Agron-301 Basic Agriculture 2(1-1)

B.Sc. (Hons.) Agri. Sciences

AGRON-301: Basic Agriculture

Dr Masood Iqbal Awan

Assistant Professor of Agronomy
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad
[email protected]

Learning Objective
• To provide the basic knowledge and background about Pakistan’s
Agriculture

Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of the course, the students will be able to:-
✓ Define and describe the concept of agriculture, its branches and their
relationship with allied disciplines.
✓ Describe the significance of agriculture sector in the country’s Economy
✓ Understand the problems of Pakistan’s agriculture and the impact of climatic
factors on agricultural productivity.
✓ Measure land area and to demonstrate agriculture tools and implements

Course Outline

Theory
➢ Agriculture-history, importance and branches, allied sciences
➢ Salient features of Pakistan's agriculture
➢ Climate of Pakistan, its major characteristics and impact on crop production
➢ Land resources and their utilization in Pakistan
➢ Water resources of Pakistan, surface and ground water, canal system of
Pakistan
➢ Problems of Pakistan's agriculture

Practical
▪ Measurement of land; conventional and metric system
▪ Identification and use of hand tools and implements
▪ Recording weather data, types of thermometers and their uses;
techniques and instruments for measuring rainfall, light, atmospheric
humidity, etc.
▪ Identification of various soil types
▪ Determination of soil moisture contents, saturation percentage, field
capacity and wilting point
▪ Field visits

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Suggested Readings

1. Arnon, I. 1992. Agriculture in Dry Lands-Principles and Practices.

Elsevier Sci. Pub., London.
2. Chaudhri, D.P. and K.A. Dasgupta. 1985. Agriculture and the
Development Process: A study of Punjab, Cromm Helm Ltd., London.
3. Cheema, Z.A. and M. Farooq. 2007. Agriculture in Pakistan. Allied
Book Centre, Urdu Bazar Lahore, Pakistan.
4. Cooper, E.L. 1990. Agriscience: Fundamentals and Applications,
Delmar Publisher, New York.
5. Khan, S. R. A. 2001. Crop Management in Pakistan with Focus on Soil
and Water. Directorate of Agri. Information, Punjab, Lahore.
6. Nazir, M.S. 1994. Crop Production. Ed. E. Bashir & R. Bantel, National
Book Foundation, Islamabad.
7. Somani, L.L. 1993. Recent Advances in Dry Land Agriculture. Part-2,
Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.

Teaching Methodology

Lecturing
Group discussions
Home Assignments
Self-study
Field/pot/lab experiments
Field visits

Course Evaluation

Course code: Agron-301

Course title: Basic Agriculture
Number of credit hours: 2(1-1)
Meeting time: Class time as notified on time table
Meeting place: Lecture Room (First floor of Academic Block)
Attendance: Compulsory and will be reflected in final grade
Total Marks: 40 (Theory=20; Practical=20)
MCQs, Short and Long Questions, Assignments, Practical work

Mid Assignment Final Practical

06 02 12 20

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Agriculture- History, Importance and Branches, Allied sciences

Basic Concept of Agriculture

Agriculture is the most important enterprise (business) in the world.

Agriculture provides food, feed, fiber, furniture, shelter, medicines, raw
materials, and materials for and from factories. Agriculture is also crucial
(important) for a fresh and clean environment. Satisfactory agricultural
production brings peace, prosperity, harmony, health and wealth, whereas,
unsatisfactory agricultural production brings distrust, discord and anarchy in
a society.

The word ‘agriculture’ is derived from two Latin words: Ager and Cultura (the
word Cultura was derived from another Latin word ‘Colere’). Ager means
land or field and Cultura mean cultivation.

Literally, agriculture means cultivation of land. However, agriculture is not

only about cultivation. It includes much more that that.

Agriculture is defined as: ‘the science and art of producing crops and rearing
animals for economic purpose’.

Comprehensively, agriculture is defined as “an art, a science and business

as well of raising crops and rearing of animals through exploiting the natural
resources (soil & climate) with the help of socio-economic infrastructure to
meet the basic necessities of life i.e. food, cloth, and shelter.

