Chapter 3: Mobile Radio Propagation

Large-Scale Path Loss

Goals of the Chapter
 Radio channels are random and difficult to analyze
 Interference, path loss, fading, …

 Discuss properties & hindrances in EM wave propagation

 Reasons why signals are hard to send and receive in wireless
channel

 Modeling of electromagnetic propagation

 Predict average received signal strength (and rate of received
signal strength fluctuations in next Chapter)

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss

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Overview
 Radio wave propagation
 Free space propagation
 Propagation mechanisms
 Empirical path-loss models
 Outdoor propagation
 Indoor propagation

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Radio Wave Propagation
 The radio channel places a fundamental limitation on the
performance of wireless communication systems
 The path between transmitter and receiver is either
 Simple line-of-sight or
 Severely obstructed by buildings, mountains, and foliage

 Unlike wired channels that are stationary and predictable,

radio channels are extremely random and time varying
 Even the speed of motion impacts how rapidly the signal level
fades as a mobile terminal moves in space

 Modeling is difficult in mobile radio system and is typically

done in a statistical fashion or based on measurements for
specific system

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Radio Wave Propagation …
 Electromagnetic (EM) wave propagation mechanisms can
generally be attributed to reflection, diffraction, and
scattering
 E.g., in urban areas there is no direct line-of-sight path between
transmitter and receiver and high rise buildings cause sever
diffraction loss

 Due to multiple reflections from various objects, EM waves

travel along different paths of varying lengths
 The interaction between those waves causes multipath fading at a
specific location

 Strength of the wave decreases as the distance between

the transmitter and receiver increases

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Radio Wave Propagation …
 Propagation models
 Large-scale path loss model
 Small-scale fading model

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 Large-Scale Path Loss Model
 Predicts the average received signal strength at a given
distance from the transmitter
 Useful in estimating the coverage area of an antenna
 Characterize signal strength over large transmitter-receiver
(T-R) separation distance
 Several hundreds or thousands of meters

 Typically, the local average received power is computed by

averaging signal measurements over a measurement track
of 5λ to 40λ
 For cellular system in 1~2 GHz, this corresponds to 1~10m

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Small-Scale Fading Model
 Focus on signal strength variation in close spatial proximity
to a particular location
 Characterize the rapid fluctuations of the received signal
strength over
 Very short travel distances (a few wavelengths) or
 Short time durations (in the order of seconds)

 The received power may very by 30-40 dB when the

receiver is moved by fraction of a wavelength
 This is because the received signal is a sum of many contributions
(with random phases) coming from different directions

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Example: Small and Large-Scale Fading
 Signal variations in an indoor radio communication system
 Signal fades rapidly as the receiver moves
 By more than 20 dBm
 However, the local
average signal
decays much more
slowly with distance
(smoothed line)
 Depends on terrain
and obstructions

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Small- and Large-Scale Fading …
 This Chapter covers large-scale propagation and presents
a number of common methods used to predict received
power in mobile communication systems

 Chapter 4 treats small-scale fading models and describes

methods to measure and model multi-path in the mobile
radio environment

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Free Space Propagation Model
 Predicts received signal strength when the transmitter and
receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path
between them
 E.g., Satellite communication and microwave line-of-sight radio links
 Free space model predicts the received power decay as a function of
the T-R separation distance raised to some power (i.e., a power law
function)

 The power received by the receiver antenna at a distance d

is given by the Friis free space equation
  
2
1
Pr ( d )  Pt G t G r   (3.1)
 4d  L

 Where Pt: transmitted power; Pr: received power; Gt, Gr: antenna
gains; L: system loss factor; : wavelength in meters

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Free Space Propagation …
 System loss factor L is not related to propagation
 Results from line attenuation, filter losses, antenna losses
 L  1 (L=1 indicates no loss in the system)

 The gain of an antenna

4Ae
G  (3.2)
2
 where Ae: the effective aperture related to the physical size of
antenna
 The wavelength is related to the carrier frequency
  c  2c (3.3)
f c
 where f: the carrier frequency in Hertz
c: the carrier frequency in radians per second
c: the speed of light in meters/sec
 Higher frequency => higher gain for the same size antenna
Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path 12
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Free Space Propagation …
 Equation (3.1) implies that the received power decays with
distance at a rate of 20dB/decade or with square of T-R
separation
 Isotropic radiator
 An ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain uniformly in
all directions
 Often used to reference antenna gains in wireless systems
 Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP)=PtGt
Represents the maximum radiated power available from a
transmitter in the direction of maximum antenna gain, as compared
to an isotropic radiator

