ACTUATION SYSTEMS

Goals of the chapter

• Introduce the actuation systems of mechatronic system

• Types of Actuator
• Understand different application areas of actuation
system
Overview
• Introduction
• Types of Actuators
• Hydraulic and pneumatic actuation system
• Mechanical actuation system
• Electrical actuation system
 INTRODUCTION -- ACTUATION SYSTEM
• Actuators are the muscle behind a Mechatronics system
that accepts a control command and produces a change in
the physical system by generating force, motion
(displacement and velocity), heat, flow, etc.
• An actuator is usually activated by a low-level command
signal, so an amplifier may be required to provide sufficient
power to drive the actuator
INTRODUCTION -- ACTUATION SYSTEM
CH-2 CH-3
TYPES OF ACTUATORS
Actuation systems can be classified in to three categories:
1. Hydraulic and pneumatic actuation system
2. Mechanical actuation system
3. Electrical actuation system
 TYPES OF ACTUATORS -- HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC
• Fluid power denotes the use of a pressurized fluid to drive
linear or rotary actuators.
• The subject can be broadly divided into two fields.
a) Hydraulics: the working fluid is usually oil (sometimes water-oil
emulsions)
b) Pneumatics: the working fluid is compressed air and are used to
control final control element even though the control signal is
electrical. They can actuate large valves, high power control
devices.
 TYPES OF ACTUATORS -- HYDRAULIC VS PNEUMATIC
• The two fields have a great deal in common, but there are
also some basic differences:
1. Pressure Levels (Actuating Forces):-
• Pneumatic circuits range from 5 to 10 bar (only low or medium size
forces)
• Hydraulic circuits commonly operate at pressures up to 200 bar, or
even much higher (very high loads)
2. Element Cost:- Hydraulic cylinders and valves can cost from 5 to 10
times more than similar-size pneumatic elements.
3. Transmission Lines:-
• Hydraulic transmission lines are usually made of metal tubing with
expensive fittings, needed to withstand the high working pressures
and to avoid leaks.
• Pneumatics, inexpensive flexible plastic tubing is used, and the
fittings can usually be connected by hands, without using wrenches.
• Hydraulic systems, return lines are needed to return the oil from each
cylinder back to the reservoir.
• Pneumatic systems, only a single line is needed, since the air is
simply exhausted back to the atmosphere after it has done its job.
 TYPES OF ACTUATORS -- HYDRAULIC VS PNEUMATIC
4. Speed Control:-
• Because of the compressibility of air, it is difficult to control the
speed of pneumatic cylinders or motors accurately. Therefore,
whenever constant actuator speeds are required–despite sudden
load changes–a hydraulic system should be used.
5. Power Source:-
• In hydraulic systems, The pump does not produce pressure, but
rather a constant flow. The pressure developed in the system
depends on the opposing load.
• The situation is exactly the opposite in pneumatic systems: a
pressure regulator connected at the compressor-receiver outlet
keeps air pressure essentially constant, whereas the air flow rate
into any given cylinder is determined by the load.
6. Actuation Speeds:-
• Since compressed air expands very quickly, the piston velocities in
pneumatic cylinders are usually very high.
• In hydraulic cylinders, piston velocity is usually low, being
determined by the flow rate of the pump.
HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC SYSTEM -- COMPONENTS

• Power supply
• Directional control valves
• Pressure control valve
• Cylinders
POWER SUPPLY-- HYDRAULIC
POWER SUPPLY-- PNEUMATIC
 DIRECTION CONTROL VALVE -- HYDRAULIC VS PNEUMATIC
• Direct the fluid flow through a system
• They do not alter rate of flow
• ON/OFF devices.
• Might be activated by means of mechanical, electrical, fluid pressure
signals

Spool valve
 DIRECTION CONTROL VALVE -- HYDRAULIC VS PNEUMATIC

Poppet valve: normally in closed Directional valve: Free flow can only
condition. Balls, discs or cones are occur in one direction through the
used in conjunction with valve seats valve, flow in the other direction is
to control the flow. blocked by spring.
DIRECTION CONTROL VALVE -- VALVE SYMBOLS

