𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐶
= σ1 (Cos𝜃 )Sin𝜃-σ2 (Sin𝜃 )Cos𝜃
𝐵𝐶 𝐹𝐵
[ ∵In right angled triangle FBC, ( ) = Cos𝜃&( ) = Sin𝜃 ]
𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐶

= (σ1 -σ2 )Cos𝜃 Sin𝜃

Multiplying and dividing by 2, we get
𝜎1 −𝜎2
σt = ( )2Cos𝜃 Sin𝜃 But 2Cos𝜃 Sin𝜃 = Sin2𝜃
2

𝛔𝟏 −𝛔𝟐
∴ Tangential Stress, σt= ( ) 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽---------- (2)
𝟐

D C

s
t
sR
f st
sn
A F B

Fig. 2.4

The resultant stresson inclined section FC, is given by

σR = √(𝜎𝑛2 + 𝜎𝑡2 ) ------------- (3)

The resultant stress σR, on inclined plane FC, is represented in Fig. 2.4

Obliquity:The angle made by the resultant stress σ R with the normal of the inclined plane, is
known as obliquity. It is denoted by ∅.
 𝜎𝑡
Referring to fig. 2.4, mathematically, tan ∅ =( )
𝜎𝑛

−1 ( 𝜎𝑡 )
∴ Obliquity, ∅ = tan ------------ (4)
𝜎𝑛

Maximum Shear Stress:

σ1 −σ2
The shear stress or tangential stressis given by σt= ( ) Sin 2𝜃as given by
2
equation(2).
The shear stress, σt will be maximum when Sin 2𝜃= 1 or2𝜃= 90° or 270°

Or 𝜃= 45° or 135°

𝛔𝟏−𝛔𝟐
∴The maximum shear stress, (𝛔𝐭 )𝐦𝐚𝐱=± ( 𝟐
)---------(5)

(∵Sin 90= 1 & Sin 270= -1)

Plane of Maximum Shear stress

Plane of Maximum Shear stress

D C D C

45°
°
13
5

A B A B
Fig. 2.5a
Fig. 2.5b

The first plane of maximum shear stress will be at an angle of 45° and the second plane of
maximum shear stress will be at an angle of 135° with the plane BC (at any point on plane
BC) in such a way that the planes of maximum shear lie within the material as shown in the
figures 2.5a and 2.5b.
Hence the planes, which are at an angle of 45° and 135° with the normal cross section BC
carry the maximum shear stress.
The relationships given by equations (1) to (5) also hold good when one or both the stresses
are compressive.
Problems onNormal stress and Tangential stress for a member subjected to direct
stresses in two mutually perpendicular directions:
(Members subjected to Bi-axial direct stresses)

PB. NO. 1:The tensile stresses at point across two mutually perpendicular planes are
120N/mm2 and 60N/mm2 . Determine the normal, tangential(Shear stress) and resultant
stress on a plane inclined at 30° to the axis of minor stress. Also find the obliquity and the
maximum shear stress.

Data: σ1 = 120N/mm2, σ2 = 60N/mm2 and Angle of the inclined plane, 𝜃= 30° The inclined
plane makes an angle of 30° with the axis of minor stress i.e, with the stress of 60 N/mm 2 in
the vertical direction.(The given inclined plane is assumed to be obtained by rotating the X -
face in clockwise direction. Hence 𝜃is positive as per the sign conventions)

Solution:
The stress diagram for the member subjected to the tensile stresses of 120N/mm2 and
60N/mm2 on two mutually perpendicular planes, may be represented as shown in
Fig. PB. No. 1 below:

60 N/mm2

120 N/mm2 30° 120 N/mm2

30°

60 N/mm 2

Fig. PB. NO. 1

Important Note:
 The stress which is greater in magnitude may be treated as the major stress σ1 and
the stress which is smaller in magnitude may be treated as minor stress σ 2. The stress
acting along X-axis (or the stress in horizontal direction) is to be treated as σ 1 and the
stress acting along Y- axis(or the stress in horizontal direction) is to be treated as σ2.
 The angle of the inclined plane 𝜃 should be always considered with respect to the X-
face i.e., Vertical face.
 If the inclined plane is assumed to be obtained by rotating the X-face in the clock wise
direction, 𝜃is to be considered as positive and if the inclined plane is assumed to be
obtained by rotating the X- Face in the counter clock wise direction, 𝜃 is to be
considered as negative.
(a) Normal Stress:

We have, for a member subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular

directions,

𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟐 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐
Normal Stress on inclined plane, σn = ( )+( ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽
𝟐 𝟐

Substituting for all the values, we get

120+ 60 120 − 60
σn =( )+( ) cos (2 × 30)
2 2

Or σn = 105 N/mm2

(a) Tangential Stress (Shear stress):

We have, for a member subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular

directions,

σ1 −σ2
Tangential Stress, σt= ( ) Sin 2𝜃
2

Substituting for all the values, we get

120 − 60
σt=( ) Sin(2 × 30)
2

Or σt= 25.98 N/mm2

(c) Resultant Stress:

We have, for a member subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular

directions,

The resultant stress, σR = √(𝜎𝑛2 + 𝜎𝑡2 )

Substituting for all the values, we get

σR = √(105)2 + (25.98)2

Or σR = 108.16 N/mm2
(d) Obliquity:

We have, for a member subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular

directions,

𝜎𝑡
Obliquity, ∅ = tan −1 ( )
𝜎𝑛

Substituting for all the values, we get

25.98
Obliquity, ∅ = tan−1 ( )
105

Or Obliquity, ∅ = 13.897 degrees

(e) Maximum shear stress:

We have, for a member subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular

directions,

σ1 −σ2
The maximum shear stress, (σt )max = ( )
2

Substituting for all the values, we get

120 − 60
(σt )max = ( )
2

Or The maximum shear stress(𝛔𝐭 )𝐦𝐚𝐱= 30 N/mm2

PB. NO. 2:At a point in a strained material, the stresses are 200 N/mm 2 (Tensile) and 100
N/mm2 (Compressive). Determine the normal stress, shear stress(Tangential stress) and
resultant stress in magnitude and direction(Obliquity) on a plane inclined at 60° to the axis of
major stress. also determine the maximum intensity of the shear stress in the material at that
point.
Data:σ1 = 200N/mm2, σ2 = -100N/mm2, Angle of the inclined plane, 𝜽= 30°(i.e., w.r.t the
X- face or vertical face) The inclined plane makes an angle of 60° with the axis of major
stress i.e, with the stress of 200 N/mm2 in the horizontal direction. The given inclined plane is
assumed to be obtained by rotating the X- face in clockwise direction by an angle of 30°.
hence 𝜃= 30° andis positive as per the sign conventions)
Solution:

The stress diagram for the member subjected to the tensile stress of 200N/mm2 and
compressive stress of 100N/mm2 on two mutually perpendicular planes, may be represented
as shown in Fig. PB. No. 2 below:

2
100 N/mm

200 N/mm
2 200 N/mm2

60°

100 N/mm2

Fig. PB. NO. 2

(a) Normal Stress:

We have, for a member subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular

directions,

𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟐 𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐
Normal Stress on inclined plane, σn = ( )+( ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽
𝟐 𝟐

Substituting for all the values, we get

200 − 100 200 + 100

σn =( )+( ) cos (2 × 30)
2 2

Or σn = 125 N/mm2

(a) Tangential Stress (Shear stress):

We have, for a member subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular

directions,

σ1 − σ2
Tangential Stress, σt= ( ) Sin 2𝜃
2
 Substituting for all the values, we get

200 + 100
σt=( ) Sin(2 × 30)
2

Or σt= 129.9 N/mm2

(c) Resultant Stress: (Magnitude)

We have, for a member subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular

directions,

The resultant stress, σR = √(𝜎𝑛2 + 𝜎𝑡2 )

Substituting for all the values, we get

σR = √(125)2 + (129.9)2

Or σR = 180.27 N/mm2

(d) Obliquity:(Direction of resultant stress)

We have, for a member subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular

directions,

𝜎𝑡
Obliquity, ∅ = tan −1 ( )
𝜎𝑛

Substituting for all the values, we get

129.9
Obliquity, ∅ = tan−1 ( )
125

Or Obliquity, ∅ = 46.1233 degrees

(e) Maximum shear stress:

We have, for a member subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular

directions,
 σ1 − σ2
The maximum shear stress, (σt )max = ( 2
)
Substituting for all the values, we get

200 + 100
(σt )max = ( )
2

Or The maximum shear stress(𝛔𝐭 )𝐦𝐚𝐱= 150 N/mm2

PB. NO. 3: At a point in a strained material, the principal tensile stresses across two
perpendicular planes, are 80 N/mm2 and 40 N/mm2. Determine the normal stress, shear
stress (Tangential stress) and resultant stress in magnitude and direction(Obliquity) on a
plane inclined at 20° with the major principal plane. Also determine the maximum intensity of
the shear stress in the material at that point.

Data: σ1 = 80N/mm2, σ2 = 40N/mm2 , Angle of the inclined plane, 𝜽= 20° (The plane is
inclined at 20° with the major principal plane i.e., X- face or the plane on which the greater
magnitude stress of 80 N/mm2 is acting. The inclined plane is assumed to be obtained by
rotating the X-Face through 20° in clock wise direction)

Answers: σn = 75.32 N/mm2,σt= 12.856 N/mm2, σR = 76.4 N/mm2,

Obliquity, ∅ = 9.6814 degrees and (𝛔𝐭 )𝐦𝐚𝐱= 20 N/mm2

PB. NO. 4: At a point in a strained material the principal stresses across two perpendicular
planes,are 100 N/mm2 (Tensile)and 60 N/mm2 (Compressive). Determine the normal stress,
shear stress (Tangential stress) and resultant stress in magnitude and direction (Obliquity)
on a plane inclined at 50° with the axis of major principal stress. Also determine the
maximum intensity of the shear stress in the material at that point.

Data: σ1 = 100N/mm2, σ2 = - 60N/mm2, Angle of the inclined plane, 𝜽= 40° (The inclined
plane makes an angle of 50° with the axis of major principal stress i.e, with the stress of
100 N/mm2 in the horizontal direction. The given inclined plane is assumed to be obtained by
rotating the X- face in clockwise direction by an angle of 40°. Hence 𝜃= 40° andis positive as
per the sign conventions)

Answers: σn = 33.89 N/mm2,σt= 78.785 N/mm2, σR = 85.765 N/mm2,

and(𝛔𝐭 )𝐦𝐚𝐱= 80 N/mm2
Derivation of expressions for Normal stress and Tangential stress for a member
subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular directions accompanied by
a simple shear stress:
(An element subjected to Bi-axial direct stress accompanied by shear stress)

s2

t
en

t
ng

en
ng
Ta

Ta
t D C Q
C 1 Si
t D nq

q
Q1

os
q

1C
q
s1

Q
Pt
s1 P1
q
P1 q
q

q
in
No
q
t rm

2S
A F al

Q
Y A q B
B P FQ Q2
t n No
rm
2C
os P2

t
q

en
al

ng
Ta
X
s2

Fig. 2.6a P2 Fig. 2.6b

Figure 2.6a shows a rectangular bar ABCD of uniform cross sectional area and of unit
thickness subjected to;
(i) Tensile stress σ1 on faces BC & AD
(ii) Tensile stress σ2 on faces AB & CD
(iii) A simple shear stress𝜏on faces BC & AD accompanied by an equal and
compensating shear stress 𝜏on faces AB & CD.

