2.0.

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS DETAILS

Positioning or finding the user’s location with GPS requires some understanding of the GPS
signal structures and how measurements can be made. Likewise as the GPS signals are received
through a GPS receiver, understanding the capabilities and limitations of the various types of
GPS receivers is essential. Furthermore, the GPS measurements, like all measurable quantities,
contain errors and biases, which can be removed or reduced by combining the various GPS
observable.
2.1. GPS Signal Structure:
Each GPS satellite transmits a microwave radio signal, composed of two carrier frequencies (or
sine waves) modulated by two digital codes and a navigation message. GPS satellites transmits
ranging signals on two different L band frequencies, designated as L1 and L2. These frequencies
are coherent with 10.23 MHz clock fundamental frequency. The L1 carrier frequency is 1575.42
megahertz (MHz) and has a wavelength of approximately 19 cm. The L2 carrier frequency is
1227.60 MHz and has a wavelength of approximately 24 cm, which result from the relation
between the carrier frequency and the speed of light in space. In finding wavelength one can use
the following equation:
V = f
Where

 is wavelength.
f is frequency and
V is velocity

All of the GPS satellites transmit the same L1 and L2 carrier frequencies. The code modulation,
however, is different for each satellite, which significantly minimizes the signal interference.
The L1 signal is modulated with a 1.023 MHz Coarse/Acquisition Code (C/A-code) sometimes
called the “Civilian Code” and a 10.23 MHz Precision Code (P-code). The L2 signal is
modulated with only the 10.23 MHz P-code. The P-code is normally encrypted and is available
only to authorized users. When encrypted, it is termed the Y-code. This modulation is called
biphase modulation, because the carrier phase is shifted by 180° when the code value changes
from zero to one or from one to zero. Each code consists of a stream of binary digits, zeros and
ones, known as bits or chips. The codes are commonly known as pseudo-random noise (PRN)

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codes because they look like random signals. But in reality, the codes are generated using a
mathematical algorithm.

Each satellite carries precise atomic clocks to generate the timing information needed for
precise positioning. A 50 Hz navigation message is also transmitted on both the P(Y)-code and
C/A-code. The navigation message contains, along with other information, the coordinates of
the GPS satellites as a function of time, the satellite health status, the satellite clock correction,
the satellite almanac, and atmospheric data. Each satellite transmits its own navigation
message with information on the other satellites, such as the approximate location and health
status.

Based on the above discussion it is possible to have the following relation between the carrier
and code frequencies, and the fundamental frequency.
Fundamental frequency
 fo = 10.23MHz
Carriers
 L1 = 1575.42 MHz = 154 ×fo
 L2 = 1227.6 MHz = 120 ×fo
Codes
 C/A code = 1.023 MHz = fo/10
 P code = 10.23MHz = fo
2.1.1 The Coarse/Acquisition Code (C/A code)
The C/A code is a stream of 1,023 binary digits (i.e., 1,023 zeros and ones) that repeats itself
every millisecond. This means that the chipping rate of the C/A-code is 1.023 Mbps. In other
words, the duration of one bit is approximately 1microsecond, or equivalently 300meters. Each
satellite is assigned a unique C/A code, which enables the GPS receivers to identify which
satellite is transmitting a particular code. The C/A code range measurement is relatively less
precise compared with that of the P code.

2.1.2. The Precision Code (P-code)

The P code is a very long sequence of binary digits that repeats itself after 266 days. It is also 10
times faster than the C/A-code (i.e., its rate is 10.23 Mbps). P code repeats itself every 266 days
at 10.23 Mbps rate this indicates that the P code is a stream of about 2.35 × 10 14 chips. The 266

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day long code is divided into 38 segments “(in practice it is slightly longer than 38 weeks)”; each
is 1 week long. This 38 week long code can be divided into 37 different P codes and each
satellite can use a different portion of the code.

There are a total of 32 satellite identification numbers although only 24 of them are in the orbit.
Five of the P code signals (33–37) are reserved for other uses such as ground transmission. Since
each satellite transmits a unique 1 week segment of the P code, which is initialized every
Saturday/Sunday midnight crossing, the time of the week must be known very accurately in
order to perform acquisition on the signal. It is also important to mention that a GPS satellite is
usually identified by its unique 1 week segment of the P code. For example, a GPS satellite with
an ID of PRN 20 refers to a GPS satellite that is assigned the twentieth week segment of the PRN
P code.