Agriculture is not equal to what we call ‘’farming’’. Farming deals with on-
farm activities. Agriculture can be defined as the value chain comprising on-
farm (production) and off-farm businesses (processing, marketing, financial
and advisory services). Moreover, agriculture is NOT a discipline with neatly
defined boundaries. To study agriculture means to study all of the natural
sciences plus a lot more, such as engineering, economics, business or law.
The future of agricultural sector is strongly dependent on a well-educated
and trained workforce to solve complex problems such as climate change,
resource mismanagement, and food insecurity.

A university degree in agriculturally related subjects equips people to

become important players in this rapidly growing field. In fact, the agricultural
industry considers the ability of students to attain highly developed problem
solving and communication skills that can generate new opportunities and
innovation in agriculture. ‘’Failure is not an option, so we need our brightest
minds and most dedicated individuals to embark on careers that matter:
careers in agriculture and food systems’’ (Prof Holger Meinke).

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Importance of Agriculture

Agriculture is the only field which provides us with all the three basic
necessities as described below.

(a) Food

We know that all the food stuffs which we eat to keep ourselves alive are the
products of agriculture. They may be in different forms such as milk, meat,
seeds, roots (ginger, sweet potato, carrot etc.), shoots (sugarcane etc.),
flowers (broccoli etc.) and fruits.

(b) Cloth

Clothes of all major kinds are made from such agricultural products as
cotton, wood, jute, and natural silk.

(c ) Shelter

Tree-trunks, wood and leaves have been sheltering mankind from ages.
Even now wood is the basic material used in our houses. Hay is used for
making huts.

2. Raw materials for local industries

Agriculture provides raw material for agricultural industries such as textile,

sugar, paper, oil, and jute mills. Other industries that can be cited in this
connection are cigarette, leather, flour mills, rice husking mills, fruit industry,
and cold storage.

3. Employment

Agriculture provides employment to a large number of people. Agriculture

employs 42% of the total work labour force in the country.

4. Foreign exchange earnings

The major products which earn foreign exchange are cotton, rice, raw wool,
yarns, and hides. The important by-products which earn foreign exchange
are footwear, leather goods, sports goods and carpets which consume most
of the raw materials obtained from agriculture.

5. State income

Major income of our government comes from agriculture sector in the form of
land revenue, water rates, and taxes.

6. Safety from air pollution problem

Agriculture plays an important role in cleaning our atmosphere as plants take

in carbon dioxide and give out almost same amount of oxygen for our use.
Thus, it helps us to get rid of unhealthy gas i.e. carbon dioxide and to sustain
human life on the planet earth.

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History of Agriculture

Excavations, legends and remote sensing tests reveal that agriculture is

10,000 years old. Women by their intrinsic insight first observed that plants
come up from seeds. Men concentrated on hunting and gathering
(Paleolithic and Neolithic periods) during that time. Women were the
pioneers for cultivating useful plants from the wild flora. They dug out edible
roots and rhizomes and buried the small ones for subsequent harvests. They
used animal meat as main food and their skin for clothing. The following
Table 1.1 gives an idea about agriculture development scenario.

A. Shifting Cultivation

A primitive form of agriculture in which people working with the crudest of

tools, cut down a part of the forest, burnt the underneath growth and started
new garden sites. After few years, when these plots lost their fertility or
became heavily infested with weeds or soil-borne pests, they shifted to a
new site.

B. Subsidiary Farming

Rudimentary system of settled farming, which includes cultivation, gathering

and hunting. People in groups started settling down near a stream or river as
permanent village sites and started cultivating in the same land more
continuously, however the tools, crops and cropping methods were primitive.

C. Subsistence Farming

Advanced form of primitive agriculture, subsistence farming is about raising

the crops only for family needs.

D. Mixed Farming

It is the farming comprising of crop and animal components. It is a stage

changing from food gathering to food growing.

E. Advanced Farming

Advanced farming practices includes selection of crops and varieties, seed

selection, green manuring with legumes, crop rotation, use of animal and
crop refuse as manures, irrigation, pasture management, rearing of milk

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animals, bullocks, sheep and goat for wool and meat, rearing of birds by stall
feeding etc.

F. Scientific Agriculture (19th Century)

During 18th century, modern agriculture was started with crop sequence,
introduction of exotic crops and animals, use of farm implements in
agriculture etc. During 19th century, the research and development (R&D) in
fundamental and basic sciences were brought under applied aspects of
agriculture. Agriculture took the shape of a teaching science. Laboratories,
farms, research stations, research centres, institutes for research, teaching
and extension (training and demonstration) were developed. Books, journals,
popular and scientific articles, literatures were introduced. New media, and
audio-visual aids were developed to disseminate new research findings and
information to the rural masses.