• Square: for each switching position

• 2 position valve - 2 squares
• 3 position valve - 3 squares
• Arrow headed lines-to indicate
direction of flow
• Blocked-off lines: closed flow lines
• Connections: ports to the valve

(a) Flow path (b) Flow shut off

(c) Initial connections
 DIRECTION CONTROL VALVE -- VALVE ACTUATION SYMBOLS

• Various ways the valves can be actuated

DIRECTION CONTROL VALVE

• Extensive study is expected on

• Direction control valve
• Valve symbols
• Valve actuation symbols
• Examples of directional control valves (2/2, 3/2, 5/2, 4/2, valves
with different actuation methods)
 Example: Poppet valve

(a) 2/2 valve (Two port two

position)

 Ports are labeled

1 (or P) for pressure supply
3 (or T) for hydraulic return port
3 or 5 (or R or S) for pneumatic exhaust ports
2 or 5 (B or A) for output ports
 EXAMPLE: SINGLE SOLENOID VALVE

 Solenoid operated spool valve

 The valve is actuated by a current passing through the
solenoid
 And return to its original position by spring
 Example: application of valves

 Pneumatic lift system (Two push button 2/2 valves used)

 In pneumatic Open arrow : to indicate a vent to the
atmosphere
 PILOT OPERATED VALVE
If force required to actuate the valve is too large for
manual or solenoid
 One valve is used to control second valve
 Pilot pressure line is indicated by dashed lines
The pilot valve is small capacity and can be operated
manually or by solenoid
 Pilot operated 4/2 valve
 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

• Three principal types

1. Pressure regulating valves: used to control the operating pressure
in a circuit and maintain it at a constant value
2. Pressure limiting valves: safety device to limit the pressure.
3. Pressure sequence valves: sense pressure in external line and
gives a signal if it reaches a preset value.
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES -- PRESSURE LIMITING/RELIEF VALVE
• When the inlet pressure overcomes the force exerted by
the spring, the valve opens and vents to the atmosphere
• Used to safeguard a system against excessive pressures

Pressure limiting/relief valve

PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES -- PRESSURE SEQUENCE VALVE
• Used to allow flow to occur to some part of the system
when the pressure has risen to the required level
• Eg: we might require some operation to start when the
clamping pressure applied to a work piece is at some
particular value.
 HYDRAULIC/PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
• Hydraulic/Pneumatic cylinders are actuation devices that
utilize pressurized fluid to produce linear motion and force.
• Operating specifications
• (force, speed)
• configuration or mounting,
• materials of construction, and other features are all important
parameters to consider when searching for hydraulic cylinders.
• There are two common types of cylinders:
• Single acting: Fluid may only enter the cylinder from one side,
therefore can only push the cylinder in one direction. Springs are
commonly used to return the cylinder to the original form when the
pressure is leased.
• Double acting: Fluid may enter the cylinder from either side of the
piston, allowing control to move the piston under pressure in either
direction.
HYDRAULIC/PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS -- SINGLE ACTING
HYDRAULIC/PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS – DOUBLE ACTING
 HYDRAULIC/PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS -- EXAMPLE