The P code is designed primarily for military purposes. It was available to all users until January
31, 1994. At that time, the P code was encrypted by adding to it an unknown W code. The
resulting encrypted code is called the Y code, which has the same chipping rate as the P code.
This encryption is known as the ant spoofing (AS).
2.1.3. Navigation Message
Each NAVSTAR GPS satellite periodically broadcasts data concerning clock corrections,
system/satellite status, and most critically, its position or ephemerides data on L1 C/A and L2
P/Y frequencies. There are two basic types of ephemeris data:
 Broadcast ephemerides
 Precise ephemerides
Broadcast ephemerides: The broadcast ephemerides are actually predicted satellite positions
within the navigation message that are transmitted from the satellites in real time. The
ephemerides can be acquired in real time by a receiver capable of acquiring either the C/A or P
code.
Precise ephemerides: The precise ephemerides are based on actual orbital tracking data that is
post processed to obtain the more accurate satellite positions. These ephemerides are available
at a later date and are more accurate than the broadcast ephemerides because they are based
on actual orbital tracking data and not predicted data. In addition, an informational summary
file is provided to document the computation and to convey relevant information about the

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observed satellites, such as maneuvers or maintenance. Since the precise orbits are a
combination of several orbit production centers around the globe, it does lag behind in its
availability until all centers have reported in. Also, it is not made available until a full GPS week
has been completed.

2.1.4. Modulation
Carrier waves are designed to carry the binary C/A and P codes in a process known as
modulation i.e., modulation is therefore the process in which the codes are superimposed on the
carrier waves. Different commonly used modulations are shown in figure below, the first
shows the binary signal to be modulated over the carrier and the last shows phase shift
modulation which is used with GPS signal where the phase shifts by 0 and 180o.

Figure 2.1. Modulation type

2.2. GPS modernization
GPS constellation is expected to have a combination of Block IIR satellites, currently being
launched, and Block IIF and possibly Block III satellites. To meet the future requirements, the
GPS decision makers have studied several options to adequately modify the signal structure and
system architecture of the future GPS constellation.
The modernization program aims, among other things, to provide;
 Signal redundancy and improve positioning accuracy
 signal availability, and
 System integrity.

The modernization program will include the addition of a civil code (C/A-code) on the L2
frequency and two new military codes (M-codes) on both the L1 and the L2 frequencies. These
codes will be added to the last 12 Block IIR satellites, which will be launched at the beginning of

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2003. The availability of two civil codes (i.e., C/A-code on both L1 and L2 frequencies) allows a
user with a stand-alone GPS receiver to correct for the effect of the ionosphere (the upper layer
of the atmosphere), which is a major error source. With the termination of selective availability,
it is expected that once a sufficient number of satellites with the new capabilities is available, the
autonomous GPS horizontal accuracy will be about 8.5m or better.

The addition of the C/A-code to L2, although it improves the autonomous GPS accuracy, was
found to be insufficient for use in the civil aviation safety-of-life applications. This is mainly
because of the potential interference from the ground radars that operate near the GPS L2 band.
As such, to satisfy aviation user requirements, a third civil signal at 1,176.45 MHz (called L5)
will be added to the first 12 Block IIF satellites along with the C/A-code on L2 and the M-code
on L1 and L2, as part of the modernization program. This third frequency will be robust and will
have a higher power level. In addition, this new L5 signal will have wide broadcast bandwidth (a
minimum of 20 MHz) and a higher chipping rate (10.23 MHz), which provide higher accuracy
under noisy and multipath conditions. The new code will be longer than the current C/A-code,
which reduces the system self-interference through the improvement of the auto and cross-
correlation properties.

Finally, the broadcast navigation message of the new signal, although containing more or less the
same data as the L1 and L2 channels, will have an entirely different, more efficient, structure.
The first Block IIF satellite is scheduled to be launched in 2005 or shortly after that date. The
addition of these capabilities will dramatically improve the autonomous GPS positioning
accuracy. As well, the real-time kinematic (RTK) users, who require centimeter-level accuracy
in real time, will be able to resolve the initial integer ambiguity parameters instantaneously.

The modernization of GPS will also include the studies for the next generation Block III
satellites, which will carry GPS into 2030. Finally, the GPS ground control facilities will also be
upgraded as a part of the GPS modernization program. With this upgrade, the expected
standalone GPS horizontal accuracy will be 6m or better.

Space Segment
 GPS IIR(M) 2005 to ~2017
 GPS IIF 2010 to ~2025
 GPS III 2014 to beyond 2025

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Control Segment
 Legacy Operational Control Segment Ended in 2007
 Architecture Evolution Plan (AEP) 2007 to 2015
 Next Generation Operational Control System(OCX) 2015 to beyond 2025

2.3. GPS Receivers

A GPS receiver is an L-band radio processor capable of solving the navigation equations in order
to determine the user position, velocity and precise time (PVT), by processing the signal
broadcasted by GPS satellites. Dozens of vendors produce GPS receivers and there are hundreds
of models and options available.