G. Present Day Agriculture (21st Century)

Today agriculture is not merely production oriented but is becoming a

business consisting of various enterprises like livestock (dairy), poultry,
fishery, cropping etc. Now, a lot of developments on hydrological,
mechanical, chemical, genetical and technological aspects of agriculture are
in progress. Governments are apportioning a greater share of national
budget for agricultural development. Small and marginal farmers are being
supplied with agricultural inputs on subsidy. Policies for preserving,
processing, pricing, marketing, distributing, consuming, exporting and
importing are strengthening. Agro-based small scale industries and crafts are
fast developing. Need-based agricultural planning, programming and
execution are in progress.

Different Branches of Agriculture

Agriculture

Crop Husbandry Animal Husbandry

Agronomy Horticulture Forestry Livestock Dairy Fisheries

Crop Sciences Pomology Wood Production

Botany Olericulture Wood Technology

Plant Physiology Floriculture Wildlife

Biochemistry Landscaping Range Management

Genetics

Plant Pathology

Entomology

Agricultural Economics

Biometry

Soil Sciences

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Soil Physics

Soil Chemistry
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1. Agronomy

The word agronomy has been derived from the two Greek words, agros and
nomos. Agros means field and nomos means to manage. So literally,
agronomy means the “art of managing field”. Technically, it means the
“science and economics of crop production by management of farm land”.
Agronomy is defined as “a branch of agricultural science which deals with
principles and practices of field crop production and management of soil for
higher productivity.

Principle means a scientific law that explains natural action; the broad
guidelines that we follow for better management of soil, plants, and the
environment e.g. correct manuring. Practice is the way of doing things e.g.
broadcasting or side-dressing of fertilizers.

Agronomy can also be defined as ‘the art and science of crop production
together with the multitude of problems related to soil management’.

Among all the branches of agriculture, agronomy occupies a pivotal position

and is regarded as the mother branch or primary branch. Like agriculture,
agronomy is an integrated and applied aspect of different disciplines of pure
sciences. Agronomy has three clear branches namely, (i) Crop Science, (ii)
Soil Science, and (iii) Environmental Science that deals only with applied
aspects. (i.e.,) Soil-Crop-Environmental relationship. Agronomy is a
synthesis of several disciplines like crop science, which includes plant
breeding, crop physiology and biochemistry etc., and soil science, which
includes soil fertilizers, manures etc., and environmental science which
includes meteorology and crop ecology.

2. Horticulture

Horticulture is the raising and looking after the gardens, flowers and
vegetables. It has the following sub-branches.

(a) Fruit culture or pomology: it deals with growing of fruit plants

(b) Vegetable growing or Olericulture: it deals with the growing of

vegetables.

(c) Floriculture: it deals with growing of flowering plants.

(d) Landscape horticulture: The beautification of land through ornamental

plants is called Landscaping.

3. Forestry

Forestry deals with the growing of forest trees. Forestry plays an

important role in the development of a country as wood is used for many
purposes. Its most important uses are for building houses, furniture and as a
fuel. Almost all the wood used by us comes from forests which are grown
and looked after by the forest department.

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4. Animal husbandry

Animal husbandry includes the rearing of animals and birds. They

may be either for sale or for the sale of their products. Animal husbandry has
following sub-branches.

(a) Livestock rearing: It is the rearing of cattle and horses etc. for draught
and meat purposes.

(b) Dairy farming: It deals with the rearing of milk animals such as cows and
buffaloes etc.

(c) Poultry farming: It deals with rearing of birds for their eggs and meat
such as cocks, hens, ducks and turkeys etc.

Some of the minor branches of agriculture are as under

(a) Fish culture: it deals with the production and maintenance of fish for
human consumption.

(b) Apiculture or Bee-keeping: It deals with rearing of lack insects for the
production of lack.

(c) Sericulture: It deals with the rearing of silk worms for the production of
silk.

At the interface of crops and animals is ‘agro-forestry’. Agro-forestry is a land

use system in which trees or shrubs are grown in association with crops,
livestock and pastures.