Let FC be the inclined section (Oblique Section) on which stresses are to be calculated. This
can be done by converting stresses σ1 (acting on face BC), σ 2 (acting on face AB), and
shear stress 𝜏 into equivalent forces. Then these forces will be resolved along the inclined
plane FC and perpendicular to the inclined plane FC.

The shear forces Q1& Q2 , their components along the inclined plane FC and perpendicular to
the inclined plane FC are represented in Fig. 2.6b

Consider the forces acting on the wedge FBC,

Let 𝜃 = Angle made by the oblique section with the normal cross section BC.
P1 = Tensile force on face BC = (σ1× Area of face BC) = (σ1× BC× 1) = (σ1× BC)
P2 = Tensile force on face FB = (σ 2× Area of face FB) = (σ2× FB× 1) = (σ2× FB)
Q1 = Shear force on face BC = (𝜏 × Area of face BC) = (𝜏 ×BC× 1) = (𝜏 × BC)

Q2 = Shear force on face FB = (𝜏 × Area of face FB) = (𝜏 × FB × 1) = (𝜏 × FB)

 Let Pn = Total force normal to the section FC
= Sum of the components of the forces P 1, P2, Q1 and Q2 along the normal to
inclined section FC
= (P1 Cos𝜃 + P2 Sin𝜃 + Q1Sin𝜃 + Q2 Cos𝜃)
= (σ1× BCCos𝜃 + σ2× FB× Sin𝜃 + 𝜏 × BC Sin𝜃 + 𝜏 × FBCos𝜃)

σn = Normal Stress on inclined section FC

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝐶 𝑃𝑛

= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝐶 (𝐹𝐶 × 1)

(σ1× BC Cos𝜃 + σ2× FB× Sin𝜃 + 𝜏× BC Sin𝜃 + 𝜏× FB Cos𝜃)

=
𝐹𝐶
𝐵𝐶 𝐹𝐵
= σ1( ) Cos𝜃 + σ2( ) Sin𝜃 + 𝜏 (𝐵𝐶) Sin𝜃 + 𝜏 ( 𝐹𝐵)Cos𝜃
𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐶

= σ1 Cos𝜃 Cos𝜃 + σ2 (Sin𝜃 )Sin𝜃+ 𝜏Cos𝜃 Sin𝜃+ 𝜏 Sin𝜃 Cos𝜃

𝐵𝐶 𝐹𝐵
[ ∵In right angled triangle FBC, ( ) = Cos𝜃&( ) = Sin𝜃 ]
𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐶

= σ1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + σ2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃+ 2 𝜏Cos𝜃 Sin𝜃

(1+ cos 2𝜃 ) (1− cos 2𝜃 )
= σ1[ ] + σ2[ ]+𝜏Sin2𝜃
2 2
(1+ cos 2𝜃 ) (1− cos 2𝜃 )
(∵ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = [ 2
] , 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = [ 2
] and 2 Cos𝜃 Sin𝜃 = Sin2𝜃)

𝜎1 𝜎1 cos 2𝜃 𝜎2 𝜎2 cos 2𝜃
= + + - + 𝜏Sin2𝜃
2 2 2 2

𝜎1 + 𝜎2 𝜎1 − 𝜎2
∴Normal Stress on inclined plane, σn = ( )+( ) cos 2𝜃+𝜏 Sin2𝜃 -------(6)
2 2

Let Pt = Total force tangent to the inclined section FC

= Sum of the components of the forces P 1, P2, Q1 and Q2 tangent to inclined
section FC
= (P1 Sin𝜃 - P2 Cos𝜃 - Q1Cos𝜃 + Q2 Sin𝜃)
= (σ1× BCSin𝜃 - σ2× FB× Cos𝜃 - 𝜏 × BC Cos𝜃 + 𝜏 × FBSin𝜃)

σt = Tangential Stress on inclined section FC

 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝐶 𝑃𝑛
= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝐶 (𝐹𝐶 × 1)

(σ1× BC Sin𝜃 − σ2× FB× Cos𝜃 − 𝜏× BC Cos𝜃 + 𝜏× FB Sin𝜃)

=
𝐹𝐶
𝐵𝐶 𝐹𝐵
= σ1( ) Sin𝜃- σ2( )Cos𝜃-𝜏 (𝐵𝐶) Cos𝜃 + 𝜏 ( 𝐹𝐵)Sin𝜃
𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐶

= σ1 Cos𝜃Sin𝜃- σ2Sin𝜃Cos𝜃- 𝜏 Cos𝜃Cos𝜃 + 𝜏 Sin𝜃Sin𝜃

𝐵𝐶 𝐹𝐵
[ ∵In right angled triangle FBC, ( ) = Cos𝜃&( ) = Sin𝜃 ]
𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐶

= (σ1- σ2)Cos𝜃 Sin𝜃- 𝜏𝐶𝑜𝑠2 𝜃+ 𝜏 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

𝜎1 − 𝜎2
= ( )2 Cos𝜃 Sin𝜃 - 𝜏(𝐶𝑜𝑠2𝜃-𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)
2
𝜎1 − 𝜎2
=( )Sin2𝜃 - 𝜏Cos2𝜃
2
(∵ 2 Cos𝜃 Sin𝜃 = Sin2𝜃 and (𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) = Cos2𝜃)

𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐
∴Tangential Stress on inclined plane, σt = ( )Sin2𝜽 - 𝝉Cos2𝜽 ------- (7)
𝟐

Resultant Stress:

We know that the normal stress on the incline plane for a member subjected to bi-axial direct
stress accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

The resultant stress, σR = √(𝝈𝟐𝒏 + 𝝈𝟐𝒕 )

Expressions for Major (Greatest) Principal Stress and Minor (Smallest) Principal
Stress:

Major (Greatest) Principal Stress: (Maximum Normal stress):

The Major Principal stress is given by

𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟐
)+ √[(𝝈𝟏−𝟐 𝝈𝟐)
𝟐
(𝝈)𝑴𝒂𝒋𝒐𝒓 = ( + 𝝉𝟐 ] ----------- (8)
𝟐
Minor (Smallest)Principal Stress:(Minimum Normal stress):

The Minor Principal stress is given by

𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟐
)-√ [(𝝈𝟏−𝟐 𝝈𝟐)
𝟐
(𝝈)𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = ( + 𝝉𝟐 ] ---------- (9)
𝟐

Location (Direction)of Major and Minor Principal Planes:

The location/direction of Principal Planes (Major & Minor) or the position of Principal planes
may be obtained by using the following relationship:

𝟐𝝉
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟐𝜽 = ------------ (10)
(𝝈𝟏 − 𝝈𝟐 )

The position/location/direction of Principal planes is obtained by finding the two values of 𝜃

from the equation (10). Those two values of 𝜃 correspond to the location/position of the
Major & Minor principal planes. Also the position/location of Major & Minor principal planes
differ by 90° as indicated in the Fig. 2.7, since the major & minor principal planes will be
mutually perpendicular to each other.
 s2

t C
s
t D mi
no
r
q1

jor
ma
s
s1 Principal
Planes
s1
q2

jor
ma
s

s
t
mi
no
r

Y A B
t

X s2

Fig. 2.7

Expression for Maximum Shear Stress:

The maximum Shear Stress may be found out using one of the following relationships:

𝝈 − 𝝈𝟐 𝟐
The maximum shear Stress, (𝝈𝒕 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √[( 𝟏 ) + 𝝉𝟐 ] ---------- (11)
𝟐

OR

𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒋𝒐𝒓 − 𝝈𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓
The maximum shear Stress, (𝝈𝒕 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = [ ] ----------- (12)
𝟐
Location (Direction) of Planes of Maximum shear Stress:

The location/direction/position Planes of Maximum shear Stress may be obtained by using

the following relationship:

(𝝈𝟐 − 𝝈𝟏 )
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟐𝜽 = ------------ (13)
𝟐𝝉

The position/location/direction of Planes of Maximum shear Stress is obtained by finding the

two values of 𝜃 from the equation (13). Those two values of 𝜃 correspond to the
location/position of the two Planes of Maximum Shear Stress which differ by 90° as
indicated in the Fig. 2.8.

s2

t C
t D
q'1
.
ax
)m
(s
t

s1 Planes of Max.
Shear Stress
s1
q'2
.
ax
)m

t
(s
t

Y A B
t
q'2 = (q'1+ 90° )
X s2

Fig. 2.8

Note: The equations from (6) to (13) hold good when one or both the stresses are
compressive.
PB. NO. 5:At a point in a strained material, the stresses acting are shown in the figure below.
Determine: (a) Normal Stress (b) Tangential(Shear) stress (c) Resultant Stress (d) Major
principal stress (e) Minor principal stress (f) Location of Major & Minor Principal planes(g)
Maximum shear stress (h) Location of planes of maximum shear stress.
Also sketch the graphical representation of the planes of major stress, minor stress and
maximum shear stress.

40 N/mm2

60 N/mm 2
45° 2
2
80 N/mm 80 N/mm

60 N/mm 2

40 N/mm 2

Fig.(i) PB. NO. 5

Data: σ1 = 80N/mm2, σ2 = 40N/mm2 , Angle of the inclined plane, 𝜽= 45°(The inclined

plane makes an angle of 45° with the axis of minor stress i.e, with the stress of 40 N/mm 2 in
the vertical direction. Therefore, the given inclined plane may be assumed to be obtained by
rotating the X-face in clockwise direction by an angle of 45°. Hence 𝜃= 45° and is positive as
per the sign conventions) and shear stress 𝝉= 60 N/mm2 (Shear stress 𝝉 is positive since
the pair of shear stress on X-faces produces clockwise rotation about the X-face)

Solution:

Analytical Method:

(a) Normal Stress:

We know that the normal stress on the incline plane for a member subjected to bi-axial direct
stress accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

𝜎1 + 𝜎2 𝜎1 − 𝜎2
Normal Stress, σn = ( )+ ( ) cos 2𝜃+𝜏 Sin2𝜃
2 2

Substituting for all the values, we get

80 + 40 80− 40
Normal Stress, σn= ( )+( ) cos(2 × 45)+60 Sin(2 × 45)
2 2

Or Normal Stress, σn= 120 N/mm2

(b) Tangential or Shear stress:

We know that the tangential/shear stress on the incline plane for a member subjected to bi-
axial direct stress accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

𝜎1 − 𝜎2
Tangential Stress, σt = ( )Sin2𝜃 - 𝜏Cos2𝜃
2
Substituting for all the values, we get

80− 40
Tangential Stress, σt =( )Sin(2 × 45) - 60 cos(2 × 45)
2

Or Tangential Stress, σt = 20 N/mm2

(c) Resultant Stress:

We know that the resultant stress on the incline plane for a member subjected to bi-axial
direct stress accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