The receivers also range from high end, high cost, high accuracy "geodetic quality" to low-end,
low-cost, low-accuracy "resource grade" or "recreational" models. Therefore, selection of the
right GPS receiver for a particular project is critical to the success of the project at hand.

In general, receiver selection must be based on a sound analysis of the following criteria:
 Applications for which the receiver is to be used (e.g., static or dynamic, code or carrier)
 Accuracy requirements  Operator display
 Power consumption requirements  Satellites and channels tracked
 Operational environment  Time to start and reacquire satellites
 Signal processing requirements  Size and weight
 Cost  WAAS and other DGPS capability
 Data exchange formats  GLONASS, GALILEO and other
 Baseline length GNSS capability
 Data logging  Antenna type

2.3.1. Types of GPS Receivers

There are two general types of GPS receivers: Code Phase and Carrier Phase. Geodetic quality
receivers process both code and carrier phases. Resource grade (recreational navigation)
receivers typically process only the L1 C/A code and perform absolute positioning. Some
handheld mapping grade receivers can process either differential code or carrier observations.
Within these types there are C/A and P code receivers, one or two channel sequential receivers,

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multi-channel receivers, codeless receivers, single and dual frequency receivers, continuous
tracking, and a variety of other signal processing techniques.

1. Code Phase receivers

A code receiver is also called a code correlating receiver because it requires access to the
satellite navigation message of the P or C/A code signal to function. This type of receiver relies
on the satellite navigation message to provide an almanac for operation and signal processing.
Because it uses the satellite navigation message, this type of receiver can produce real time
navigation data. Code receivers have anywhere fix capability and consequently, a quicker start
up time at survey commencement. Once locked onto the GPS satellites, an anywhere fix
receiver has the unique capability to begin calculations without being given an approximate
location and time.

2. Carrier Phase receivers

A carrier phase receiver utilizes the actual GPS signal itself to calculate a position. There are two
general types of carrier phase receivers:
 Single frequency receiver
It tracks the L1 frequency signal. A single frequency receiver can be used effectively to develop
relative positions that are accurate over baselines of less than 20 km or where ionospheric
effects can generally be ignored.
 Dual Frequency receivers
The dual frequency receiver tracks both the L1 and L2 frequency signal. A dual frequency
receiver will more effectively resolve baselines longer than 20 km where ionospheric effects
have a larger impact on calculations. Dual frequency receivers eliminate almost all ionospheric
effects by combining L1 and L2 observations. All geodetic quality receivers are multichannel, in
which a separate channel is tracking each satellite in view. Most manufacturers of dual
frequency receivers utilize codeless techniques, which allow the use of the L2 during anti
spoofing.

GPS receivers may also be divided into the following types based on their receiving capabilities,
though the discussion on receiver types is thwarting, because of the rapid technological
advancements.

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 o Single frequency code receiver: measures the pseudo ranges with the C/A code only. No
other measurements are available. It is the least expensive and the least accurate
receiver type, and is mostly used for recreation purposes.
o Single frequency carrier smoothed code receiver: also measures the pseudo ranges with
the C/A code only. However, with this receiver type, the higher resolution carrier
frequency is used internally to improve the resolution of the code pseudorange, which
results in high precision pseudorange measurements.
o Single frequency code and carrier receivers (output the raw C/A code pseudo ranges,
the L1 carrier phase measurements, and the navigation message).
o Dual frequency receivers (outputting L1 and L2 carriers, C/A-code, P-code on both L1
and L2, and the navigation message).

Figure 2.2. Examples of GPS receivers

2.3.2. GPS Receivers Components

GPS receiver is a piece of hardware used to track the satellites, i.e., to receive the satellite
signals. A generic GPS receiver has the following components:
o Antenna o Microprocessor
o Pre-amplifier o Terminal or control and display unit
o Radio frequency section (RF) o Recording device
o Channel o Power supply

Antenna: It receives the incoming satellite signal and then converts its energy into an electric
current. Antenna used for GPS receivers can be attached either internally or externally and have

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broad beam characteristics, thus they do not have to be pointed to the signal source like satellite
TV dishes. The antennas are rather compact and may be tripod or vehicle mounted. The actual
position determined is the phase center of the antenna which then has to be properly related to
the survey mark.