Allied Sciences of Agriculture

Agriculture is dependent on the fundamental sciences of botany, plant

physiology, bio-chemistry, genetics, ecology, plant pathology, entomology,
meteorology, agricultural economics and biometry. A brief description of
these sciences is given below.

1. Botany; It is the branch of biology which deals with the study of plant
kingdom.

2. Plant physiology; It is the branch of botany which deals with the

functioning of plant parts or the internal processes going on within the plants
e.g. photosynthesis, respiration etc.

3. Bio-chemistry; It is the science which deals with chemistry of living

things.

4. Genetics; It is the science which deals primarily with heredity and its
variations.

5. Ecology; It is the study of relations of organisms to their environments.

6. Plant pathology; It is the study of plant diseases and their control.

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7. Entomology; It is the science which deals with the study of insect pests,
their behavior and control.

8. Soil science; It is the study of upper layer of the earth (soil), which gives
support and provides nutrients to plants.

9. Meteorology; It is the science of atmosphere.

10. Agricultural economics; It is the science in which the principles and

methods of economics are applied to the special conditions of the
agricultural industry. In short, agri-economics is a scientific study of the
business side of farming.

11. Biometry/field-plot technique: The application of quantitative

methods/statistics for understanding the complex biological systems.

Salient Features of Pakistan’s Agriculture

Pakistan possesses all the basic elements required for a progressive

agriculture – fertile soils, an extensive network of irrigation, appropriate
climatic conditions characterised by a high solar radiation throughout the
year, and hardworking farmers. This huge potential is articulated by this
verse:

“But of his barren acres, Iqbal will not despair: A little rain and harvests
shall wave at last, oh Saki” (National poet-philosopher Allama Iqbal, 1877–
1938).

Pakistan is situated between the latitudes (the distance in angles towards

south or north of the equator) 240 and 370 and longitudes of 610 and 750
East. Main climate type is subtropical arid to semi-arid (over 90% of total
geographical area). The climatic pattern governs two crop seasons: 1) Kharif
being the first sowing season starting from April-June and harvested during
October-December. Rice, sugarcane, cotton, maize, moong, mash,
pearlmillets (bajra) and sorghum (jowar) are examples of “Kharif" crops. 2)
Rabi, the second sowing season, begins as on October-December and is
harvested in April-May. Wheat, barley, gram, lentil (masoor), tobacco,
rapeseed and mustard are examples of "Rabi" crops. The crops performance
is dependent upon timely availability of irrigation water. During 2012-13, the
availability of water input for Kharif was 14 percent less than the normal
supplies (130 billion cubic metres). The water availability during Rabi season
was 12.4 percent less than the normal availability. Major cash crops are
cotton, wheat, sugarcane, rice, and maize. The important cash crops
account for 25.2% of the value added in overall agriculture and 5.4% to
GDP. Livestock sector is the most important, contributing approximately 55.4
percent to the agricultural value added and 11.9 percent to national GDP.

The climate of Pakistan is mainly subtropical arid to semiarid covering 90%

of the total geographical area. Relatively small tracts with a temperate
subhumid to humid climate are also present in the northern part of the
country. Temperature ranges from a mean minimum of 4 0C in December-
January to a mean monthly maximum temperature of 38 0C during June-July.

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The climate generally favours crop production throughout the year. The most
problematic factor in crop production is the variability of rainfall in terms of its
amount, intensity, frequency, and duration. The annual rainfall in Pakistan
varies from less than 100 mm in hot deserts to over 1500 mm in the outer
Himalayas. Average annual rainfall is under 250 mm, 70% of which is
concentrated during monsoon period i.e. July-September and 30% during
spring i.e. March-April.

Agriculture contributes about19.5% to Pakistan’s GDP, employs 42% of the

labour force, constitutes 64% of export earnings and provides livelihoods to
62% of the population of the country. The agriculture sector is also the
biggest user (more than 90%) of water in Pakistan. The water availability in
Pakistanis already below the scarcity level of 1000 m3 per person and
climatic changes in the region may further worsen the situation. Therefore,
food security is directly related to the water security as 50 to 70 time more
water is required to grow food than the water used for domestic purposes.
About 90% food production in Pakistan comes from irrigated agriculture,
whereas dry-land (rain-fed) agriculture contributes only 10% due to scanty
and low rainfall. The Government and people of Pakistan are showing their
great resolve to address the immediate and future impact of water scarcity
on their lives and livelihood. The issue is extremely sensitive and extensive
in dimension, requiring multiple and long-term actions to deal effectively with
water shortages confronting different regions and various segments of the
society.

