Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Microcontroller & Embedded system
Subject Code: EC-604
Semester: 6th
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Microcontroller & Embedded System (EC604)

UNIT-IV : Embedded System Architecture: Von Neumann v/s Harvard architecture, instruction set
architecture, CISC and RISC instructions set architecture, basic embedded processor, microcontroller
architecture, CISC & RISC examples: 8051, ARM, DSP processors.
Von Neumann v/s Harvard architecture:

In case data and code lie in the same memory block, then the architecture is referred as Von Neumann
architecture. In case data and code lie in different memory blocks, then the architecture is referred
as Harvard architecture.

Von Neumann Architecture:

The Von Neumann architecture was first proposed by a computer scientist John von Neumann. In this
architecture, one data path or bus exists for both instruction and data. As a result, the CPU does one
operation at a time. It either fetches an instruction from memory or performs read/write operation on
data. So, an instruction fetch and a data operation cannot occur simultaneously, sharing a common bus.
Von-Neumann architecture supports simple hardware. It allows the use of a single, sequential memory.
Today's processing speeds vastly outpace memory access times, and we employ a very fast but small
amount of memory (cache) local to the processor.

Fig. 4.1 : Von Neumann processor architecture

Harvard Architecture:
The Harvard architecture offers separate storage and signal buses for instructions and data. This
architecture has data storage entirely contained within the CPU, and there is no access to the instruction
storage as data. Computers have separate memory areas for program instructions and data using internal
data buses, allowing simultaneous access to both instructions and data.
Programs needed to be loaded by an operator; the processor could not boot itself. In Harvard architecture,
there is no need to make the two memories share properties.

Fig. 4.2 : Harvard processor architecture

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Von Neumann Vs Harvard processor Architecture:

The following points distinguish the Von Neumann architecture from the Harvard architecture.
Von-Neumann Architecture Harvard Architecture

Single memory to be shared by both code and data. Separate memories for code and data.

Processor needs to fetch code in a separate clock Single clock cycle is sufficient, as separate buses
cycle and data in another clock cycle. So it requires are used to access code and data.
two clock cycles.

Higher speed, thus less time consuming. Slower in speed, thus more time-consuming.

Simple in design. Complex in design.

Instruction set architecture (ISA):

It is a collection of machine language instructions that a particular processor understands and executes.
Instruction in a machine is dependent on processor, i.e., different machine has different instruction set. A
new processor that belongs to some old processor family will have a compatible but extended instruction
set of old processors of that family. Instructions can be of different format. Major part in the instruction
includes (i) opcode (ii) operand.
(i) Opcode: An operation code field termed as opcode that specifies operation to be performed.
(ii) Operand: An address field of operand on which data processing is to be performed. An operand can
reside in the memory or processor register.
ISA provides all information needed for someone that wants to write a program in machine language.

CISC & RISC Architecture:

Microcontrollers with small instruction set are called reduced instruction set computer (RISC) machines and
those with complex instruction set are called complex instruction set computer (CISC). Intel 8051 is an
example of CISC machine whereas microchip PIC 18F87X is an example of RISC machine.

The following points differentiate a CISC from a RISC −

CISC RISC

Larger set of instructions. Easy to program Smaller set of Instructions. Difficult to program.

Simpler design of compiler, considering larger set of Complex design of compiler.

instructions.

Many addressing modes causing complex instruction Few addressing modes, fix instruction format.
formats.

Instruction length is variable. Instruction length varies.

Higher clock cycles per second. Low clock cycle per second.

Emphasis is on hardware. Emphasis is on software.

Control unit implements large instruction set using Each instruction is to be executed by hardware.
micro-program unit.

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Slower execution, as instructions are to be read from Faster execution, as each instruction is to be
memory and decoded by the decoder unit. executed by hardware.

Pipelining is not possible. Pipelining of instructions is possible, considering

single clock cycle.

Basic Structure of an Embedded System:

The following illustration shows the basic structure of an embedded system

Fig. 4.3: Basic Embedded System structure

Sensor − It measures the physical quantity and converts it to an electrical signal which can be read by an
observer or by any
electronic instrument like an A2D converter. A sensor stores the measured quantity to the memory.
A--D Converter − An analog--to--digital converter converts the analog signal sent by the sensor into a digital
signal.
Processor & ASIICs − Processors processes the data to measure the output and store it to the memory.
D--A Converter − A digital--to--analog converter converts the digital data feed by the processor to analog
data
Actuator − An actuator compares the output given by the D--A Converter to the actual (expected) output
stored in it and stores the approved output.

Embedded Systems – Processors:

Processor is the heart off an embedded system. It is the basic unit that takes inputs and produces an output
after processing the data. For an embedded system designer, it is necessary to have the knowledge off both
microprocessors and microcontrollers.

Processors in a System:
A processor has two essential units – Program Flow Control Unit (CU) and Execution Unit (EU)

The CU includes a fetch unit for fetching instructions from the memory. The EU has circuits that implement
the instructions pertaining to data transfer operation and data conversion from one form to another.

The EU includes the Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU) and also the circuits that execute instructions for a
program control task such as interrupt, or jump to another set of instructions.
A processor runs the cycles off fetch and executes the instructions in the same sequence as they are
fetched from memory.

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Types of Processors:
(i) Processors can be of the following categories −
• General Purpose Processor (GPP)
• Microprocessor
• Microcontroller
• Embedded Processor
• Digital Signal Processor
• Media Processor
(ii) Application Specific System Processor (ASSP)
(iii) Application Specific Instruction Processors ((ASIPs))
(iv) GPP core(s) or ASIIP core(s) on either an Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIIC) or a Very Large-
Scale Integration ((VLSII)) circuit.

Microcontroller:
A microcontroller is a single--chip VLSI unit (also called microcomputer) which, although having limited
computational capabilities, possesses enhanced input/output capability and a number off on--chip
functional units. CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O Port, Timer Serial COM Port
Microcontrollers are particularly used in embedded systems for real--time control applications with on--
chip program memory and devices.

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