The resultant stress, σR = √(𝜎𝑛2 + 𝜎𝑡2 )

Substituting for all the values, we get

σR = √(120)2 + (20)2

Or σR = 121.655 N/mm2

(d) Major Principal Stress:

We know that the major principal stress for a member subjected to bi-axial direct stress
accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

𝜎1 + 𝜎2
)+ √ [(𝜎1−2 𝜎2)
2
(𝜎)𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 = ( + 𝜏 2]
2

Substituting for all the values, we get

80 + 40 2
Major Principal stress, (𝜎)𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 = (
2
)+ √[(80−2 40) + (60)2 ]

Or Major Principal stress, (𝝈)𝑴𝒂𝒋𝒐𝒓 = 123.246 N/mm2 (Tensile)

(e) Minor Principal Stress:

We know that the minor principal stress for a member subjected to bi-axial direct stress
accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

𝜎1 + 𝜎2
)-√ [(𝜎1−2 𝜎2)
2
(𝜎)𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = ( + 𝜏 2]
2
Substituting for all the values, we get

80 + 40 2
Minor Principal stress, (𝜎)𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = ( )-√[(80−2 40) + (60)2 ]
2

Or Minor Principal stress, (𝝈)𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = - 3.246N/mm2(Compressive)

(f) Location/direction/position of Major & Minor principal planes:

The location/direction of Principal Planes (Major & Minor) or the position of Principal planes
may be obtained by using the following relationship:

2𝜏
tan 2𝜃 =
(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )

2𝜏
Or 2𝜃 = tan−1 [ ]
(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )

Substituting for all the values, we get

2×60
= tan −1 [( ]
80− 40)

Or 2𝜃= 71.565°

Or 𝜃= 35.782°

∴ 𝜽𝟏 = Location of major principal plane = 35.782° and

𝜽𝟐= Location of minor principal plane = (𝜽𝟏 + 90°)

= (𝟑𝟓. 𝟕𝟖𝟐° + 𝟗𝟎 °) = 125.782°

The location of major & minor principal planes, is represented graphically in Fig.(ii) PB.NO. 5
(f) Maximum shear stress:

The maximum Shear Stress may be found out using the following relationship:

𝜎 − 𝜎2 2
The maximum shear Stress, (𝜎𝑡 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √[( 1 ) + 𝜏 2]
2

2
80− 40
The maximum shear Stress, (𝜎𝑡 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √[( ) + (60)2 ]
2

Or The maximum shear Stress, (𝝈𝒕 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 63.245 N/mm2

(h) Location of planes of maximum shear stress:

The location/direction/position Planes of Maximum shear Stress may be obtained by using

the following relationship:

(𝜎2 − 𝜎1 )
tan 2𝜃 =
2𝜏
(𝜎2− 𝜎1)
Or 2𝜃 = tan−1 [ 2𝜏
]

Substituting for all the values, we get

(40− 80)
2𝜃= tan−1 [ 2 × 60 ]

= -18.417°

Or 𝜃= - 9.208°

∴The first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜽′𝟏 = - 9.208° and

′ ′
The first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜽𝟐 = (𝜽𝟏+ 90) = (- 9.208°+ 90) = 80.791°

The location of planes of maximum shear stress, is represented graphically in

Fig.(iii) PB.NO. 5
Graphical representation of position/location of major & minor principal stresses:

2
40 N/mm

60 N/mm2
3.2
C
46
D N/

mm 2
mm 2

q1

N/
46
3.2
2 2

12
80 N/mm Principal 80 N/mm
Planes
q2

mm 2
N/
3.2
46

46
N/

3.2
A mm 2
B

12
Y 60 N/mm2

q1 = 35.782 °
2
X 40 N/mm q 2 = 125.782°

Fig(ii) PB. NO. 5.

Graphical representation of position/location of planes of maximum shear stress:

2
40 N/mm

60 N/mm2
C
D (s )
t
ma q'2
.
ax

x.
)m
(s
t

2 2
80 N/mm Planes of Max.
Shear Stress
q'1 80 N/mm

(s )
.
ax

t
)m

ma
(s

A
t

x.
B
Y 60 N/mm2

q'1 = - 9.208°
2
X 40 N/mm q'2 = 80.791°
(st)max.= 63.245 N/mm
2
Fig(iii). PB. NO. 5
PB. NO. 6: At a point in a strained material, the stress condition is as shown in the
Fig.(i) PB. NO. 6.
Find: (i) The normal & shear stress on the inclined plane AB
(ii) Principal stresses and Principal planes (i.e., Major & Minor principal planes
and their locations).
(iii) Maximum Shear stress & its locations.
Also sketch the graphical representation of the planes of major stress, minor stress and
maximum shear stress.
2
120 N/mm

2
40 N/mm
A
2
30 N/mm
2 30 N/mm

30°
B
40 N/mm 2

2
120 N/mm

Fig.(i) PB. NO. 6

Data: σ1 = - 30N/mm2 , σ2 = 120N/mm2 , Angle of the inclined plane, 𝜽= 60°(The inclined

plane makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal. Therefore, the given inclined plane may be
assumed to be obtained by rotating the X-face in clockwise direction by an angle of 60°.
Hence 𝜃= 60° and is positive as per the sign conventions) and shear stress 𝝉= 40N/mm2
(Shear stress 𝝉 is positive since the pair of shear stress on X-faces produces clockwise
rotation about the X-face)

Solution:

Analytical Method:

(a) Normal Stress:

We know that the normal stress on the incline plane for a member subjected to bi-axial direct
stress accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

𝜎1 + 𝜎2 𝜎1 − 𝜎2
Normal Stress, σn = ( )+( ) cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏 Sin2𝜃
2 2

Substituting for all the values, we get

−30+120 −30 −120

Normal Stress, σn= ( )+( ) cos(2 × 60)+40 Sin(2 × 60)
2 2
Or Normal Stress, σn= 117.141 N/mm2
(b) Tangential or Shear stress:

We know that the tangential/shear stress on the incline plane for a member subjected to bi-
axial direct stress accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

𝜎1 − 𝜎2
Tangential Stress, σt = ( )Sin2𝜃 - 𝜏Cos2𝜃
2
Substituting for all the values, we get

−30 −120
Tangential Stress, σt =( )Sin(2 × 60) - 40 cos(2 × 45)
2

Or Tangential Stress, σt = - 44.95 N/mm2

(c) Major Principal Stress:

We know that the major principal stress for a member subjected to bi-axial direct stress
accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

𝜎1 + 𝜎2
)+ √ [(𝜎1−2 𝜎2)
2
(𝜎)𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 = ( + 𝜏 2]
2

Substituting for all the values, we get

−30 + 120 2
Major Principal Stress, (𝜎)𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 = (
2
)+ √[(−30−2 120 ) + (40)2 ]

Or Major Principal Stress, (𝝈)𝑴𝒂𝒋𝒐𝒓 = 130 N/mm2

(e) Minor Principal Stress:

We know that the minor principal stress for a member subjected to bi-axial direct stress
accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

𝜎1 + 𝜎2
)-√ [(𝜎1−2 𝜎2)
2
(𝜎)𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = ( + 𝜏 2]
2
Substituting for all the values, we get

−30+120 2
Minor Principal stress, (𝜎)𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = (
2
)-√[(−30−2 120 ) + (40)2 ]

Or Minor Principal Stress, (𝝈)𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = - 40 N/mm2

(f) Location/direction/position of Major & Minor principal planes:

The location/direction of Principal Planes (Major & Minor) or the position of Principal planes
may be obtained by using the following relationship:

2𝜏
tan 2𝜃 =
(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )

2𝜏
Or 2𝜃 = tan−1 [ ]
(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )

Substituting for all the values, we get

2 × 40
= tan −1 [( ]
−30− 120)

Or 2𝜃 = - 28.056°

Or 𝜃= - 14.028°

∴ 𝜽𝟏 = Location of major principal plane = -14.028° and

𝜽𝟐= Location of minor principal plane = (𝜽𝟏 + 90°) = (−𝟏𝟒. 𝟎𝟐𝟖° + 90°) = 75.972°

The location of major & minor principal planes, is represented graphically in Fig.(ii) PB.NO. 6

(f) Maximum shear stress:

The maximum Shear Stress may be found out using the following relationship:

𝜎 − 𝜎2 2
The maximum shear Stress, (𝜎𝑡 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √[( 1 ) + 𝜏 2]
2

2
−30− 120
The maximum shear Stress, (𝜎𝑡 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √[( ) + (40)2 ]
2

Or The maximum shear Stress, (𝝈𝒕 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 85 N/mm2

(h) Location of planes of maximum shear stress:

The location/direction/position Planes of Maximum shear Stress may be obtained by using

the following relationship:
(𝜎2 − 𝜎1 )
tan 2𝜃 =
2𝜏
 (𝜎2− 𝜎1)
Or 2𝜃= tan−1 [ 2𝜏
]

Substituting for all the values, we get

(120+ 30)
2𝜃= tan−1 [ 2× 40
]

= 61.927°

Or 𝜃= 30.963°

∴The first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜽′𝟏 = 30.963° and

′ ′
The second plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜽𝟐 = (𝜽𝟏 + 90°)
= (30.963°+ 90°) = 120.963°
The location of planes of maximum shear stress, is represented graphically in
Fig.(iii) PB.NO. 6

Graphical representation of position/location of major & minor principal stresses:

2
120 N/mm

40 N/mm2
C
13
D 0N
/m
q2
m 2
2
mm
N/

2
40

2 30 N/mm
30 N/mm Principal
Planes q1
2
mm
N/

13
40

0N
A /m
m 2 B
Y 40 N/mm2

q1 = -14.028°
2
X 120 N/mm q 2 = 75.972°

Fig(ii) PB. NO. 6.

Graphical representation of position/location of planes of maximum shear stress:

2
120 N/mm

40 N/mm2 C
D (s )
t
ma q'1

.
ax
x.

)m
(s
t
2 2
30 N/mm Planes of Max. 30 N/mm
Shear Stress

q'2
(s

.
ax
t )m

)m
(s
A

t
ax
. B
Y 40 N/mm2

q'1 = 30.963 °
°
X 120 N/mm
2 q'2 = 120.963
(st)max.= 85 N/mm2
Fig(iii). PB. NO. 6

PB. NO. 7: At a certain point in a strained material, the stresses acting are shown in
Fig(i). PB. NO. 7.
Determine : (a) Maximum and Minimum Normal stresses(or Major and Minor Principal
stresses) & locate their planes.
(b) Maximum shear stress and planes of maximum shear stress.

32 MPa
32 MPa

80 MPa

80 MPa

32 MPa

32 MPa

Fig.(i) PB. NO. 7

Data: σ1 = 80 MPa σ2 = 32 MPa, and shear stress 𝝉= 32 MPa (Shear stress 𝝉 is positive
since the pair of shear stress on X-faces produces clockwise rotation about the X-face)

Solution:

(Note: In this problem, inclined section plane is not given. Therefore, Normal Stress, σn &
Tangential Stress, σt on inclined plane does not exist.)