Climate of Pakistan, Its Major Characteristics and Impact on

Crop Production

Atmosphere

The earth has a thick layer of air, which is called ‘atmosphere’.

Composition

Atmosphere is composed of 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 0.033% Carbon

dioxide, traces of other gases (such as: krypton, xenon, helium, hydrogen,
methane), and water vapours.

Meteorology

In Latin, ‘Metro’ means atmosphere and ‘logus’ means science. Meteorology,

also called ‘physics of atmosphere’, is the study of weather.

Weather

The physical state of the atmosphere at a given time and place is called
‘weather’. So, weather refers to short-term weather conditions of a locality within
a day/week/month/year. For example, whether it is sunny, cloudy, rainy etc
indicate weather conditions. Weather conditions can change quickly hour to hour,
day to day, week to week or month to month.

Climate

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Long-term weather conditions prevailing in a region are called ‘climate’. The

climate of a regions is defined by at least 30 year weather data of at least
temperature and rainfall. The climate does not change rapidly over years.

Types of Climate

The important parameters which determine the climate of a locality are: 1)

Temperature, 2) Humidity, 3) Pressure, 4) rainfall, 5) winds, and 6) light.

The Austrian Geographer, Waldimir Koppen, recognized five major climate types:

1) Tropical climate: The climate is characterised by high

temperature, rainfall, and humidity and cloudy weather. It is
harsh due to intense heat and hence also known as Solar
Climate. Such conditions exist in Thatta (Sindh Province). This
climate close to sea is usually called marine tropical climate.

2) Arid or Dry climate: Arid or dry climate exists where

evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation (rains). Its main
features are high temperature, low rainfall, low humidity, and
windy weather. Such climate exists in deserts, such as Thal-
Mianwali and Thar-Cholistan.

3) Humid Mild-Temperate climate: This climate is characterised by

seasonal changes in temperature. Two types of such climate
are: i) dry-summer subtropical, ii) humid subtropical. Pakistan
has such types of climate.

a) Dry Summer Subtropical: It is characterised by hot, dry summer,

mild winters with rainfall, and brilliant sunshine throughout the
year. This types of climate, also called semi arid, is found in
Southern part of Bannu in KP.

b) Humid Subtropical: It has wet mild summer, cold winter, more

rainfall, and high humidity. Such conditions also called sub-
humid exist on the mountains of upper Hazara, Kohistan, and
Swat.

4) Humid Temperate climate: It is distinguished by cold, snowy

winter and mild summer with wide annual ranges of
temperature. Most rainfall occurs in the summer months. This
types of climate is found in Europe, Canada, in the Gilgit-
Pakistan.

5) Polar climate: This climate is found on both North and South

poles of the equator. It is characterised by severe cold and
snow throughout the year and is not suitable for agriculture.

Characteristics of Pakistan’s climate

Pakistan possesses all the basic elements required for a progressive

agriculture – fertile soils, an extensive network of irrigation, appropriate climatic
conditions characterised by a high solar radiation throughout the year, and
hardworking farmers. This huge potential is articulated by this verse:

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“But of his barren acres, Iqbal will not despair: A little rain and harvests
shall wave at last, oh Saki” (National poet-philosopher Allama Iqbal, 1877–
1938).

Pakistan is situated between the latitudes (the distance in angles towards south
or north of the equator) 240 and 370 and longitudes of 610 and 750 East. Main
climate type is subtropical arid to semi-arid (over 90% of total geographical area).
The climatic pattern governs two crop seasons: 1) Kharif being the first sowing
season starting from April-June and harvested during October-December. Rice,
sugarcane, cotton, maize, moong, mash, pearlmillets (bajra) and sorghum
(jowar) are examples of “Kharif" crops. 2) Rabi, the second sowing season,
begins as on October-December and is harvested in April-May. Wheat, barley,
gram, lentil (masoor), tobacco, rapeseed and mustard are examples of "Rabi"
crops. The crops performance is dependent upon timely availability of irrigation
water. During 2012-13, the availability of water input for Kharif was 14 percent
less than the normal supplies (130 billion cubic metres). The water availability
during Rabi season was 12.4 percent less than the normal availability. Major
cash crops are cotton, wheat, sugarcane, rice, and maize. The important cash
crops account for 25.2% of the value added in overall agriculture and 5.4% to
GDP. Livestock sector is the most important, contributing approximately 55.4
percent to the agricultural value added and 11.9 percent to national GDP.