• A linear cylinder can, with suitable mechanical linkage be

used to produce rotary movement through angles less than
360.
 HYDRAULIC/PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS – CYLINDER SEQUENCING
• Required Sequence of operation: two cylinders A and B
are required that when the start button is pressed piston of
cylinder A extends and when fully extended cylinder B
extends when this has happened we need piston A to
retract and when fully retracted cylinder B retract.
• Both in retracted ….Start push button on valve 1 is pressed
• Initially limit switch b- is activated and valve 3 is switched
…. A extends…releases limit switch a-
• A fully extends…a+ operates-switches valve 5-pressure
applied on valve 6-B extends…release b- .
• B extends fully…operates b+….switches valve 4…valve 3
switched …..A retracts…. release a+
• A retracts fully …..a- operates…..switches valve
7….pressure applied on valve 6…..B starts retracting.
Mechanical Actuators
 TYPES OF ACTUATORS -- MECHANICAL ACTUATORS/MECHANISMS
• Many jobs previously done by mechanisms are now
replaced by microprocessors.
• Mechanisms are devices used to convert one form of
motion to another, say linear to rotary.
• Mechanisms are still used for the following
• Force amplifier: lever
• Change of speed: gear
• Motion transfer(one axis to other): timing belt
• Particular type of motion: quick return motion
• They use linkages, cams, gears, rack & pinion, chain, belt
drives.
• Rack & pinion: rotational motion to linear
• Parallel shafts gears: to reduce shaft speed
• Bevel gears: rotary motion through 900.
• Toothed belts & chains: rotary motion b/n different shafts
MECHANICAL ACTUATORS -- KINEMATICS OF MECHANISMS
• Rigid body motion: combination of translational and
rotational motion and Is a study of motion with out the effect
of forces
• Any motion can be broken into a combination of
• Translational motion: is a movement which can be resolved into components
along one or more of the three axis x, y or z
• Rotational motion: is one which has components rotating about one or more
of the axis
 MECHANICAL ACTUATORS -- FREEDOM AND CONSTRAINTS
• The number of degrees of freedom are the number of
components of motion that are required in order to generate the
motion.
• A body that is free in space can move in three independent,
mutually perpendicular directions and rotate in three ways about
those directions. It is said to have six degree of freedom.
• If a joint is constrained to move along a line then it has one degree
of freedom
• If a joint is constraint to move on a plane then it has two degree of
freedom
 MECHANICAL ACTUATORS -- KINEMATIC CHAINS
• Mechanisms are composed of individual
• Links: part of mechanism which has motion relative to some other
part (represented as rigid body with two or more points of
attachments…..nodes)
• Node: “points of attachment to other links”.
• Joint: is a connection between two or more links at their nodes and
which allows some motion between the connected links.
• kinematic chain: A sequence of joints and links.
MECHANICAL ACTUATORS – Examples
• Kinematic chain: Simple Engine Mechanism
• Link 1 crankshaft,
• Link 2 the connecting rod,
• Link 3 the fixed frame,
• Link4 the slider i.e. the piston which move relative to the fixed
frame
MECHANICAL ACTUATORS – Examples (FOUR-BAR CHAINS)
• Grashof condition: If the sum of the length of the shortest link
plus the length of the longest link is less than or equal to the
sum of the lengths of the other two links then at least one link
will be capable of making full revolution with respect to the fixed
link.

a) Double –lever
b) Lever-crank
c) Double-crank
mechanisms
MECHANICAL ACTUATORS – CAM & CAM FOLLOWER
• Composed of two essential
components
• Cam: a body which rotates or
oscillates and in doing so imparts a
reciprocating or oscillatory motion to
a second body called follower
• Follower
 MECHANICAL ACTUATORS – CAM & CAM FOLLOWER
• As the cam rotates so the follower is made to rise, dwell and
fall; the length of times spent at each of these positions
depends on the shape of the cam
• The rise section: is the one that drives
the follower upwards,
• The fall section: is the one that lowers
the follower.
• The dwell section: is the one that allows
the follower to remain at the same level
for a significant period of time. It is
circular with a radius that does not
change
• (a)-Eccentric
• (b)-Heart shaped
• (c)-Pear shaped
MECHANICAL ACTUATORS – DIFFERENT CAM FOLLOWER
MECHANICAL ACTUATORS – OTHER MECHANISMS

• Gear Trains- to transfer and transform rotational motion.

• Rack and pinion- to transform linear to rotational or vice
versa
• Ratchet and pawl- to lock a mechanism when it holds a
load.
• Belt and chain drives- transforming motion.
MECHANICAL ACTUATORS – OTHER MECHANISMS
Electrical Actuators
ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS – TYPES

1. Switching Devices
2. Solenoid type devices – used in hydraulic/pneumatic
systems
3. Drive systems – Electric motors
ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS – SWITCHING DEVICES
Switching Devices
Mechanical switches:
▪ Keyboards, limit switches, Momentary contact switches,
▪ Relays, Reed switches
Solid-state switches:
▪ Diodes,
▪ Thyristors (SCR),
▪ Bipolar Transistors (BJT),
▪ MOSFET
MECHANICAL SWITCHES – MOMENTARY CONTACT SWITCHES
• The most fundamental control of any equipment is the ability to turn it
on/off. The easiest way to do this is using switches.