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Free Space Propagation …
 In practice, effective radiated power (ERP) is used instead
of EIRP to denote the maximum radiated power as
compared to a half-wave dipole antenna
 Since a dipole antenna has a gain of 1.64 (linear) or
2.15dB above an isotropic antenna, the ERP will be 2.15
dB smaller than the EIRP for the same transmission
system
 I.e., ERP = EIRP – 2.15

 Antenna gains are given in

 dBi : dB gain with respect to an isotropic source, which is 0 dB
 dBd : dB gain with respect to a half-wave dipole antenna

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Free Space Propagation …
 Path loss: Represents signal attenuation as a positive
quantity measured in dB
 Is defined as the difference in dB between the effective
transmitted and received power
 For free space
Pt  G tG r 2  (3.4)
P L ( d B )  1 0 lo g  10 log 2 
Pr  ( 4  ) 2
d 
 which is valid only in the far-field (or Fraunhoffer region) of
transmitting antenna region
2D 2
 That is, the far-field distance 
df 

 where D is the largest physical linear dimension of antenna

 Additionally, df must satisfy df >>D and df >> 

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 Free Space Propagation …
 Equation (3.1) does not hold for d=0
 Hence, large-scale propagation models use a close-in
distance, d0, as a known received power reference point
 The received power Pr(d) at any distance d>d0 may be
related to Pr(d0) at d0
 The value Pr(d0) may be
 Predicted from Equation (3.1) or
 Measured in the radio environment by taking the average received
power at many points located at d0 from the transmitter

 d0 must be chosen such that

 It lies in the far-field region, that is, d0  df
 It is smaller than any practical distance used in the mobile
communication system
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Free Space Propagation …
 At a distance greater than d0
 d0 
2
(3.5)
Pr (d )  Pr (d 0 )  d  d0  d f
d 
 Pr changes by many orders of magnitude over a typical c
several kilometers
 Often measured in dBm or dBW

 In units of dBm, the received power is given by

Pr (d 0 ) d 
Pr (d ) dBm 10 log  20 log  0  d  d0  d f (3.6)
 0.001W  d 
 where Pr(d0) in units of watts

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Free Space Propagation …
 For practical system using low-gain antennas in 1~2 GHz
region, d0 is typically chosen to be
 1m in indoor environments
 100 m or 1 km in outdoor environments

 Example: Find the far-field distance for a base station

antenna with maximum dimension of 1m and 900 MHz
operating frequency
 Solution: Given
 Largest dimension of antenna, D = 1m
 Operating frequency f = 900 MHz, =c/f = 1/3 = 0.33 m
 Far-field distance is obtained as
2(1)2
df   6m
0.33

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Free Space Path Loss – Example
 If a transmitter produces 50 watts of power, express the
transmit power in units of
a) dBm, and
b) dBW
c) If 50 watts is applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz
carrier frequency,
i. Find the received power in dBm at a free space distance of 100 m
from the antenna.
ii. What is Pr (10 km)?
 Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna

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Free Space Path Loss – Solution

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Power and Electric Field – Example 2
 For a BS, let Pt = 10 W, fc=900 MHz, Gt=2, Gr=1
 The MS is at a distance of 5 km
 What is the received power in dBm?

 Pt G t G r  2   1 0  2  1  (0.33) 2 
Pr ( d )  1 0 l o g    1 0 l o g  
 ( 4d )  ( 4  )  (5 0 0 0 )
2 2 2
 

Pr ( d  5 0 0 0 m )   9 2 . 6 d B W   6 2 . 6 d B m

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Power and Electric Field – Example 3
 For a BS, let Pt = 500 mW, fc=900 MHz, Gt=2, Gr=1
 The MS is at a distance of 10 km
 What is the received power in dBm?

 Pt G t G r  2   0.5  2  1  (0.33) 2 
Pr ( d )   1 0 l o g    1 0 l o g  
 ( 4d )  ( 4  )  (1 0 0 0 0 )
2 2 2
 
Pr ( d  1 0 0 0 0 m )   111. 6 d B W   81.6 d B m

 Can the mobile work at this power level?