Analytical Method:

(a) Maximum Normal stress (or Major Principal Stress):

We know that the maximum normal stress or major principal stress for a member subjected
to bi-axial direct stress accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

𝜎1 + 𝜎2
)+ √ [(𝜎1−2 𝜎2)
2
(𝜎)𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 = ( + 𝜏 2]
2

Substituting for all the values, we get

80 + 32 2
Major Principal Stress, (𝜎)𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 = ( )+ √[(80−2 32) + (32)2 ]
2

Or Maximum Normal Stress, (𝝈)𝑴𝒂𝒋𝒐𝒓 = 96 MPa (N/mm2)

(b) Minimum Normal Stress (or Minor Principal Stress):

We know that the minimum normal stress or minor principal stress for a member subjected to
bi-axial direct stress accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

𝜎1 + 𝜎2
)-√ [(𝜎1−2 𝜎2)
2
(𝜎)𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = ( + 𝜏 2]
2
Substituting for all the values, we get

80+32 2
Minor Principal stress, (𝜎)𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = ( )-√[(80−2 32) + (32)2 ]
2

Or Minimum Normal stress, (𝝈)𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 16 MPa (N/mm2)

(c) Location/direction/position of Major & Minor principal planes:

The location/direction of Principal Planes (Major & Minor) or the position of Principal planes
may be obtained by using the following relationship:

2𝜏
tan 2𝜃 =
(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )

2𝜏
Or 2𝜃 = tan−1 [ ]
(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )

Substituting for all the values, we get

2 × 32
= tan −1 [( ]
80− 32)

Or 2𝜃 = 53.06°
Or 𝜃= 26.53°

∴ 𝜽𝟏 = Location of major principal plane = 26.53° and

𝜽𝟐= Location of minor principal plane = (𝜽𝟏 + 90°) = (26.53° + 90°) = 116.53°

The location of major & minor principal planes, is represented graphically in Fig.(ii) PB.NO. 7

(f) Maximum shear stress:

The maximum Shear Stress may be found out using the following relationship:

𝜎 − 𝜎2 2
The maximum shear Stress, (𝜎𝑡 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √[( 1 ) + 𝜏 2]
2

2
80− 32
The maximum shear Stress, (𝜎𝑡 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √[( ) + (32)2 ]
2

Or The maximum shear Stress, (𝝈𝒕 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 40 MPa (N/mm2)

(h) Location of planes of maximum shear stress:

The location/direction/position Planes of Maximum shear Stress may be obtained by using

the following relationship:
(𝜎2 − 𝜎1 )
tan 2𝜃 =
2𝜏
 (𝜎2− 𝜎1)
Or 2𝜃= tan−1 [ 2𝜏
]

Substituting for all the values, we get

(32−80)
2𝜃= tan−1 [ 2 × 32 ]

= - 36.869°

Or 𝜃= -18.434°

∴The first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜽′𝟏 = -18.434° and

′ ′
The second plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜽𝟐 = (𝜽𝟏 + 90°)
= (-18.434°+ 90°) = 71.565°
The location of planes of maximum shear stress, is represented graphically in
Fig.(iii) PB.NO. 6

Graphical representation of position/location of major & minor principal stresses:

32 MPa

32 MPa
C
D 16
MP
a
q1
a
MP
96

80 MPa Principal 80 MPa

Planes
q2
Pa
M
96

16
A MP
a B
Y 32 MPa

q1 = 26.53°
X 32 MPa q 2 = 116.53°

Fig(ii) PB. NO. 7.

Graphical representation of position/location of planes of maximum shear stress:

32 MPa

32 MPa
C
D (s
t )m
q'2

.
ax

ax
.

)m
(s
t
80 MPa Planes of Max.
Shear Stress
q'1 80 MPa

(s )

.
ax
t

)m
ma

(s
A

t
x.
B
Y 32 MPa

q'1 = - 18.434°
X 32 MPa q'2 = 71.565 °

Fig(iii). PB. NO. 7 (st)max.= 40 MPa

PB. NO. 8: A machine component is subjected to the stresses as shown in Fig(i). PB NO. 8.
Find :(a) Normal and shearing stresses on the section AB (b) Resultant stress.
(c) Major and Minor principal stress (d)Location of major & minor principal planes
(e) Maximum shear stress (f) Planes of maximum shear stress.

50 MPa

25 MPa
A
100 MPa
100 MPa
60°

B
25 MPa

50 MPa

Fig.(i) PB. NO. 8

Data: σ1 = - 100 MPa, σ2 = - 50 MPa, Angle of the inclined plane, 𝜽= - 30° (The inclined
plane makes an angle of 60° with the horizontal. Therefore, the given inclined plane may be
assumed to be obtained by rotating the X-face in counter clockwise direction by an angle of
30°. Hence 𝜃= - 30° (i.e., 𝜃 is negative) and shear stress 𝝉= - 25 MPa (Shear stress 𝝉 is
negative since the pair of shear stress on X-faces produces counter clockwise rotation about
the X-face)

Solution:

Analytical Method:

(a) (i) Normal Stress:

We know that the normal stress on the incline plane for a member subjected to bi-axial direct
stress accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

𝜎1 + 𝜎2 𝜎1 − 𝜎2
Normal Stress, σn = ( )+( ) cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏 Sin2𝜃
2 2

Substituting for all the values, we get

−100−50 −100+50
Normal Stress, σn= (
2
)+( 2
) cos(−60) + (−25) × Sin(−60)

Or Normal Stress, σn= - 65.85 MPa

(a) (ii) Shear stress or Tangential:

We know that the tangential/shear stress on the incline plane for a member subjected to bi-
axial direct stress accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

𝜎1 − 𝜎2
Tangential Stress, σt = ( )Sin2𝜃 - 𝜏Cos2𝜃
2
Substituting for all the values, we get

−100+50
Tangential Stress, σt =( )Sin(−60) - (−25 × cos(−60)
2

Or Shearing Stress, σt = - 34.15 MPa

(b) Resultant Stress:

We know that the resultant stress on the incline plane for a member subjected to bi-axial
direct stress accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by
 The resultant stress, σR = √(𝜎𝑛2 + 𝜎𝑡2 )

Substituting for all the values, we get

σR = √(−65.85)2 + (−34.15)2

Or σR = 74.18 MPa

(c)(i) Major Principal Stress:

We know that the major principal stress for a member subjected to bi-axial direct stress
accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

𝜎1 + 𝜎2
)+ √ [(𝜎1−2 𝜎2)
2
(𝜎)𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 = ( + 𝜏 2]
2

Substituting for all the values, we get

−100− 50 2
Major Principal Stress, (𝜎)𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 = (
2
)+ √[(−1002+ 50) + (−25)2 ]

Or Major Principal Stress, (𝝈)𝑴𝒂𝒋𝒐𝒓 = - 40 MPa(Compressive)

(c)(ii) Minor Principal Stress:

We know that the minor principal stress for a member subjected to bi-axial direct stress
accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

𝜎1 + 𝜎2
)-√ [(𝜎1−2 𝜎2)
2
(𝜎)𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = ( + 𝜏 2]
2
Substituting for all the values, we get

−100− 50 2
Minor Principal stress, (𝜎)𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = (
2
) - √[(−1002+ 50 ) + (−25)2 ]

Or Minor Principal Stress, (𝝈)𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = - 110 MPa (Compressive)

(d) Location/direction/position of Major & Minor principal planes:

The location/direction of Principal Planes (Major & Minor) or the position of Principal planes
may be obtained by using the following relationship:
 2𝜏
tan 2𝜃 =
(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )

2𝜏
Or 2𝜃 = tan−1 [ ]
(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )

Substituting for all the values, we get

2 ×(−25)
= tan −1 [( ]
−100+ 50)

Or 2𝜃 = 45°

Or 𝜃= 22.5°

∴ 𝜽𝟏 = Location of major principal plane = 22.5° and

𝜽𝟐= Location of minor principal plane = (𝜽𝟏 + 90°) = (22.5° + 90°) = 112.5°

The location of major & minor principal planes, is represented graphically in Fig.(ii) PB.NO. 8

(e) Maximum shear stress:

The maximum Shear Stress may be found out using the following relationship:

𝜎 − 𝜎2 2
The maximum shear Stress, (𝜎𝑡 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √[( 1 ) + 𝜏 2]
2

2
−100+50
The maximum shear Stress, (𝜎𝑡 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √[( ) + (−25)2 ]
2

Or The maximum shear Stress, (𝝈𝒕 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 35.35 MPa

(f) Location of planes of maximum shear stress:

The location/direction/position Planes of Maximum shear Stress may be obtained by using

the following relationship:
(𝜎2 − 𝜎1 )
tan 2𝜃 =
2𝜏
(𝜎2− 𝜎1)
Or 2𝜃= tan−1 [ 2𝜏
]
 Substituting for all the values, we get

(−50 + 100)
2𝜃= tan−1 [ 2 × (−25) ]

= - 45°

Or 𝜃= - 22.5°

∴The first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜽′𝟏 = - 22.5° and

′ ′
The second plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜽𝟐 = (𝜽𝟏 + 90°)
= (- 22.5° + 90°) = 67.5°

The location of planes of maximum shear stress, is represented graphically in

Fig.(iii) PB.NO. 8

Graphical representation of position/location of major & minor principal stresses:

50 MPa

25 MPa
11
0M
Pa

q1
MPa
40

100 MPa Principal 100 MPa

Planes
q2
a
MP

11
40

0M
Pa

Y 25 MPa

50 MPa q1 = 22.5 °
X q 2 = 112.5°
Fig(ii) PB. NO. 8
Graphical representation of position/location of planes of maximum shear stress:

50 MPa

25 MPa

(s
t )m q'2

.
ax

ax
.

)m
(s
t
100 MPa 100 MPa
Planes of Max.
Shear Stress q'1

.
(s

ax
)m
t )m

(s
t
ax
.

Y 25 MPa

50 MPa q'1 = - 22.5°

X q'2 = 67.5 °
Fig(iii) PB. NO. 8 (st)max.= 35.35 MPa

PB. NO. 9: At a certain point in a strained material, the stresses acting are shown in
Fig(i). PB. NO. 9
Determine : (a) Principal stresses and their locations.(i.e., Major & Minor principal stresses
and their locations)
(b) Maximum shear stress and planes of maximum shear stress.

300 MPa

200 MPa

400 MPa 400 MPa

200 MPa

300 MPa

Fig.(i) PB. NO. 9

Data: σ1 = 400 MPa σ2 = 300 MPa, and shear stress 𝝉 = - 200 MPa (Shear stress 𝝉 is
negative since the pair of shear stress on X-faces produces counter clockwise rotation about
the X-face)

Solution:

(Note: In this problem, inclined section plane is not given. Therefore, Normal Stress, σn &
Tangential Stress, σt on inclined plane does not exist.)