Types of Antenna
Micro strip Antenna – receive one or both the frequencies
Dipole Antenna – stable phase centre & simple construction
Choke Ring - built with several concentric rings & reduce multiple paths.

Pre-amplifier: GPS signal induces a voltage in the antenna therefore preamplifier is used to
increase signal power and filter the signal to reduce interference.

Radio Frequency section: The RF section contains the signal processing electronics in a
combination of digital and analog circuits. Different receiver types use somewhat different
techniques to process the signal. The different approaches are:
o Code correlation
o Code phase and frequency
o Carrier signal squaring

The RF section consists of channels using either of these three approaches to track a received
GPS signal.

Channel: The antenna itself does not sort the information gathered. The signals from different
satellites enter the receiver simultaneously, in the channels of the RF section the signals are
identified and differentiated from one another. It is a combination of hardware and software,
and different receivers can have different number of physical channels. At any given time only
one frequency from one satellite can be on one channel.

Microprocessor: Processed signals are displayed on display unit and or at the same time
recorded at storing device using microprocessor.

Control unit: The control unit enables the operator to interact with the microprocessor. Its size
and type varies greatly for different receivers, ranging from a hand held unit to a video monitor
with full sized keypad.

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Recording device: Both tape recorders or floppy disks are utilized to record the observations and
other useful information extracted from the received signal.
Power supply: Most receivers need low voltage DC power; only a few require AC power.

2.4. Time system

Time plays a very important role in positioning with GPS. GPS signals are controlled by Atomic
clocks. In addition, measuring the distance (ranges) from the receiver to satellite is based on both
receiver and satellite clocks.
A number of Time systems are used worldwide for various purposes:
1. Universe Time: is a universal time that gives a measure of the rotation of the earth. i.e. one
rotation = 24 hours = 3600 and 1 hour = 150
2. International Atomic Time (IAT): Computed based on independent time scales generated
by atomic clocks located at various timing laboratories throughout the world.
3. Universe Time Coordinated: Time as maintained by US Naval Observatory and is time scale
based on International Atomic Time (IAT). Because of variation in earth’s rotation, UTC is
adjusted by increment of 1 second called leap second. For Surveying & Navigational purposes,
Universe time is required not the atomic time.
4. GPS Time: - It is the time scales generated by atomic clocks at the monitor station and
satellites. Time system upon which GPS is based there is no leap second introduced into GPS
time i.e. it is a continuous time scale. IAT = GPS time + 19 seconds. On Jan 6, 1980, GPS time
was set equal to UTC. However, with introduction of leap second to UTC, GPS time is 13
seconds ahead of UTC on Jan 01, 1999. The difference between GPS & UTC is given in the GPS
navigation message. After accounting for leap second and using adjustment in the navigation
message, GPS time can be related to UTC within 20 ns or better.

2.5. Pseudo Range Measurements

The pseudorange is a measure of the range, or distance, between the GPS receiver (antenna)
and the GPS satellite. It is required for the computation of receiver’s position. In pseudo range
measurement either the P-code or the C/A-code can be used. To understand the procedure,
assume that both the satellite and the receiver clocks, which control the signal generation, are
perfectly synchronized with each other. When the PRN code is transmitted from the satellite,
the receiver generates an exact replica of that code. After some time, equivalent to the signal
travel time in space, the transmitted code will be picked up by the receiver. By comparing the

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transmitted code and its replica, the receiver can compute the signal travel time. Multiplying the
travel time by the speed of light (3.0x108m/s) gives the range between the satellite and the
receiver.

Figure 2.3. Pseudorange measurement

Unfortunately, the assumption that the receiver and satellite clocks are synchronized is not
exactly due to the synchronization error emanate from errors and biases. That is why this
quantity is referred to as the pseudorange, not the range.

GPS was designed so that the range determined by the civilian C/A-code would be less precise than that
of military P-code. This is based on the fact that the resolution of the C/A-code, 300m, is 10 times
lower than the P-code. Surprisingly, due to the improvements in the receiver technology, the obtained
accuracy was almost the same from both codes.

Figure 2.4. Pseudo range measurements correlation

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2.6. Carrier phase measurements

Another way of measuring the ranges to the satellites can be obtained through the carrier
phases. The range would simply be the sum of the total number of full carrier cycles plus
fractional cycles at the receiver and the satellite, multiplied by the carrier wavelength. The
ranges determined with the carriers are far more accurate than those obtained with the codes
(i.e., the pseudoranges). This is due to the fact that the wavelength (or resolution) of the carrier
phase, 19 cm in the case of L1 frequency, is much smaller than those of the codes.