• Normally Open & Normally Closed

Symbol Symbol
MECHANICAL SWITCHES – ROLLER ACTUATED SWITCHES
MECHANICAL SWITCHES – RELAYS
• Relays may be Normally Open or Normally Closed.
• In Normally Open, the contacts are connected only when the
actuation terminals are energized.
• In Normally Closed relays, the load is connected to the power supply
when the relay actuation terminals are not connected.
• Relays with high current capacity (over 40 Amps) are called
contactors.
MECHANICAL SWITCHES – RELAYS
• Disadvantage of switches
They are relatively large and occupy more space.
• Relays are basically switches, which are turned on/off by application
of a low voltage across the relay terminals
• They are universally found in automatic control applications, since
they can control equipment directly through electric signals instead of
requiring physical operation.
 Application…Electronically operated street light system

• When a small
current from
sensor flow
through this
circuit, the relay
will activate its
output circuit,
allowing a much
bigger current to
flow. Thus turning
ON the electrical
bulb.
MECHANICAL SWITCHES – REED SWITCH
• In electro-pneumatic control circuits, reed switches are commonly
used to sense the position of pneumatic cylinder piston rods.
• are characterised by their small size and fast switching time.
SWITCHING DEVICE: SOLID-STATE SWITCHES -- DIODES
• Solid-state switches are devices in which the switching action is
caused by non-mechanical motion and is due to the change in the
electrical characteristics of the device.

• A diode is a directional element that allows current to flow in one

direction.
• One common use of diodes is to change AC voltages to DC voltages,
which is a process called rectification.
SWITCHING DEVICE: SOLID-STATE SWITCHES -- BJT
• The BJT is, a semiconductor device, constructed with three doped
semiconductor regions separated by two p-n junctions
• The three regions are called Emitter, Base, and Collector
• For NPN type transistor, the main current flows in at the collector and
out at the emitter, a controlling signal being applied to the base,
SWITCHING DEVICE: SOLID-STATE SWITCHES

• Diodes,
• Thyristors (SCR), Part of power electronics
• Bipolar Transistors (BJT), course; Self-study
• MOSFET
ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS – SOLENOID TYPE DEVICES
• Solenoid valves are electro-pneumatic relays (follow same principle).
• The state of an electrical input controls the state of a pneumatic output
• Solenoid valves are the interface between electronic control systems
and pneumatic power.
SOLENOID TYPE DEVICES -- PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

• The double poppet armature is held

by a spring against the inlet orifice
sealing the supply at port 1

• Outlet port 2 is connected to exhaust

port 3

• When the coil is energized the

armature is pulled up closing the
exhaust orifice and connecting the
supply port 1 to the outlet port 2
SOLENOID TYPE DEVICES -- PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

• The double poppet armature is held

by a spring against the inlet orifice
sealing the supply at port 1

• Outlet port 2 is connected to exhaust

port 3

• When the coil is energized the

armature is pulled up closing the
exhaust orifice and connecting the
supply port 1 to the outlet port 2
Application… control using relay
 MAGNETIC FORCE ON ELECTRIC CONDUCTORS WITH FLOWING
CURRENT AND ELECTRO MAGNETIC INDUCTION

• Lorentz force: Force acting on a long

straight conductor with a current I flowing
in it, as a result of a uniform magnetic field
is
• Faraday’s law: Any change in the magnetic
flux linked with a coil will cause a voltage
(emf)to be "induced" in the coil itself, no
matter how the change is produced.
Principle of electromechanics
• A device for changing energy from mechanical to electrical or vice
versa is called an electromechanical transducer.
• A conductor of length l, is moving towards the right at velocity u normal
to a constant magnetic field. A closed path is provided, with a voltmeter
on it.
• As a consequence of the conductor motion, the flux linked with the
circuit increases and an emf is induced on the conductor, which is
revealed by the voltmeter.
ELECTRICAL ACTUATORS – DRIVE SYSTEMS – ELECTRIC MOTORS
• DC-motors
• Stepper motors (reluctance motors)
• AC-motor