Analytical Method:

(a) Major Principal Stress: (or Maximum Normal stress):

We know that the maximum normal stress or major principal stress for a member subjected
to bi-axial direct stress accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

𝜎1 + 𝜎2
)+ √ [(𝜎1−2 𝜎2)
2
(𝜎)𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 = ( + 𝜏 2]
2

Substituting for all the values, we get

400 + 300 2
Major Principal Stress, (𝜎)𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 = (
2
)+ √[(400−2 300 ) + (−200)2 ]

Or Major Principal Stress, (𝝈)𝑴𝒂𝒋𝒐𝒓 = 555 MPa (N/mm2)

(b) Minor Principal Stress:(or Minimum Normal Stress):

We know that the minimum normal stress or minor principal stress for a member subjected to
bi-axial direct stress accompanied by simple shear stress, is given by

𝜎1 + 𝜎2
)-√ [(𝜎1−2 𝜎2)
2
(𝜎)𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = ( + 𝜏 2]
2
Substituting for all the values, we get

400+300 2
Minor Principal stress, (𝜎)𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = (
2
)-√[(400−2 300 ) + (−200)2 ]

Or Minor Principal stress, (𝝈)𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 = 145 MPa (N/mm2)

(c) Location/direction/position of Major & Minor principal planes:

The location/direction of Principal Planes (Major & Minor) or the position of Principal planes
may be obtained by using the following relationship:

2𝜏
tan 2𝜃 =
(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )

2𝜏
Or 2𝜃 = tan−1 [ ]
(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )

Substituting for all the values, we get

2 ×(−200)
= tan −1 [( ]
400− 300)

Or 2𝜃 = - 75.96°
Or 𝜃= - 37.98°

∴ 𝜽𝟏 = Location of major principal plane = - 37.98° and

𝜽𝟐= Location of minor principal plane = (𝜽𝟏 + 90°) = (- 37.98° + 90°) = 52.018°

The location of major & minor principal planes, is represented graphically in Fig.(ii) PB.NO. 9

(d) Maximum shear stress:

The maximum Shear Stress may be found out using the following relationship:

𝜎 − 𝜎2 2
The maximum shear Stress, (𝜎𝑡 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √[( 1 ) + 𝜏 2]
2

2
400− 300
The maximum shear Stress, (𝜎𝑡 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √[( ) + (−200)2 ]
2

Or The maximum shear Stress, (𝝈𝒕 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 205 MPa (N/mm2)

(e) Location of planes of maximum shear stress:

The location/direction/position Planes of Maximum shear Stress may be obtained by using

the following relationship:
(𝜎2 − 𝜎1 )
tan 2𝜃 =
2𝜏
 (𝜎2− 𝜎1)
Or 2𝜃= tan−1 [ 2𝜏
]

Substituting for all the values, we get

(300−400)
2𝜃= tan−1 [ 2 ×(−200) ]

= 14.036°

Or 𝜃= 7.018°

∴The first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜽′𝟏 = 7.018° and

′ ′
The second plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜽𝟐 = (𝜽𝟏 + 90°)
= (7.018°+ 90°) = 97.018°
The location of planes of maximum shear stress, is represented graphically in
Fig.(iii) PB.NO. 9

Graphical representation of position/location of major & minor principal stresses:

300 MPa

200 MPa
55
5M
Pa
q2
Pa
5M
14

400 MPa
Principal
Planes
q1
400 MPa
Pa
5M

55
14

5M
Pa

Y 200 MPa

300 MPa
q1 = - 37.98°
X q 2 = 52.018°

Fig(ii) PB. NO. 9.

Graphical representation of position/location of planes of maximum shear stress:

300 MPa

200 MPa
(s
t )m q'1

.
ax

ax
.

)m
400 MPa

(s
t
Planes of Max.
Shear Stress
400 MPa
q'2

.
(s )

ax
)m
t

(s
t
ma
x.

Y 200 MPa

300 MPa
q'1 = 7.018 °
°
X q'2 = 97.018

Fig(iii) PB. NO. 9. (st)max.= 205 MPa

GRAPHICAL METHOD ( Mohr's Circle Method Or Mohr's Stress Circle Method):

A simple method of solving problems on analysis of stresses on inclined planes or compound

stress system was introduced by the German engineer Otto Mohr in 1882.
Mohr's Circle is a graphical method of finding normal, tangential and resultant stresses on
inclined planes (Oblique Planes).

Mohr's Circle is drawn for the following cases:

(a) A member subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular directions.

(b) A member subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular directions
accompanied by a simple shear stress.

Note: The step-by-step procedure for drawing Mohr's Circle diagram, given in the
solution of the problems, is only for your reference. The procedure for drawing Mohr's
Circle diagram need not be given as a part of the solution, unless otherwise it is asked
in the problem.

(a) A member subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular directions:

PB. NO. 10: A point in a strained material is subjected to tensile stresses of 500 N/mm 2 and
300 N/mm2 on two mutually perpendicular directions as shown in Fig.(i) PB. NO.10. calculate
normal, tangential and resultant stresses on a plane making an angle of 30° with the axis of
minor stress. Also find the obliquity and the maximum shear stress. Use Mohr's Circle
method.

2
300 N/mm

500 N/mm
2 500 N/mm2

30°

2
300 N/mm

Fig.(i) PB. NO. 10

Data: σ1 = 500N/mm2(Tensile), σ2 = 300N/mm2(Tensile) and Angle of the inclined plane,

𝜃 = 30°. The inclined plane makes an angle of 30° with the axis of minor stress i.e, with the
stress of 300 N/mm2 in the vertical direction.(The given inclined plane is assumed to be
obtained by rotating the X- face in clockwise direction by 30°. Hence 𝜃 is positive as per the
sign conventions)
Solution: Selecting any convenient scale, say, 1 cm = 50 N/mm2 for the stresses, we get

500 300
σ1 = 500 N/mm2 = ( ) = 10 cm & σ2 = 300 N/mm2 = ( ) = 6 cm
50 50

Step-by-step procedure for drawing Mohr's Circle:

Step 1: From any point A draw a horizontal line and mark off AB = σ 1 = 500 N/mm2 = 10 cm
and AC = σ2 = 300 N/mm2 = 6 cm towards right of A (Tensile stress is to be marked off
towards right of A and compressive stress is to be marked off toward left of A).

Step 2: With BC as diameter, describe a circle. i.e., with midpoint of BC as center & BC as
diameter draw a circle.

Step 3: Let O be the center of the circle. Through O, draw a line OE making an angle 2𝜃
( 𝜃 = Angle of the inclined section plane = 30°) with OB in clockwise direction. (If 𝜃 is
clockwise, draw the line OE in clockwise direction & if 𝜃 is counter clockwise, draw the line
OE in counter clockwise direction).

Step 4: From E, draw ED perpendicular to AB at D.

Step 5: Join AE.

Step 6: Now, AD and ED give Normal (σn ) and Tangential (σt) stresses on inclined plane
respectively.

Step 7: The resultant stress (σR) on the inclined plane is given by AE.

Step 8: The length OJ or OH gives the maximum shear stress (σt)max

The Mohr's Circle diagram, drawn using the above procedure, is shown in Fig.(ii) PB.NO. 10
and also the results obtained from the Mohr' Circle diagram are listed below.
 2
Compressive Tensile Stress Scale: 1cm = 50 N/mm
stress
-ve +ve

MOHR'S CIRCLE J

s2
(s ) max.
t
C O D B
A
f 2q
st

sR E
H

sn

s1

Fig. (ii) PB. NO. 10

Results from Mohr's Circle diagram:

(a) Normal stress, σn = (AD × Scale) = (9cm × 50 N/mm2) = 450 N/mm2

(b) Tangential Stress, σt = (ED × Scale) = (1.732cm × 50 N/mm2) = 86.6 N/mm2
(c) Resultant stress, σR = (AE × Scale) = (9.165cm × 50 N/mm2) = 458.25 N/mm2
(d) Maximum Shear Stress, (σ t)max. = (OJ × Scale) or (OH× Scale)
= (2cm × 50 N/mm2) = 100 N/mm2
(e) Obliquity, ∅ = 11°

PB.NO. 11: The stresses at a point in a material body are 200 N/mm 2(Tensile) and
100 N/mm2(Compressive). Determine the resultant stress in magnitude and direction on a
plane inclined at 60° to the axis of major stress. Also determine the maximum intensity of
shear stress in the material at that point.

Data: Data: σ1 = 200N/mm2 , σ2 = - 100N/mm2 and Angle of the inclined plane, 𝜃 = 30°. The
inclined plane makes an angle of 60° with the axis of major stress i.e, with the stress of 200
N/mm2 in the horizontal direction.(The given inclined plane is assumed to be obtained by
rotating the X- face in clockwise direction by an angle of 30°. Hence 𝜃 is positive as per the
sign conventions)
The Stress diagram for the given problem, is indicated in Fig.(i) PB. NO. 11
 2
100 N/mm

200 N/mm
2 200 N/mm2

60°
100 N/mm2

Fig.(i) PB. NO. 11

Solution: Selecting any convenient scale, say, 1 cm = 20 N/mm2 for the stresses, we get

200 −100
σ1 = 200 N/mm2 = ( ) = 10 cm & σ2 = - 100 N/mm2 = ( ) = - 5 cm
20 20

Step-by-step procedure for drawing Mohr's Circle:

Step 1: From any point A, draw a horizontal line and mark off AB = σ1 = 200 N/mm 2 = 10 cm towards
right of A and AC = σ2 = - 100 N/mm 2 = - 5 cm towards left of A (Tensile stress is to be marked off
towards right of A and compressive stress is to be marked off toward left of A).
Step 2: Bisect BC at O. With O as center and radius equal to OB or OC, draw a circle. i.e., with
midpoint of BC as center & BC as diameter draw a circle.
Step 3: Through O, draw a line OE making an angle 2𝜃 (𝜃 = Angle of the inclined section plane
= 30°) with OB in clockwise direction. (If 𝜃 is clockwise, draw the line OE in clockwise direction & if 𝜃
is counter clockwise, draw the line OE in counter clockwise direction).
Step 4: From E, draw ED perpendicular to AB at D.
Step 5: Join AE.
Step 6: Now, AD and ED give Normal (σn) and Tangential (σt ) stresses on inclined plane respectively.
Step 7: The resultant stress (σR ) on the inclined plane is given by AE.
Step 8: The length OJ or OH gives the maximum shear stress (σt )max
The Mohr's Circle diagram, drawn using the above procedure, is shown in Fig.(ii) PB.NO. 11 and also
the results obtained from the Mohr' Circle diagram are listed below.
 Compressive Tensile Stress
stress
-ve +ve J

MOHR'S CIRCLE

(s ) max.
t

sn

A O D B
C
f 2q

st
sR

H
s2 s1

2
Fig. (ii) PB. NO. 11 Scale: 1cm = 20 N/mm

Results from Mohr's Circle diagram:

(a) Normal stress, σn = (AD × Scale) = (6.25cm × 20 N/mm2) = 125 N/mm2

(b) Tangential Stress, σt = (ED × Scale) = (6.495cm × 20 N/mm2) = 129.9 N/mm2
(c) Resultant stress, σR = (AE × Scale) = (9.014cm × 20 N/mm2) = 180.28 N/mm2
(d) Maximum Shear Stress, (σ t)max. = (OJ × Scale) or (OH× Scale)
= (7.5cm × 20 N/mm2) = 150 N/mm2
(e) Obliquity, ∅ = 46.1°
A member subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular directions
accompanied by a simple shear stress:

PB. NO. 12: A point in a strained material is subjected to stresses as shown in

Fig(i). PB. NO. 12. Using Mohr's Circle method, determine the following on the inclined
plane:
(a) Normal and Tangential stresses
(b) Major and Minor Principal Stresses
(c) Location of Principal planes
(d) Maximum shear stress and location of planes of maximum shear stress.