There is, however, one problem. The carriers are pure sinusoidal waves, i.e., all the cycles look
the same. Therefore, a GPS receiver has no means to differentiate one cycle from another. In
other words, the receiver, when it is switched on, cannot determine the total number of the
complete cycles between the satellite and the receiver. It can only measure a fraction of a cycle
very accurately (less than 2 mm), while the initial number of complete cycles remains unknown,
or ambiguous. This is, therefore, commonly known as the initial cycle ambiguity, or the
ambiguity bias. Fortunately, the receiver has the capability to keep track of the phase changes
after being switched on. This means that the initial cycle ambiguity remains unchanged over
time, as long as no signal loss (or cycle slips) occurs. It is clear that if the initial cycle ambiguity
parameters are resolved, accurate range measurements can be obtained, which lead to accurate
position determination. This high accuracy positioning can be achieved through relative
positioning techniques, either in real time or in the post processing mode.

Figure 2.5. Carrier-phase measurements

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Phase Difference:
The carrier phase from satellite and one generated by the receiver are compared. The phase
difference between the incoming signal and the receiver generated carrier phase - is fractional
part of the carrier phase measurements. Two different frequencies combine together to create a
third note called Beat. In GPS a Beat is created by combining two identical Un-modulated
carriers say L1 carriers
- One from satellite
- Second from receiver
Both have frequency of 1575.42 MHz. Thus there is no difference in these two L1 carriers from
satellite and Receiver. If there is no difference in these two L1 carriers – how can there be a beat.
But there is slight difference between the two carriers – the frequency of L1 carrier coming from
satellite changes during its trip from satellite to receiver called Doppler’s Shift. GPS Receiver
tries to differentiate this Doppler’s shift and compare the phases of two L1 carriers to calculate
the distance.

Figure 2.6. Doppler’s shift

2.7. Cycle slips

A cycle slip is defined as a discontinuity or a jump in the GPS carrier-phase measurements, by an

integer number of cycles, caused by temporary signal loss. Signal loss is caused by obstruction
of the GPS satellite signal due to buildings, bridges, trees, and other objects. Radio interference,

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severe ionospheric disturbance, and high receiver dynamics can also cause signal loss. Cycle
slips could occur due to a receiver malfunction.

Cycle slips may occur briefly or may remain for several minutes or even more. Cycle slips could
affect one or more satellite signals. The size of a cycle slip could be as small as one cycle or as
large as millions of cycles. Cycle slips must be identified and corrected to avoid large errors in
the computed coordinates. This can be done using several methods. Examining the so-called
triple difference observable, which is formed by combining the GPS observables in a certain
way is the most popular in practice. A cycle slip will only affect one triple difference and
therefore will appear as a spike in the triple difference data series. In some extreme cases, such
as severe ionospheric activities, it might be difficult to correctly detect and repair cycle slips
using triple difference observable. Visual inspection of the adjustment residuals might be useful
to locate any remaining cycle slip.

Figure 2.7. GPS Cycle slips

A zero baseline test is used to detect cycle slips due to receiver malfunction. In this test, two
receivers are connected to one antenna through a signal splitter. Cycle slips can be detected by
examining the adjustment residuals.

2.8. Linear combination of GPS observables

GPS measurements are corrupted by a number of errors and biases. Which are difficult to model
fully. The un-modeled errors and biases limit the positioning accuracy of the standalone GPS
receiver. Fortunately, GPS receivers in close proximity will share to a high degree of similarity

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the same errors and biases. As such, for those receivers, a major part of the GPS error budget can
simply be removed by combining their GPS observables.
In principle, there are three groups of GPS errors and biases:
 satellite-related,
 receiver-related, and
 Atmospheric errors and biases.
The measurements of two GPS receivers simultaneously tracking a particular satellite contain
more or less the same satellite-related errors and atmospheric errors. The shorter the separation
between the two receivers, the more similar the errors and biases. Therefore, if we take the
difference between the measurements collected at these two GPS receivers, the satellite-related
errors and the atmospheric errors will be reduced significantly. The satellite clock error is
effectively removed with this linear combination. This linear combination is known as between-
receiver single difference. Another important linear combination in known as the “triple
difference,” which results from differencing two double-difference observables over two epochs
of time.

Figure 2.8. Some GPS linear combinations.

The ambiguity parameters remain constant over time, as long as there are no cycle slips. As such,
when forming the triple difference, the constant ambiguity parameters disappear. If, however,
there is a cycle slip in the data, it will affect one triple-difference observable only, and therefore
will appear as a spike in the triple-difference data series. It is for this reason that the triple
difference linear combination is used for detecting the cycle slips.

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