Electric Motors

Direct Current (DC) Alternating Current Stepper (Reluctance)

Motors (AC) Motors Motors

Separately Self Excited Synchronous Induction

Excited

Series Compound Shunt Single-Phase Three-Phase

ELECTRICAL MOTORS – DC MOTOR
• Operate on DC voltage and varying the voltage can easily control their
speed.
• They are simple to operate.
• Their starting torque is large, which is the main reason for using them in
several traction applications;
• Widely used in applications ranging from thousands of horsepower used in
rolling mills to fractional horsepower used in automobiles (starter motors,
fan motors, windshield wiper motors, etc.).
DC motors
 ELECTRICAL MOTORS – DC MOTOR

Stator (Field circuit)

(Rotating)
Commutator
Armature

Brushes
ELECTRICAL MOTORS – DC MOTOR: BASIC PRINCIPLE
• Field circuit an electric magnet fed by a dc power source(often
permanent magnet in small motors)
• Armature circuit composed of windings, commutator, and brushes.
• Windings and commutator are mounted on the rotor shaft.
• The brushes are mounted on the stator and are stationary, but in
contact with the rotating commutator segment.
• Function of the commutator and brushes is to switch the coils
mechanically.
• The rotor windings are composed of several coils; each has two
terminals connected to the commutator segments on opposite sides.
• The commutator segments are electrically isolated from one another.
The segments are exposed, and the brushes touch two opposing
segments.
• The brushes allow the commutator segments to be connected to an
external d.c. source.
 Cont…
• The stator field produces flux, φ, from the north pole to the south pole.
• The brushes touch the terminals of the rotor coil under the pole.
• When the brushes are connected to an external d.c. source of potential,
V, a current, /, enters the terminal of the rotor coil.
• The presence of the stator flux and rotor current produces a force, F, on
the coil known as the Lorentz force.
• The coil that carries the current moves away from the brush and is
disconnected from the external source. The next coil moves under the
brush and carries the current /. This produces a continuous force F and
continuous rotation.
 Cont…

• The back electromagnetic force, Ea, is equal to the voltage of the source
minus the voltage drop due to the armature resistance.
• F and e are the force and the induced voltage on the conductor,
respectively. If we generalize these equations by including all
conductors, using the torque expression instead of the force f (T~f), and
using the angular speed instead of u (ω~u), we can rewrite T and Ea

T = NBbLi = kt i
E a = k v
V − E a V − k v
i= =
R R
kt
T = kt i = (V − kv )
R
ELECTRICAL MOTORS – DC MOTOR: CLASSIFICATION

• Can be classified into four groups based on the arrangement of their

field windings.
• Separately excited motor: The field and armature circuits are
excited by separate sources.
• Shunt motor: The field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature circuit. A common source is used for the field and
armature windings.
• Series motor: This type is designed to carry large currents and is
connected in series with the armature winding.
• Compound motor: This type uses the shunt and series windings.
DC MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL
• The speed control can be obtained by controlling the voltage applied to
the armature. However, because of fixed voltage supplies are often
used, a variable voltage is obtained by an electronic circuit.
• Control by means of controlling signal coming from microprocessor:-
Pulse width modulation(PWM)
DC MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL: PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
• Taking a DC supply and chopping it so that the average value is varied
• The transistor is switched on or off by means of a signal applied to its
base
• The diode is to provide a path for current which arises when the
transistor is off as a result of the motor acting as a generator.
• Used only to drive the motor in one direction.
DC MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL: H- CIRCUIT
• Makes motor to be operated in both directions.
 DC MOTOR – SPEED CONTROL: H- CIRCUIT & PWM
• This circuit can be modified by the use of logic gates so that one circuit
controls the switching and one direction of rotation.
 DC MOTOR – CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
• Closed loop system
• In (a) the system shows
an analog voltage being
varied to control the
motor speed
• In (c) the system shows
is completely digital and
PWM is used to control
the average voltage
applied to the armature.
 Brushless permanent magnet dc motor