50 MPa
40 MPa

80 MPa
45°
80 MPa

40 MPa

50 MPa

Fig.(i) PB. NO.12

Data: σ1 = 80MPa, σ2 = 50 MPa, Angle of the inclined plane, 𝜽= 45 (The given inclined
plane may be assumed to be obtained by rotating the X-face in clockwise direction by an
angle of 45°. Hence 𝜃= 45° and is positive as per the sign conventions) and shear stress
𝝉= 40 N/mm2 (Shear stress 𝝉 is positive since the pair of shear stress on X-faces produces
clockwise rotation about the X-face)

Solution: Selecting any convenient scale, say, 1 cm = 10 N/mm2 for the stresses, we get

80 50
σ1 = 80 N/mm2 = ( ) = 8 cm, σ2 = 50 N/mm2 = ( ) = 5 cm and
10 10

40
𝝉= 40 N/mm2 = ( ) = 4 cm
10

Step-by-step procedure for drawing Mohr's Circle:

Step 1: From any point A, draw a horizontal line and mark off AB = σ 1 = 80 N/mm2 = 8 cm
and AC = σ2 = 50 N/mm2 = 5 cm towards right of A (Tensile stress is to be marked off
towards right of A and compressive stress is to be marked off toward left of A).
Step 2: Draw the perpendicular from B in the upward direction and the perpendicular from C
in the opposite direction i.e., in the downward direction. (If the shear stress 𝝉 is positive,
draw the perpendicular from B in the upward direction and if the shear stress 𝝉 is negative,
draw the perpendicular from B in the downward direction. The perpendicular from C is to be
drawn in the opposite direction to that of the perpendicular from B).
Step 3: Mark off the lengths BF and CG equal to the magnitude of shear stress,
𝝉 = 40 MPa = 4cm on the perpendiculars from B and C respectively
Step 4: Join F and G, bisecting BC at O. Now, with O as center and radius equal to OF or
OG, draw a circle. This circle is called Mohr's Circle.
Step 5: Through O, draw a line OE making an angle 2𝜃 (𝜃 = Angle of the inclined section
plane = 30°) with OF in clockwise direction. (If 𝜃 is clockwise, draw the line OE in clockwise
direction & if 𝜃 is counter clockwise, draw the line OE in counter clockwise direction).
Step 6: From E, draw ED perpendicular to AB at D.(or From E, draw ED perpendicular to the
horizontal through AB at D).
Step 7: Join A and E.
Step 8: Now, AD gives the Normal stress (σn), and ED gives the Tangential stress (σt) and
AE gives the resultant stress (σR) on the inclined plane.
Step 9: The length OJ or OH gives the maximum shear stress (σ t)max
Step 10: The length AM (i.e., the distance between A and M, where M is the point of
intersection of AB extended and the Mohr's circle) gives the Major principal stress and the
length AL (i.e., the distance between A and L, where L is the point of intersection of AB
and the Mohr's circle) gives the Minor principal stress.
Step 11: The inclination of OF with the horizontal through AB in the clockwise
direction (i.e., the inclination of OF with immediate horizontal through AB in clockwise
direction when 𝜃 is CW or the inclination of OF with immediate horizontal through AB in

counter clockwise direction when 𝜃 is CCW) gives 𝟐𝜽𝟏 and 𝟐𝜽𝟐 = (𝟐𝜽𝟏 + 𝟏𝟖𝟎°).

∴ The location of major principal plane = 𝜃1 = (2𝜃2 1 ) and

the location of minor principal plane = 𝜃2 = (𝜃1 + 90°)
Step 12: The inclination between OF and OH (i.e., the inclination of OF with immediate
vertical through the center O of the Mohr's circle in clockwise direction when 𝜃 is CW or the
inclination of OF with immediate vertical through the center O of the Mohr's circle in counter
clockwise direction when 𝜃 is CCW) gives 𝟐𝜽′𝟏 and 𝟐𝜽′𝟐 = (𝟐𝜽′𝟏 + 𝟏𝟖𝟎°)
′
∴ The location of the first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃1′ = (2𝜃2 1 ) and

location of the second plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃2′ = (𝜃1′ + 90°)
The Mohr's Circle drawn using the above procedure, is shown in Fig(ii) PB. NO. 12

2
Scale: 1cm = 10 N/mm
Compressive Tensile Stress
stress
-ve +ve
J
F
MOHR'S CIRCLE

' 2
2q
(s ) max.
t

2q 1
E

2q
A
st
L C O B D M
2q
2

2q '
s minor
1
(s ) max.
t

G
s2 H

s1

sn
s major

Fig. (ii) PB. NO. 12

Results obtained from Mohr's Circle diagram:

(a) Normal stress, σn = (AD × Scale) = (10.714cm × 10 N/mm2) = 107.14 N/mm2

(b) Tangential Stress, σt = (ED × Scale) = (0.699cm × 10 N/mm2) = 6.99 N/mm2
(c) Resultant stress, σR = (AE × Scale) = (10.737cm × 10 N/mm2) = 107.37 N/mm2
(d) Maximum Shear Stress, (σt)max. = (OJ × Scale) or (OH× Scale)
= (4.272cm × 10 N/mm2) = 42.72 N/mm2
(e) Major Principal stress, σ major = (AM × Scale) = (10.772cm × 10 N/mm2) = 107.72 N/mm2
(f) Minor Principal stress, σ minor = (AL × Scale) = (2.28cm × 10 N/mm2) = 22.8 N/mm2
2𝜃1 69°
(g) Location of major principal plane, 𝜃1 = ( ) =( ) = 34.5°
2 2

(h) Location of minor principal plane = 𝜃2 = (𝜃1 + 90°) = (34.5° + 90°) = 124.5°
 2𝜃′1 159°
(i) Location of the first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃1′ = ( 2
)=( 2
) = 79.5°

(j) Location of the second plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃2′ = (𝜃1′ + 90°)

= (79.5° + 90°) = 169.5°

PB. NO. 13: A point in a strained material is subjected to stresses as shown in

Fig(i). PB. NO. 13. Find the normal, tangential and resultant stress across the plane AB. Also
determine the maximum & minimum principal stresses, its locations, maximum shear stress
and its locations. Use Mohr's Circle method.

90 N/mm2

50 N/mm2
B

140 N/mm
2 140 N/mm2
30°
A
2
50 N/mm

90 N/mm2

Fig(i). PB. NO. 13

Data: σ1 = 140N/mm2, σ2 = 90 N/mm2, Angle of the inclined plane, 𝜽= - 30° (The given
inclined plane may be assumed to be obtained by rotating the X-face in counter clockwise
direction by an angle of 30°. Hence 𝜃= - 30° and is negative as per the sign conventions)
and shear stress 𝝉= - 50 N/mm2 (Shear stress 𝝉 is negative since the pair of shear stress
on X-faces produces counter clockwise rotation about the X-face)

Solution: Selecting a scale, say, 1 cm = 10 N/mm2 for the stresses, we get

140 90
σ1 = 140 N/mm2 = ( ) = 14 cm, σ2 = 90 N/mm2 = ( ) = 9 cm and
10 10

− 50
𝝉= - 50 N/mm2 = ( ) = - 5cm
10

Step-by-step procedure for drawing Mohr's Circle:

Step 1: From any point A, draw a horizontal line and mark off AB = σ1 = 140 N/mm2 = 14 cm
and AC = σ2 = 90 N/mm2 = 9 cm towards right of A (Since both the stresses are Tensile).
Step 2: Draw the perpendicular from B in the downward direction (since 𝝉 is negative) and
the perpendicular from C in the opposite direction i.e., in the upward direction.
Step 3: Mark off the lengths BF and CG equal to the magnitude of shear stress,
𝝉 = 50 MPa = 5cm on the perpendiculars from B and C respectively
.Step 4: Join F and G, bisecting BC at O. Now, with O as center and radius equal to OF or
OG, draw a circle. This circle is called Mohr's Circle.
Step 5: Through O, draw a line OE making an angle 2𝜃 (𝜃 = Angle of the inclined section
plane = - 30°) with OF in counter clockwise direction.
Step 6: From E, draw ED perpendicular to AB at D.(or From E, draw ED perpendicular to the
horizontal through AB at D).
Step 7: Join A and E.
Step 8: Now, AD gives the Normal stress (σn), and ED gives the Tangential stress (σt) and
AE gives the resultant stress (σR) on the inclined plane.
Step 9: The length OJ or OH gives the maximum shear stress (σ t)max
Step 10: The length AM (i.e., the distance between A and M, where M is the point of
intersection of AB extended and the Mohr's circle) gives the Major principal stress and the
length AL (i.e., the distance between A and L, where L is the point of intersection of AB
and the Mohr's circle) gives the Minor principal stress.
Step 11: The inclination of OF with the horizontal through AB in the counter clockwise
direction (i.e., the inclination of OF with immediate horizontal through AB in counter
clockwise direction when 𝜃 is CCW or the inclination of OF with immediate horizontal

through AB in clockwise direction when 𝜃 is CW) gives 𝟐𝜽𝟏 and 𝟐𝜽𝟐 = ( 𝟐𝜽𝟏 + 𝟏𝟖𝟎°).