The climate of Pakistan is mainly subtropical arid to semiarid covering 90% of the
total geographical area. Relatively small tracts with a temperate subhumid to
humid climate are also present in the northern part of the country. Temperature
ranges from a mean minimum of 40C in December-January to a mean monthly
maximum temperature of 380C during June-July. The climate generally favours
crop production throughout the year. The most problematic factor in crop
production is the variability of rainfall in terms of its amount, intensity, frequency,
and duration. The annual rainfall in Pakistan varies from less than 100 mm in hot
deserts to over 1500 mm in the outer Himalayas. Average annual rainfall is under
250 mm, 70% of which is concentrated during monsoon period i.e. July-
September and 30% during spring i.e. March-April.

The climate of Pakistan fall into the following five climatic types.

1) Tropical semiarid climate with mild winter. This includes

Karachi, Hyderabad, and Southern Khairpur divisions.
The mean annual temperature is above 18oC.

2) Subtropical semiarid climate with average annual

temperature about 18oC and a distinct, short winter. This
includes southern Kalat and the whole of the Indus plain
from Lahore, Rawalpindi, and DI Khan divisions to the
northern half of Khairpur divisions.

3) Semi-arid climate with rather dry summer. This includes

the hilly regions of southern KP, the southern part of
Azad Kashmir, Zhob and Quetta divisions, and the
northern half of Kalat divisions.

4) Moist temperate climate with the average temperature of

the coldest month below -10oC, warm summer with mean
temperature of the warmest month between 10 and 22 oC.

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It includes the central mountainous areas of KP and

Kashmir, and northern hilly areas of Punjab.

5) Alpine climate with average temperature of the warmest

month between 10 and 0oC. It includes Baltistan, Gilgit,
northern Chitral, and eastern and northern parts of
Kashmir, including Ladakh.

Weather elements in relation to crop production

Crop production is dependent upon the climatic conditions of a locality. Climate

and weather conditions determine:

-choice of crop

-yield

-water and nutrient use efficiency.

The effects of various climatic elements on crop production is briefly discussed

below:

1) Temperature

Temperature as a measure of relative hotness or coldness of a body affects:

-Germination: temperature affects germination to harvesting and even further

during storage. Optimum temperature for germination is 15 to 30 C 0 for most
crops.

-sowing time

-plant functions such as photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration etc.

-microbial population

-growth duration and yield of crops

2) Humidity

Humidity (the amount of water vapour in the air) affects:

-transpiration (loss of water from living plants mainly through leaves)

-crop water requirements

-incidence of diseases

3) Rainfall

Rain and snowfall as the source of water affect:

-supply of soil moisture and nutrient availability

-maintenance of temperature

-disease incidence, crop losses, floods

4) Pressure and wind storms

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Air movement influences:

-pollination and fertilization

-lodging, flower and fruit drop

-erosion

-bee-activity

-hot dry winds disturb internal water balance

-dispersal of weed seeds and fungal spores

-affect the application of pesticides and sprinkler water

5) Light/Clouds

-growth and development of plants (photosynthesis, transpiration)

-photoperiodism

-leaf area and tillers

Ecological Zones of Pakistan based on rainfall

On the basis of average annual rainfall, the country can be divided into four
distinct zones:

Zone Annual Rainfall Areas

(mm)

Arid Less than 300 Baluchistan, Sindh, Southern Punjab, extreme

Southern Parts of KP (DI Khan, part of Bannu),
Northern areas of Gilgit Baltistan

Semi- 300 to 600 Central and North Western areas of Punjab,

arid some districts of KP (Peshawar, Dir, Mardan,
Bajuar, Kohat, Karak, parts of Bannu)

Sub- 600 to 1000 Northern sub-mountainous strip of Sialkot, Gujrat

humid region, Peshawer plateau, Parachinar,
Abbottabad, parts of Nowshehra, Chitral and
Swat

Humid Over 1000 Murre hills and adjacent parts of Hazara division

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Land Resources and their Utilization in Pakistan

GEOGRAPHICAL AREA is that area which has been surveyed and

calculated by the Survey of Pakistan.