 It depends on the receiver sensitivity of the MS
 Sensitivity is the minimum required power level for a GSM phone
to pick up the signal and work
 Typical GSM mobile station sensitivity < -100 dBm

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 Power and Electric Field
Power flux density, Pd, is defined as the amount of power that travels
through a given area
◦ If a far-field concept and has unit of in watts/m2
◦ Assumes an ideal (point) radiator
 In free space
2
E
Pd  W / m2

 Where =120 = 377 is intrinsic impedance of
free space and |E| is the radiating electric field
 Idea: An antenna “captures” some of this
power, depending on how large the antenna is
Called the effective antenna aperture, Ae, with units m2

23
 Power and Electric Field …
Received power at distance d is given by

2 2
G   E
2
 
Pr (d )  Pd Ae  Pd  r   Ae  Pt Gt Gr  
 4    4d 

This relates the electric field |E| to received power in watts

The received power can also be written as

2
V 2 [Vant / 2]2 Vant
Pr (d )    Watts
Rant Rant 4 Rant
 Where V is the rms voltage induced at
the input of a receiver and Rant is the
resistance of the matched receiver

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Propagation Mechanisms
 In wireless com., multiple signals arrive at the receiver, but
with less power than indicated by the Friis equation
 The received power varies strongly (5-25 dB) even for small
changes in antenna position, center frequency, and time

 There is a large effect caused when the path length

increases by orders of magnitude
 This is due to reflection, diffraction, scattering, etc

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Reflection
 Happens when EM wave impinges on an object which has
very large dimensions as compared to wavelength 
 E.g., the surface of the earth, building, walls, etc.

 When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges

upon another medium having different electrical properties
 Electric field intensity of the reflected and transmitted
waves are related to the incident wave by Fresnel reflection
coefficient, 
  is a function of material properties, polarization, angle of
incidence, and frequency

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Reflection …
 If the plane wave is incident on a perfect dielectric
 Part of the energy is transmitted into the secondary medium
 Part of the energy is reflected back into the first medium
 No loss of energy in absorption

 If the second medium is a perfect conductor

 All incident energy is reflected back into the first medium

 The electric waves can be represented as a sum of two

orthogonal polarization components
 E.g., vertical and horizontal, or left-hand and right-hand circular

 Incident and perpendicular planes

1. Incidence plane: Contains incident, reflected, & transmitted waves
2. Perpendicular plane: Normal to plane of incidence

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 Reflection from Dielectrics
 EM wave incident at an angle i with the plane of the
boundary between two dielectric media

Reflection Coefficients

E r  2 s in  t   1 s in  i
   (E-field in plane of incident)
Ei  2 s in  t   1 s in  i
E r  2 s in  i   1 s in  t
   (E-field normal to plane of incident)
Ei  2 s in  i   1 s in  t
Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path 28
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Reflection from Dielectrics …
 Snell’s Law: μ 1ε 1 sin(90  θ i )  μ 2 ε 2 sin(90  θ t )

 Used to determine θt Er  Ei

 Reflected and transmitted field are: E t  ( 1   ) E i
 Where  is either  or , depending on polarization
i
 Intrinsic impedance of the i th medium: i 
i
 I.e., ratio of electric to magnetic field for a uniform plane wave

 Parameters:  permittivity,  permeability &  conductance

 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
i  r

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path 29

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Parameters vs. Frequency

 is sensitive to operating frequency

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path 30
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Reflection – Special Case
 When the first medium is free space (or approximately, air)
and 1 = 2
 These two conditions are the case for most of the things we care
about
 Reflection coefficients of the two cases are simplified as
 ε r s in θ i  ε r  c o s 2θ i
Γ 
εrsinθi  ε r  c o s 2θ i

s in θ i  ε r  cos 2θ i
Γ 
s in θ i  ε r  cos 2θ i

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path 31

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Reflection – Special Case
 Magnitude of reflection coefficient (both horizontal and
vertical polarization)

Brewster Angle

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path 32

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Brewster Angle
 Angle θi at which no reflection of the parallel E-field
occurs, i.e.,  = 0
1
sin(B ) 
1   2

 If the first medium is free space

 r 1
sin( B ) 
 r 2 1

 Occurs only for the vertical polarization

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path 33

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Reflection - Perfect Conductor
 EM energy cannot pass through perfect conductors
 I.e., can be used for shielding
 All the energy is reflected back