∴ The location of major principal plane = 𝜃1 = (2𝜃2 1 ) and

the location of minor principal plane = 𝜃2 = (𝜃1 + 90°)
Step 12: The inclination between OF and OH (i.e., the inclination of OF with immediate
vertical through the center O of the Mohr's circle in counter clockwise direction when 𝜃 is
CCW or the inclination of OF with immediate vertical through the center O of the Mohr's circle
in clockwise direction when 𝜃 is CW) gives 𝟐𝜽′𝟏 and 𝟐𝜽′𝟐 = (𝟐𝜽′𝟏 + 𝟏𝟖𝟎°)
′
∴ The location of the first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃1′ = (2𝜃2 1 ) and

location of the second plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃2′ = (𝜃1′ + 90°)

The Mohr's Circle, drawn using the above procedure, is shown in Fig(ii) PB. NO. 13
 2
Scale: 1cm = 10 N/mm

Compressive Tensile Stress J

stress G
-ve +ve
MOHR'S CIRCLE 2q '
1

(s ) max.
t

2q
2

L C O B DM
A st
E

2q

2q 1
s minor

(s ) max.
t

2q'
2

F
s2 H

s1

sn
s major

Fig. (ii) PB. NO. 13

Results obtained from Mohr's Circle diagram:

(a) Normal stress, σn = (AD × Scale) = (17.08cm × 10 N/mm2) = 170.8 N/mm2
(b) Tangential Stress, σt = (ED × Scale) = (0.339cm × 10 N/mm2) = 3.39 N/mm2
(c) Resultant stress, σR = (AE × Scale) = (17.83cm × 10 N/mm2) = 178.3 N/mm2
(d) Maximum Shear Stress, (σ t)max. = (OJ × Scale) or (OH× Scale)
= (5.59cm × 10 N/mm2) = 55.9 N/mm2
(e) Major Principal stress, σ major = (AM × Scale) = (17.09cm × 10 N/mm2) = 170.9 N/mm2
(f) Minor Principal stress, σ minor = (AL × Scale) = (5.91cm × 10 N/mm2) = 59.1 N/mm2
2𝜃1 63°
(g) Location of major principal plane, 𝜃1 = ( ) =( ) = 31.5°
2 2

(h) Location of minor principal plane = 𝜃2 = (𝜃1 + 90°) = (31.5° + 90°) = 121.5°

2𝜃′1 153°
(i) Location of the first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃1′ = ( 2
)=( ) = 76.5°
2

(j) Location of the second plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃2′ = (𝜃1′ + 90°)

= (76.5° + 90°) = 166.5°

PB. NO. 14: At a point in a strained material, the stress condition is as shown in the
Fig.(i) PB. NO. 14. Using Mohr's Circle method find the following:
(i) The normal & shear stress on the inclined plane AB
(ii) Principal stresses and Principal planes (i.e., Major & Minor principal planes
and their locations).
(iii) Maximum Shear stress & its locations.

2
120 N/mm

2
40 N/mm
A
2
30 N/mm
2 30 N/mm

30°
B
40 N/mm 2

2
120 N/mm

Fig.(i) PB. NO. 14

Data: σ1 = - 30N/mm2 , σ2 = 120N/mm2 , Angle of the inclined plane, 𝜽 = 60° (The given
inclined plane may be assumed to be obtained by rotating the X-face in clockwise direction
by an angle of 60°. Hence 𝜃= 60° and is positive as per the sign conventions) and shear
stress 𝝉 = 40 N/mm2 (Shear stress 𝝉 is positive since the pair of shear stress on X-faces
produces clockwise rotation about the X-face)

Solution: Selecting a scale, say, 1 cm = 10 N/mm2 for the stresses, we get

−30 120
σ1 = - 30 N/mm2 = ( ) = - 3 cm, σ2 = 120 N/mm2 = ( ) = 12 cm and
10 10

40
𝝉= 40 N/mm2 = ( ) = 4cm
10

Step-by-step procedure for drawing Mohr's Circle:

Step 1: From any point A, draw a horizontal line and mark off AB = σ 1 = 30 N/mm2 = - 3 cm
towards left of A (Since σ1 is compressive stress) and AC = σ2 = 120 N/mm2 = 12 cm
towards right of A (Since σ2 is tensile stress).
Step 2: Draw the perpendicular from B in the upward direction (since 𝝉 is positive) and the
perpendicular from C in the opposite direction i.e., in the downward direction.
Step 3: Mark off the lengths BF and CG equal to the magnitude of shear stress,
𝝉 = 40 MPa = 4cm on the perpendiculars from B and C respectively
Step 4: Join F and G, bisecting BC at O. Now, with O as center and radius equal to OF or
OG, draw a circle. This circle is called Mohr's Circle.
Step 5: Through O, draw a line OE making an angle 2𝜃 (𝜃 = Angle of the inclined section
plane = 60°) with OF in clockwise direction.
Step 6: From E, draw ED perpendicular to the horizontal through AB at D.
Step 7: Join A and E.
Step 8: Now, AD gives the Normal stress (σn), and ED gives the Tangential stress (σt) and
AE gives the resultant stress (σR) on the inclined plane.
Step 9: The length OJ or OH gives the maximum shear stress (σ t)max
Step 10: The length AM (i.e., the distance between A and M, where M is the point of
intersection of AB extended towards right and the Mohr's circle) gives the Major principal
stress and the length AL (i.e., the distance between A and L, where L is the point of
intersection of the AB extended towards left and the Mohr's circle) gives the Minor principal
stress.
Step 11: The inclination of OF with the horizontal through AB in the clockwise
direction (i.e., the inclination of OF with immediate horizontal through AB in clockwise
direction when 𝜃 is CW or the inclination of OF with immediate horizontal through AB in

counter clockwise direction when 𝜃 is CCW) gives 𝟐𝜽𝟏 and 𝟐𝜽𝟐 = (𝟐𝜽𝟏 + 𝟏𝟖𝟎°).

∴ The location of major principal plane = 𝜃1 = (2𝜃2 1 ) and

the location of minor principal plane = 𝜃2 = (𝜃1 + 90°)
Step 12: The inclination between OF and OH (i.e., the inclination of OF with immediate
vertical through the center O of the Mohr's circle in clockwise direction when 𝜃 is CW or the
inclination of OF with immediate vertical through the center O of the Mohr's circle in counter
clockwise direction when 𝜃 is CCW) gives 𝟐𝜽′𝟏 and 𝟐𝜽′𝟐 = (𝟐𝜽′𝟏 + 𝟏𝟖𝟎°)
′
∴ The location of the first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃1′ = (2𝜃2 1 ) and

location of the second plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃2′ = (𝜃1′ + 90°)

The Mohr's Circle, drawn using the above procedure, is shown in Fig(ii) PB. NO. 14.
 2
Scale: 1cm = 10 N/mm
Compressive Tensile Stress J
stress
-ve +ve

MOHR'S CIRCLE

(s ) max.
'
2q 1 E
F

t
st

2q

2q 1
D
L
B A O C M
2q
2
sn

s1 s2

(s ) max.
G

t
'
2q 2

s minor H s major

Fig. (ii) PB. NO. 14

Results obtained from Mohr's Circle diagram:

(a) Normal stress, σn = (AD × Scale) = (11.714cm × 10 N/mm2) = 117.14 N/mm2
(b) Tangential Stress, σt = (ED × Scale) = (4.495cm × 10 N/mm2) = 44.95 N/mm2
(c) Resultant stress, σR = (AE × Scale) = (12.547cm × 10 N/mm2) = 125.47 N/mm2
(d) Maximum Shear Stress, (σ t)max. = (OJ × Scale) or (OH× Scale)
= (8.5cm × 10 N/mm2) = 85 N/mm2
(e) Major Principal stress, σ major = (AM × Scale) = (13cm × 10 N/mm2) = 130 N/mm2
(f) Minor Principal stress, σ minor = (AL × Scale) = (- 4cm × 10 N/mm2) = - 40 N/mm2
2𝜃1 152°
(g) Location of major principal plane, 𝜃1 = ( 2
) =( ) = 76°
2

(h) Location of minor principal plane = 𝜃2 = (𝜃1 + 90°) = (76° + 90°) = 166°

2𝜃′1 63°
(i) Location of the first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃1′ = ( )=( ) = 31.5°
2 2

(j) Location of the second plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃2′ = (𝜃1′ + 90°)

= (31.5° + 90°) = 121.5°

PB. NO. 15: A machine component is subjected to the stresses as shown in
Fig.(i) PB. NO. 15. Using Mohr's Circle method, find the following:
(i) The normal & shear stress on the inclined plane AB
(ii) Principal stresses and Principal planes (i.e., Major & Minor principal planes
and their locations).
(iii) Maximum Shear stress & its locations.

50 MPa

25 MPa
B
100 MPa 100 MPa
60°
A
25 MPa

50 MPa

Fig.(i) PB. NO. 15

Data: σ1 = - 100 MPa, σ2 = - 50 MPa, Angle of the inclined plane, 𝜽 = - 30° (The given
inclined plane may be assumed to be obtained by rotating the X-face in counter clockwise
direction by an angle of 30°. Hence 𝜃= - 30° and is negative as per the sign conventions)
and shear stress 𝝉= - 25 N/mm2 (Shear stress 𝝉 is negative since the pair of shear stress
on X-faces produces counter clockwise rotation about the X-face)

Solution: Selecting a scale, say, 1 cm = 10 N/mm2 for the stresses, we get

−100 −50
σ1 = - 100 MPa = ( ) = - 10cm, σ2 = - 50 MPa = ( ) = - 5cm and
10 10

−25
𝝉= - 25MPa = ( ) = - 2.5cm
10

Step-by-step procedure for drawing Mohr's Circle:

Step 1: From any point A, draw a horizontal line and mark off AB = σ 1 = - 10 MPa = - 10cm
towards left of A and AC = σ2 = - 50 MPa = - 5cm towards left of A (Since both σ1 and σ2 are
compressive stresses).
Step 2: Draw the perpendicular from B in the downward direction (since 𝝉 is negative) and
the perpendicular from C in the opposite direction i.e., in the upward direction.
Step 3: Mark off the lengths BF and CG equal to the magnitude of shear stress,
𝝉 = 50 MPa = 5cm on the perpendiculars from B and C respectively
Step 4: Join F and G, bisecting BC at O. Now, with O as center and radius equal to OF or
OG, draw a circle. This circle is called Mohr's Circle.
Step 5: Through O, draw a line OE making an angle 2𝜃 ( 𝜃 = Angle of the inclined section
plane = - 30°) with OF in counter clockwise direction.
Step 6: From E, draw ED perpendicular to the horizontal through AB at D.
Step 7: Join A and E.
Step 8: Now, AD gives the Normal stress (σn), and ED gives the Tangential stress (σt) and
AE gives the resultant stress (σR) on the inclined plane.
Step 9: The length OJ or OH gives the maximum shear stress (σ t)max
Step 10: The length AM (i.e., the distance between A and M, where M is the point of
intersection of AB with the Mohr's circle) gives the Major principal stress and the length
AL (i.e., the distance between A and L, where L is the point of intersection of the AB
extended towards left and the Mohr's circle) gives the Minor principal stress.
Step 11: The inclination of OF with the horizontal through AB in the counter clockwise
direction (i.e., the inclination of OF with immediate horizontal through AB in counter
clockwise direction when 𝜃 is CCW) gives 𝟐𝜽𝟏 and 𝟐𝜽𝟐 = (𝟐𝜽𝟏 + 𝟏𝟖𝟎°).