TOTAL AREA REPORTED is the total physical area of the villages/deh,

tehsils or districts etc. It consists of Forest area, area not available for
cultivation, culturable waste, and cultivated area.

FOREST AREA is the area of any land classed or administered as forest

under any legal.

enactment dealing with forests. Any cultivated area which may exist within
such forest is excluded.

AREA NOT AVAILABLE FOR CULTIVATION is that uncultivated area of the

farm which

is under farm home-steads (farm houses), farm roads and other connected
purposes and therefore not available for cultivation.

CULTURABLE WASTE is that uncultivated farm area which is fit for

cultivation but was not cropped during the year under reference nor in the
year before that.

CULTIVATED AREA is that area which was sown at least during the year
under reference or during the previous year. Cultivated area = Net area sown
+ Current fallow

CURRENT FALLOW is that area which is vacant during the year under
reference but was sown at least once during the previous year.

NET AREA SOWN is that area which is sown at least once during (Kharif&
Rabi) the year under reference.

AREA SOWN MORE THAN ONCE is the difference between the total
cropped

area and the net area sown.

TOTAL CROPPED AREA means the aggregate area of crops raised in a

farm during the year under reference including the area under fruit trees.

Sr. No. Category Area (Million hectares)

1 Geographical area 79.61

2 Total area reported (3+4+5+6) 57.78

3 Forest area 04.26

4 Not available for cultivation 23.05

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5 Culturable waste 08.21

6 Cultivated area (7+8) 22.26

7 Current fallow 07.04

8 Net area sown 15.22

9 Area sown more than once 07.34

10 Total cropped area (8+9) 22.56

11 Arable land (5+6) 30.47

There are different kinds of soils according to their relative suitability for
agricultural use, physical/chemical properties, and the types of limitation.

Land Capability Classification is a system of classifying land to indicate its

suitability for cropping, grazing, and forestry. This system was proposed by
US Soil Conservation Service and modified according to our local needs in
Pakistan. According to the Land Capability Classification system, there are 8
different classes; the class is determined by the degree of limitation. Class I
to IV for cultivated farming, Class V to VII for grazing/forestry, and Class VIII
is suitable for recreation purposes.

Class I: Very Good Agricultural Land (4.2 million hecatare)

It is the best soil type for agriculture with no limitations and medium texture.
A wide range of crops can be grown on such lands.

Class II: Good Agricultural Land (5 million hectares)

Good soils for agricultural purpose. It has minor limitations e.g. range of
crops by narrow or management cost is high. Net returns are 25% less than
Class I.

Class III: Moderate Agricultural Land (0.76 million hectares)

It has moderate limitations and a limited range of crops. Net returns are 50%
less than Class I.

Class IV: Poor Agricultural Land (0.48 million hectares)

It has severe limitations such as shallow soil depth, salinity stress etc. Net
returns are negligible on such lands.

Class V: It has no limitations for grazing.

Class VI: It has minor limitations for grazing but not for forestry.

Class VII: It has severe limitations both for grazing and forestry.

Class VIII: 23.3 million hectares.

Such soils are unsuitable for all agricultural uses but may serve as
recreational area. Major limitations are: soil erosion, salinity stress, glacier
cover, and arid climate.

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Water Resources of Pakistan

Water, the liquid gold, is the most important input in crop production. Water is
essential for sustenance of life in all forms and fresh water is a finite (limitd)
resource, progressively becoming scarcer due to persistent increases in its
competing demands. Pakistan is one of the world’s most arid countries, with an
average rainfall of under 240 mm a year. The population and the economy are
heavily dependent on an annual influx into the Indus river system (including the
Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers) of about 180 billion cubic
meters of water, that emanates from the neighboring countries and is mostly
derived from snow-melt in the Himalayas. Throughout history, people have
adapted to the low and poorly distributed rainfall by either living along river banks
or by careful husbanding and management of local water resources. One of the
greatest of human civilizations—the Indus Valley Civilization (Harappa and
Mohenjodaro)—flourished along the banks of the Indus.