 Thus we have
 i = r
 Ei = Er (E field in plane of incident)
 Ei = - Er (E field normal to plane of incident)
  = 1 and  = -1 regardless of incident angle

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path 34

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 Ground Reflection (2-Ray) Model …
 Free space propagation model is inaccurate in practice
 LOS and reflection from the ground is also important

MS

Base Station

35
Ground Reflection Model …
 How the MS receives signal from the BS?
 Reasonably accurate model for
 Height > 50 m (i.e., tall towers)
 BS and MS are separated by certain distance (several kilometers)

 Considers two paths: Direct LOS & ground reflected

 In most mobile communication systems
 T-R separation distance is at most a few tens of kilometers
 The earth may be assumed to be flat

 Energy at the receiver is the vector sum of direct, ELOS,

and ground reflected, Eg components
 Vector sum => phase difference
 Important parameters: ht, hr, distance d
Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path 36
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 Method of Image
 Using method of image, the path difference  is

  d"d' (h  h ) 2  d 2  (h  h )2  d 2  2ht hr
t r t r
d
 Approximation results
from Taylors series and
valid when d >> ht +hr

 Phase d/c , and time

delay d are given by
2 c
  
 c
and
 
d   
c 2f c

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path Loss 38

Ground Reflection Model …
 : Path difference between LOS & ground reflected paths
 Idea:  is used to compute time delay d and phase difference 

 Assumptions
 d >> ht and hr ==> i = 0 = 0
 Perfect ground reflector so that  = -1 and Et = 0 (valid for i small)
 The reflected path travels longer than the direct path

 Total received E-field, ETOT, is

k
ETOT (d,t)  E LOS (d ',t)  E g (d",t) 
d2
 Total received power, Pr is given by
 ht hr 
2
Pr  PtGtGr  2 
d 

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path

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Con’t…
∆ can be expanded using a Taylor series expansion

39
Con’t…

which works well for d >> (ht + hr), which means

and are small

40
Ground Reflection Model …
 From the power formula
 The received power falls-off with distance raised to the 4th power or
 At a rate of 40 dB per decade
 This is much more rapid path loss than in free space
 Good news: d increases => interference decrease, however the
LOS cease to be dominant
 The received power is independent of frequency
 Heights ht and hr can be used to control the received power
as the gains are usually fixed
 The path loss expressed in dB is
PL(dB)  40log d  (10logGt 10logGr  20log ht  20log hr )

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path

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Diffraction - Fresnel Zone Geometry
 Diffraction: occurs when radio path is obstructed (shadowed)
by a surface that has sharp irregularities (edges)
 Received power decreases rapidly as a receiver moves deeper into
an obstructed region
 However, diffracted field still exists and often has sufficient strength
to produce a useful signal

 Diffraction explains how radio signals travel without LOS in

urban environment as well as curved surface of the earth
 Diffraction can be explained by Huygen’s principle
 All points on a wavefront (including bending) can be considered as
point sources for the production of secondary waves
 At each point, the wave field is effectively re-radiating in all directions

 The re-radiations enable EM waves to “bend” around objects

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path
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Knife-edge Diffraction
 Geometry when the TX and RX are NOT at the same
height and no LOS
 At the top, where diffraction is to occur, we have a sharp edge
 E.g., communication between microwave links or between BSs

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path

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Knife-edge Diffraction …
 Geometry where ht = hr and knife-edge obstructing the LOS

 Important parameters: d1, d2, ht, hr, and h

 d1, d2, distance along LOS path from TX or RX to obstruction
 h is screening height
 How much energy we get from a receiver having a knife-edge
geometry? Answered by Fresnel-Kirchoff parameter
Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path
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Diffraction Gain
 The Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter, , is given by
2(d1  d2 )
 h
d1d2
  is unitless, depends on geometry & frequency
 The diffraction gain due to presence of knife-edge, as
compared to free-space propagation, is given by
 Gd(dB) = 0   -1
 Gd(dB) = 20log(0.5 - 0.62) -1    0
 Gd(dB) = 20log(0.5exp(-0.95)) 01
 Gd(dB) = 20log(0.4- (0.1184-(0.38-0.1)2) 1    2.4
 Gd(dB) = 20log(0.225/) 2.4  

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path

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Diffraction Gain …
 Knife- edge diffraction gain Gd as a function of Fresnel
diffraction parameter 