DC motors problem:
• Require commutator and brushes
to periodically reverse the current
through each armature coil.
• The brushes make sliding contact
and as consequence sparks jump
between the two and they suffer
wear.
• Brushes thus have to be
periodically changed and the
commutator resurfaced.
 Cont…

• Brushless
• Consist a sequence of stator coils and a permanent
magnet rotor
• A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field
experiences a force; likewise, as a consequence of
Newton's third law, the magnet will also experience an
equal and opposite force.
• The current to the stator coils is electronically switched
being controlled by the position of the rotor so that there
are always forces acting on the magnet causing it to
rotate in the same direction.
Cont…
 Cont…
 To switch the coils in sequence we need to supply signals
to switch the transistors on in the right sequence.
 This is provided by the outputs from the three sensors
 Eg: rotor position= sensor signals(001..abc)
Transistors on….
ELECTRICAL MOTORS – STEPPER MOTORS
• Is a motor that produces rotation through equal angles, the so called
steps, for each digital pulse supplied to its input.
• They don’t turn continuously, but move in a series of steps.
• The center shaft has a series of magnets mounted on it, and the coils
surrounding the shaft are alternately given current or not, creating
magnetic fields which repulse or attract the magnets on the shaft,
causing the motor to rotate.
• Has no commutator.
ELECTRICAL MOTORS – STEPPER MOTORS
• Variable reluctance stepper motor:
• It has ferromagnetic rotor rather than the permanent magnet rotor.
• When an opposite pair of windings has current switched to them a
magnetic field is produced with lines of force which pass from the stator
poles through the nearest set of poles on the rotor.
• The rotor will move until the rotor and stator poles line up.
Cont…
 Cont…
Permanent magnet stepper motor:
• Has stator with four poles
• Current is supplied from a dc source to the windings through
switches.

 The rotor is a permanent

magnet and thus when a
pair of stator poles has a
current switched to it the
rotor will move to line up
with it.
 Permanent magnet stepper motor
step sequence

• By changing stator polarities rotor moves to successive

equilibrium position
ELECTRICAL MOTORS – AC MOTORS: SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION
• Classification
• Single phase(induction/ synchronous)
• Three phase(induction/ synchronous)
• Single phase induction:
• No external electrical connections to the rotor
• The stator with a set of windings
• Not self-starting: use an auxiliary starting winding to give to give the
rotor an initial push
• When an ac current passes through the stator windings an
alternating magnetic field is produced. As a result of
electromagnetic induction, e.m.fs are induced in the conductors of
the rotor and currents flow in the rotor.
• The speed of rotation of the magnetic field is termed the
synchronous speed. The difference in speed b/n the rotation of the
magnetic field and the rotor is termed slip.
ELECTRICAL MOTORS – AC MOTORS: SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION

• The rotor rotates at a speed determined by the frequency

of the ac current applied to the stator.
• The speed of rotation of the magnetic field is termed the
synchronous speed.
• The difference in speed b/n the rotation of the magnetic
field and the rotor is termed slip.
 ELECTRICAL MOTORS – AC MOTORS: THREE PHASE INDUCTION:
• Three phase induction:
• Has three windings located 120 deg. apart.
• B/se the three phases reach their max. at different times the
magnetic field can be considered to rotate round the stator poles,
completing one rotation in one full cycle of the current.
• Rotation of the field is much smother than single phase motor.
ELECTRICAL MOTORS – AC MOTORS: SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
• Synchronous motors:
• Have stators similar to those described above for induction motors
but a rotor which is a permanent magnet.
• The magnetic field produced by the stator rotates and so the
magnet rotates with it.
 Cont…

U V W

V V

S N
U U i
W W
Synchronous A.C. Induction motor
Motor the rotor is a (asynchronous), the rotor is
permanent magnet composed of one or more
windings in short-circuit
~END~