∴ The location of major principal plane = 𝜃1 = (2𝜃2 1 ) and

The location of minor principal plane = 𝜃2 = (𝜃1 + 90°)
Step 12: The inclination between OF and OH (i.e., the inclination of OF with immediate
vertical through the center O of the Mohr's circle in counter clockwise direction when 𝜃 is

CCW) gives 𝟐𝜽′𝟏 and 𝟐𝜽′𝟐 = (𝟐𝜽′𝟏 + 𝟏𝟖𝟎°)

′
∴ The location of the first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃1′ = (2𝜃2 1 ) and

The location of the second plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃2′ = (𝜃1′ + 90°)

The Mohr's Circle, drawn using the above procedure, is shown in Fig (ii) PB. NO. 15.
 Scale: 1cm = 10 MPa
Compressive Tensile Stress
stress
-ve +ve

J MOHR'S CIRCLE

G
2q'
2
(s ) max.
t
2q
2
C M
A
L B
2q
O D
2q
f
1

(s ) max. st 2q '
t
1 s major

F s2

E
H sn
s1

s minor

Fig. (ii) PB. NO. 15

Results obtained from Mohr's Circle diagram:

(a) Normal stress, σn = (AD × Scale) = (- 6.585cm × 10 MPa) = - 65.85 MPa
(b) Tangential Stress, σt = (ED × Scale) = (3.145cm × 10 MPa) = 31.45 MPa
(c) Resultant stress, σR = (AE × Scale) = (7.418cm × 10 MPa) = 74.18 MPa
(d) Maximum Shear Stress, (σ t)max. = (OJ × Scale) or (OH× Scale)
= (3.536cm × 10 MPa) = 35.36 MPa
(e) Major Principal stress, σ major = (AM × Scale) = (- 3.964cm × 10 MPa) = - 39.64 MPa
(f) Minor Principal stress, σ minor = (AL × Scale) = (- 11.036cm × 10 MPa) = - 110.36 MPa
2𝜃1 −135
(g) Location of major principal plane, 𝜃1 = ( ) =( ) = - 67.5°
2 2

(h) Location of minor principal plane = 𝜃2 = (𝜃1 + 90°) = (− 67.5° + 90°) = 22.5°

2𝜃′1 −45
(i) Location of the first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃1′ = ( 2
)=( ) = - 22.5°
2

(j) Location of the second plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃2′ = (𝜃1′ + 90°)
= (− 22.5° + 90°) = 67.5°
PB. NO. 16: At a certain point in a strained material, the stresses acting are shown in
Fig(i). PB. NO. 16. Using Mohr's Circle method
Determine : (a) Maximum and Minimum Normal stresses(or Major and Minor Principal
stresses) & locate their planes.
(b) Maximum shear stress and planes of maximum shear stress.

32 MPa
32 MPa

80 MPa

80 MPa

32 MPa

32 MPa

Fig.(i) PB. NO. 16

Data: σ1 = 80 MPa σ2 = 32 MPa, and shear stress 𝝉= 32 MPa (Shear stress 𝝉 is positive
since the pair of shear stress on X-faces produces clockwise rotation about the X-face)

Solution:

(Note: In this problem, inclined section plane is not given. Therefore, Normal Stress, σn &
Tangential Stress, σt on inclined plane does not exist.)

Selecting a scale, say, 1 cm = 10 N/mm2 for the stresses, we get

80 32
σ1 = 80 MPa = ( ) = 8cm, σ2 = 32 MPa = ( ) = 3.2cm and
10 10

32
𝝉= 32 MPa = ( ) = 3.2cm
10

Step-by-step procedure for drawing Mohr's Circle:

Step 1: From any point A, draw a horizontal line and mark off AB = σ 1 = 80 MPa = 8cm and
AC = σ2 = 32 MPa = 3.2 cm towards right of A (Since both σ1 and σ2 are tensile stresses).
Step 2: Draw the perpendicular from B in the upward direction (since 𝝉 is positive) and the
perpendicular from C in the opposite direction i.e., in the downward direction.
Step 3: Mark off the lengths BF and CG equal to the magnitude of shear stress,
𝝉 = 32 MPa = 3.2cm on the perpendiculars from B and C respectively
Step 4: Join F and G, bisecting BC at O. Now, with O as center and radius equal to OF or
OG, draw a circle. This circle is called Mohr's Circle.
Step 5: The length OJ or OH gives the maximum shear stress (σ t)max
Step 6: The length AM (i.e., the distance between A and M, where M is the point of
intersection of AB extended and the Mohr's circle at the right end) gives the Major principal
stress and the length AL (i.e., the distance between A and L, where L is the point of
intersection of AB and the Mohr's circle at the left end) gives the Minor principal stress.
Step 7: The inclination of OF with the horizontal through AB in the clockwise direction
(i.e., the inclination of OF with immediate horizontal through AB in clockwise direction since 𝝉

is positive) gives 𝟐𝜽𝟏 and 𝟐𝜽𝟐 = (𝟐𝜽𝟏 + 𝟏𝟖𝟎°).

∴ The location of major principal plane = 𝜃1 = (2𝜃2 1 ) and

The location of minor principal plane = 𝜃2 = (𝜃1 + 90°)
Step 8: The inclination between OF and OH (i.e., the inclination of OF with immediate
vertical through the center O of the Mohr's circle in clockwise direction since 𝝉 is positive)

gives 𝟐𝜽′𝟏 and 𝟐𝜽′𝟐 = (𝟐𝜽′𝟏 + 𝟏𝟖𝟎°)

′
∴ The location of the first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃1′ = (2𝜃2 1 ) and

The location of the second plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃2′ = (𝜃1′ + 90°)

The Mohr's Circle, drawn using the above procedure, is shown in Fig (ii) PB. NO. 16.
 Scale: 1cm = 10 MPa
Compressive Tensile Stress
stress
-ve +ve
J
MOHR'S CIRCLE
' 2 F
2q

(s ) max.
t

2q 1
L C B M
A
O
2q 2

s minor (s ) max.
t
2 q'1

G
s2 H

s1
s major

Fig.(ii) PB. NO. 16

Results obtained from Mohr's Circle diagram:

(a) Maximum Shear Stress, (σ t)max. = (OJ × Scale) or (OH× Scale)
= (4cm× 10 MPa)= 40 MPa
(b) Major Principal stress, σ major = (AM × Scale) = (9.6cm × 10 MPa) = 96 MPa
(c) Minor Principal stress, σ minor = (AL × Scale) = (1.6cm × 10 MPa) = 16 MPa
2𝜃1 53°
(d) Location of major principal plane, 𝜃1 = ( 2
) =( 2
) = 26.5°

(e) Location of minor principal plane = 𝜃2 = (𝜃1 + 90°) = (26.5° + 90°) = 116.5°

2𝜃′1 143°
(f) Location of the first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃1′ = ( )=( ) = 71.5°
2 2

(g) Location of the second plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃2′ = (𝜃1′ + 90°)

= (71.5° + 90°) = 161.5°

PB. NO. 17: At a certain point in a strained material, the stresses acting are shown in
Fig(i). PB. NO. 17. Using Mohr's Circle method
Determine : (a) Principal stresses and their locations.(i.e., Major & Minor principal stresses
and their locations)
(b) Maximum shear stress and planes of maximum shear stress.

300 MPa

200 MPa

400 MPa 400 MPa

200 MPa

300 MPa

Fig.(i) PB. NO. 17

Data: σ1 = 400 MPa σ2 = 300 MPa, and shear stress 𝝉 = - 200 MPa (Shear stress 𝝉 is
negative since the pair of shear stress on X-faces produces counter clockwise rotation about
the X-face)

Solution:

(Note: In this problem, inclined section plane is not given. Therefore, Normal Stress, σn &
Tangential Stress, σt on inclined plane does not exist.)

Selecting a scale, say, 1 cm = 50 MPa for the stresses, we get

400 300
σ1 = 400 MPa = ( ) = 8cm, σ2 = 300 MPa = ( ) = 6cm and
50 50

−200
𝝉= - 200 MPa = ( ) = - 4cm
50

Step-by-step procedure for drawing Mohr's Circle:

Step 1: From any point A, draw a horizontal line and mark off AB = σ 1 = 400 MPa = 8cm and
AC = σ2 = 300 MPa = 6 cm towards right of A (Since both σ1 and σ2 are tensile stresses).
Step 2: Draw the perpendicular from B in the downward direction (since 𝝉 is negative) and
the perpendicular from C in the opposite direction i.e., in the upward direction.
Step 3: Mark off the lengths BF and CG equal to the magnitude of shear stress,
𝝉 = 200 MPa = 4cm on the perpendiculars from B and C respectively
Step 4: Join F and G, bisecting BC at O. Now, with O as center and radius equal to OF or
OG, draw a circle. This circle is called Mohr's Circle.
Step 5: The length OJ or OH gives the maximum shear stress (σ t)max
Step 6: The length AM (i.e., the distance between A and M, where M is the point of
intersection of AB extended and the Mohr's circle at the right end) gives the Major principal
stress and the length AL (i.e., the distance between A and L, where L is the point of
intersection of AB and the Mohr's circle at the left end) gives the Minor principal stress.
Step 7: The inclination of OF with the horizontal through AB in the counter clockwise
direction (i.e., the inclination of OF with immediate horizontal through AB in counter
clockwise direction since 𝝉 is negative) gives 𝟐𝜽𝟏 and 𝟐𝜽𝟐 = (𝟐𝜽𝟏 + 𝟏𝟖𝟎°).

∴ The location of major principal plane = 𝜃1 = (2𝜃2 1 ) and

The location of minor principal plane = 𝜃2 = (𝜃1 + 90°)
Step 8: The inclination between OF and OH (i.e., the inclination of OF with immediate
vertical through the center O of the Mohr's circle in counter clockwise direction since 𝝉 is

negative) gives 𝟐𝜽′𝟏 and 𝟐𝜽′𝟐 = (𝟐𝜽′𝟏 + 𝟏𝟖𝟎°)

′
∴ The location of the first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃1′ = (2𝜃2 1 ) and

The location of the second plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃2′ = (𝜃1′ + 90°)

The Mohr's Circle, drawn using the above procedure, is shown in Fig (ii) PB. NO. 17.

Results obtained from Mohr's Circle diagram:

(a) Maximum Shear Stress, (σ t)max. = (OJ × Scale) or (OH× Scale)
= (4.123cm× 50 MPa)= 206.15 MPa
(b) Major Principal stress, σ major = (AM × Scale) = (11.123cm × 50MPa) = 556.15 MPa
(c) Minor Principal stress, σ minor = (AL × Scale) = (2.877cm × 50 MPa) = 143.85 MPa
2𝜃1 −76°
(d) Location of major principal plane, 𝜃1 = ( ) =( ) = - 38°
2 2

(e) Location of minor principal plane = 𝜃2 = (𝜃1 + 90°) = ( − 38° + 90°) = 52°

2𝜃′1 −166°
(f) Location of the first plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃1′ = ( )=( ) = - 83°
2 2

(g) Location of the second plane of maximum shear stress = 𝜃2′ = (𝜃1′ + 90°)

= (- 83°+90°) = 7°
Compressive Scale: 1cm = 50 MPa
Tensile Stress
stress
-ve +ve
G J

MOHR'S CIRCLE
2 q'1

(s ) max.
t

2q 2
L C O B
A
M
2 q1
s minor

(s ) max.
t
' 2
2q

F
s2 H

s1

s major

Fig.(ii) PB. NO. 17

Exercise Problems:

Solve the following problems using Mohrs' circle method and verify the results obtained using
analytical method.

60 N/mm2

120 N/mm2 30° 120 N/mm2

30°

60 N/mm 2

Fig. PB. NO. 1

2
100 N/mm

200 N/mm
2 200 N/mm2
60°

100 N/mm2

Fig. PB. NO. 2

 40 N/mm2

60 N/mm 2
45° 2
2
80 N/mm 80 N/mm

60 N/mm 2

40 N/mm 2

Fig.(i) PB. NO. 5