-
- - -

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path

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Diffraction Gain …
 Example: Assume =1/3 m, d1=1km, and d2=1 km, and (a)
h = 25m, (b) h =0, and © h=-25m. Compute the diffraction
loss for the three cases by using values from the Figure
and also the approximate solution.
 Solution: for h =25m

 The diffraction loss is equal to:

 22 dB from the figure and
 Using the numerical approximation, it is equal to 21.7 dB
Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path
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Diffraction Gain …
 (b) for h = 0, the Fresnel diffraction parameter  = 0
 The diffraction loss is equal to:
 6 dB from the figure and
 Using the numerical approximation, it is equal to 6 dB

 (c) for h = -25m, the Fresnel diffraction parameter  = -2.74

 The diffraction loss is equal to:
 1 dB from the figure and
 Using the numerical approximation, it is equal to 0 dB

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path

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Multiple Knife- edge Diffraction
 Building’s construction of un equal knife edges
 Multiple knife-edge diffraction model can be expressed
using a single equivalent knife-edge model
 Can be extended to more than two

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path

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Scattering
 Received signal in a mobile radio environment is often
greater than predicted by reflection and diffraction models
 Because when a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the
reflected energy is spread out (diffused) in all directions due to
scattering

 Scattering occurs when dimensions of objects in the

medium are smaller or comparable to , e.g., millimeter
waves and number of obstacles per unit volume is large
 Small objects, rough surfaces, foliage, street signs, lamp posts

 Scattering causes transmitted energy to be radiated in

many directions

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path

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Scattering …
 When is a surface considered rough?
 Surface protuberance for a given angle of incidence

hc 

8sin i
 where i is, again, the angle of incidence

 A surface is considered rough if its protuberance h is

greater then hc
 Scattering has two important effects
1. Rough surface scattering reduces power in the reflected wave
2. Scattering causes additional multipath to be received in directions
other than the specular direction (very useful phenomena)

Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path

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Scattering …
 If the surface is rough, then the reflected wave has a
modified reflection coefficient
rough  S 
 Where  is flat surface reflection coefficient
 The scattering loss factor S is given as
   h sin 2 
S  exp8 i

    

 Where h is the standard deviation of the surface height about the

mean surface height

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Scattering - Measured Reflection
Coefficient

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Summary: Reflection, Scattering and
Diffraction Building
 At the receiver vector addition of direct,
reflected, and diffracted signals occurs

Reflected Signal
Direct Signal

ht
Diffracted
Signal hr

Transmitter

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Summary: Reflection, Scattering and Diffraction
 As a MS moves through a coverage area, these 3
mechanisms have an impact on the instantaneous
received signal strength
 If a mobile has a clear LOS path to the BS, then diffraction
and scattering will not dominate the propagation
 If a mobile is at a street level without LOS, then diffraction
and scattering will probably dominate the propagation

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Path Loss Models
 Propagation models are in general combination of
analytical & empirical models
 Empirical models: Based on curve fitting of measured data
 Advantage: Implicitly take all propagation factors into account, both
known and unknown
 Drawback: Environmental and frequency dependent, hence
additional measurements are required to validate the model

 Empirical models are designed to better fit measured data

 There are many “modifications” that better fit a given environment

 We will see
 Log-distance path loss
 Log-normal shadowing

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Log-Distance Path Loss
 Measurement-based propagation models indicate that the
average large-scale path loss is given by
d
n

PL(d)   
 d0 
 Or
d
PL(dB)  PL(d0 ) 10nlog 
 d0 
 Where: n is the path-loss exponent
d0 is the close-in reference distance
 The bars indicate the ensemble average
 On a log-log scale, the path-loss is a straight line with slop
10n dB/decade

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Log-Distance Path Loss …
 The value of n depends on a specific propagation
environment
 Based on measurement, typical values are given in the Table

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Log-normal Shadowing
 For two points having same separation d, the surrounding
environment may vary drastically
 E.g., obstructed vs. line-of-sight, scattering, reflections, etc.

 From measurement, at a specific T-R separation, the path

loss is random and distributed log-normally (normal in dB)
d 
PL(d)[dB]  PL(d)    PL(d 0 ) 10nlog    
 d0 
 Where  is a zero-mean Gaussian distributed random variable (in
dB) with standard deviation  (also in dB)

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Log-normal Shadowing …

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Power Threshold
 Path loss and received power Pr(d) are random
 Probability that the received power exceed a certain value
(or threshold)  is given by

   Pr (d) 
Pr[Pr (d)   ]  Q 
  

 Where Q(z) is Q-function or error function given by

1   x2  1  z 
Q(z)  
2 z
exp  

dx  

1 erf  
 2 
 2 1

 And having the property

Q(z) 1 Q(z)

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Percentage Coverage Area
 Is percentage of useful service area
 I.e., is percentage of area with a received power equal or greater
than desired threshold 

 For a circular coverage area having radius R from a BS,

the percentage of useful service area, U(), is computed as
2 R
1 1
U( )  2  Pr[Pr (d)   ]dA  2  Pr[P (d)   ]rdrd
R R 00
r

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Percentage Coverage Area …

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Outdoor Propagation Models
 Path-loss estimation also requires terrain profile of a
particular area
 The terrain profile may vary from a simple curved earth profile to a
highly mountainous profile

 Several models exist to predict path loss over irregular

terrain
 E.g., Okumura-Hata model

 The methods vary widely in their approach, complexity and

accuracy
 Most of these models are based on systematic interpretation
of measurement data obtained in the service area

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Okumura-Hata Models
 Okumura model: Valid for signal prediction in urban area
 Applicable for 150 MHz - 1920 MHz; distance of 1km to
100 km; and BS antenna height from 30m to 1km.
 The 50th percentile (median) value of the propagation loss,
L50 in dB is give by
L50 (dB)  LF ( f , d)  Amu ( f , d)  G(hte )  G(hre )  GAREA

 Where all terms are in dB and

 LF is the free space propagation loss
 Amu is the median attenuation relative to free space
 G(hte) and G(hre): BS and MS antennas height gain factors
 GAREA is the gain due to the type of environment (open, quasi
open, or suburban)

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Okumura-Hata Models …
 The figure shows the median Attenuation Amu (f,d) relative
to free space over a quasi-smooth terrain

 The gain should fulfill

h 
G(hte )  20log10  te , 30m  hte 1000m
 200m 
  hre 
10log10  , 0m  hre  3m
 3m 
G(hre )  
20log  hre , 3m  hre 10m
10
  3m 

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Okumura-Hata Models …
 Plot of correction factor GAREA for different terrain

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Okumura-Hata Models …
 The Hata model is largely function-fitting, expressing a
formula that captures most of the results of Okumura
 These are also based on large sets of measurements
 In an attempt to make the Okumura’s model easier for
computer implementation Hata has fit Okumura’s curves
with analytical expressions
 This makes the computer implementation of the model
straightforward
 Hata’s formulation is limited to some values of input
parameters
 There are many adjustments to this model
 E.g., for PCS (the COST-231 model for 1900 MHz), for microcells,
etc.

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Okumura-Hata Models …
 Hate model: Is an empirical formulation of the graphical
path-loss data provided by Okumura
 Valid from 150 MHz – 1500 MHz
 The median path-loss in urban area is given by
L50 (urban)(dB)  69.55 26.16log f c 13.82log hte  a(hre )
 (44.9  6.55log hte )log d

 Where all terms are in dB and

 fc is the frequency (in MHz) from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz
 hte is effective transmitter (BS) antenna height, in 30m-200m range
 hre is effective receiver (mobile) antenna height, in 1-10 m range
 d is the T-R separation distance (in Km)
 a(hre) is correction factor for effective mobile antenna height
which is a function of the size of coverage area
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Okumura-Hata Models …
 For a small to medium size city
a(hre )  (1.1log fc  0.7)hre  (1.56log fc  0.8) dB

 And for large city, it is given by

a(h )  8.29(log1.54h )2 1.1 dB for f c  300MHz
re re
a(h )  3.2(log11.75h )2  4.97 dB for f c  300MHz
re re

 The modified Hata model in a suburban area is

L (dB)  L (urban)  2[log( f / 28)]2  5.4
50 50 c

 And the modified Hata model in rural area is

L (dB)  L (urban)  4.78log( f )2 18.33log f  40.94
50 50 c c

 The prediction of the Hata model compare very closely with

the original Okumura model as long as d exceeds 1km.
Wireless Communications - Ch. 3 – Large-Scale Path
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Indoor Propagation Models
 Used in personal communication systems (PCS)
 Differs from outdoor models in two aspects
 The distances covered are much smaller
 The variability of the environment is greater for much smaller T-R
separation distance

 Propagation characteristics within a building is influenced

by specific features such as
 Layout of the building
 Construction materials
 Building types
 …

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Indoor Propagation …
 Partition losses
(same floor)

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Indoor Propagation …
 Partition losses
(same floor)

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Indoor Propagation - Partition losses …
 Partition losses
between floors

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Indoor Propagation - Partition losses …

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Indoor Propagation - Log-distance Path Loss
 Indoor path loss
obeys the power
law identical to
the log-normal
shadowing, i.e.,
d 
PL[dB]  PL(d 0 ) 10nlog     
 d0 

 Typical values for

n and  are given
in a table

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Indoor Propagation - Measured Indoor Path Loss

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Indoor Propagation - Measured Indoor Path Loss

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Indoor Propagation - Measured Indoor Path Loss

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Link Budget(Reading Assignment)
Link budget is an accounting of the gains and losses that occur in a radio
channel between transmitter and receiver
◦ E.g., we need an acceptable SIR or SNR

Noise power is due to thermal noise

For a given required S/N ratio

◦ What is the required MS (or mobile) transmit power?
◦ What is the maximum cell radius, i.e., path length?
◦ What is the effect of changing the frequency of operation?

To find the noise power PN, we need to know the characteristics of the
receiver

80
Link Budget – Design Variables

81
Link Budget - Design
Procedure
Link budget for received power is

Pr (dB)  Pt (dB)   dB Gains   dB Losses

Link budget for S/N is

S / N  Pr (dB)  PN (dB)  Pt (dB)   dB Gains   dB Losses  PN (dB)

Points to consider
1. All in either in dBW or dBm, otherwise we will have a 30 dB error!
2. If using EIRP transmit power, it includes Pt(dBW) and Gt(dB), so don’t
double count Gt by also including it in the dB Gains sum
3. The dB noise figure F (dB) is either included in PN(dBW) or in the dB losses,
not both!

82
Link Budget - Design
Procedure …
4. Gains are typically only the antenna gains, compared to isotropic
antennas
5. There are also coding, a.k.a. processing, gains, achieved by using
channel coding to reduce the errors caused by the channels. DS-SS
CDMA is a type of modulation which has a processing gain. These
might be subtracted from the required S/N ratio, or added to the gains.
Do one, but not both
6. Losses include large scale path loss, or reflection losses (and
diffraction, scattering, or shadowing losses, if you know these
specifically), losses due to imperfect matching in the transmitter or
receiver antenna, any known small scale fading loss or “margin” (what
an engineer decides needs to be included in case the fading is
especially bad), etc.
7. Sometimes the receiver sensitivity is given (for example on a RFIC spec
sheet). This is the PN(dB) plus the required S/N(dB)

83
Link Budget - Thermal noise
Thermal noise power, PN, is given as
PN = FkT0B
Where
◦ k is Boltzmann’s constant equals 1.38×10−23J/K
◦ T0 is the ambient temperature, typically taken to be 290-300 K (If not given, use
294 K)
◦ B is the bandwidth, in Hz
◦ F is the (unitless) noise figure, which quantifies the gain to the noise produced in
the receiver (F  1)
In dB terms:
PN (dB)  F (dB)  k (dB)  T0 (dB)  B(dB)
F is also given in terms of “equivalent temperature” Te
Te
F  1
T0
84
Link Budget – GSM Uplink
Example
Consider the uplink of a GSM system with 11dB S/N requirement
Assume that
◦ A maximum mobile transmit power of 1.0 W (30 dBm)
◦ 0 dB antenna gain at the mobile, and 12 dB gain at the BS
◦ Path loss given by the urban area Hata model
◦ fc = 850 MHz
◦ BS antenna height of 30 meters
◦ Mobile height of 1 meter
◦ F = 3 dB and that the system is noise-limited

What is the maximum range of the link?

85
Link Budget – Solution

86
Summary
 Radio channels are random and difficult to analyze
 Interference, path loss, shadowing, reflection, diffraction
 Analytical and empirical models exist to predict signal
strength or loss in a wireless medium
 In cellular system, if a mobile has a clear LOS path to the
BS, then diffraction and scattering will not dominate the
propagation
 If a mobile is at a street level without LOS, then diffraction
and scattering will probably dominate the propagation
 Path-loss estimation also requires terrain profile of a
particular area
 Reading assignment: Link budget design!
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