The name of Punjab province, the most populated and agriculturally the most
important province, has been derived from two Persian words ‘panj’ and ‘aab’,
meaning the land of fiver rivers- Chenab, Jhelum, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej – the
tributaries of the Indus River. Punjab was transformed into the most productive
agricultural land during the British Raj following the development of a huge
irrigation infrastructure in nineteenth century. Muddy waters of these majestic
rivers hold the secrets of the Punjab’s classical epics. Along the lush green and
scenic banks of Chenab river, Ranjha played enchanting flute for his beloved
Heer, in these waters Sassi was thrown as a newborn child by her ominous royal
parents, Sohni drowned while swimming to meet her beloved Mahiwal waiting on
the other side of river Chenab, and the famous story of Mirza-Sahiban played out
in the region between Chenab and Ravi rivers.
Consumption pattern of water
Water and rice are the two most precious commodities on the planet earth. Water is
everybody’s business. The consumption pattern of water in domestic, industrial and
agriculture sector is shown in following table 1.
Table 1: Uses of water
Sector Percentage (%)
Agriculture 69 %
Industry 23 %
Domestic uses 8%
Source Ministry of Environment

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Sources of water

There are three major sources of water in Pakistan.

1) Precipitation
Precipitation is the process by which condensed water vapour from the atmosphere
falls to the earth’s surface. Condensation is the opposite of evaporation and it
involves conversion of water vapours into droplets of water or crystallization of ice.
Condensation starts only when the air is cooled beyond the dew point temperature.
The source of all water supplies is atmospheric precipitation. The common forms of
precipitation are rain, drizzle, snow and hail.
Rain: The most common form of the precipitation is rainfall. It is formed when cloud
droplets in large numbers are caused to coalesce into drops too large to remain
suspended in air.
Drizzle: Droplets less than 0.5 mm in diameter make a drizzle.
Snow: Water vapour condenses directly into tiny crystals of ice at temperature below
freezing point through the process of sublimation. The ice crystals may fall down to
the earth as powdery mass or flakes of snow. This form of precipitation is known as
snowfall. Snowfall occurs in winter in the middle and high latitudes and high
mountain regions.
Sleet: It is another form of precipitation in small particles or pellets of ice. They fall as
raindrops through a cold layer of air near the earth’s surface and frozen before
reaching the earth. Sleet means a mixture of rain and snow.
Hail: It consists of large crystals of ice and is called as hail stones. They have an
internal structure of concentric layers. Hailstones range from 0.5 to 5 cm in diameter
and may be extremely destructive to crops.
Frost: When the dewpoint is below 0 C, moisture passes directly from gaseous to
solid state resulting in the formation of ice crystals called as frost. It mostly occurs in
the valleys of mountains.

Among these different forms, however, rainfall is the most important because it
contributes substantially to crop water requirements. The cultivable canal-
commanded area of the Indus plain and Peshawar valley receives 25 million acre
feet (m.a.f.) (22.5 cm) rainfall annually. However, distribution and intensity of this
rainfall is so erratic that successful crop husbandry in not possible with rain water
alone. Therefore, surface and ground water are needed to supplement the crop
water requirements on a continuous basis to harvest the maximum potential of crops.

2) Surface water

Surface water is mainly derived from the Indus River System, which is one of
the greatest freshwater resources of the world. The annual available river flow
in Pakistan is 142 million acre feet (m.a.f.), of which 92 m.a.f. (65%) is
diverted into the canal irrigation system, and 50 m.a.f. (35%) flows into the
Arabian sea. Of the 92 m.a.f. water diverted to canal irrigation system, only 65
% is available at mogha while the remaining is lost through seepage from
canals.

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Annual available water flow in

rivers = 142 m.a.f.

Water diverted to canal irrigation Water that flows to Arabian sea =

system = 92 m.a.f. 50 m.a.f.

Water available at mogha = 60

m.a.f.

Total water avaiable at head of

watercourse = 60 + 33 = 93 m.a.f.

Water course delivery losses = 37

m.a.f.

Water available at nakka = 56

m.a.f.

Field application losses = 14 m.a.f.

Water available for crops = 42

m.a.f.

Annual water discharged from

tube wells = 33 m.a.f.

Fig. : Flow chart of the Indus Basin Irrigation System

3) Groundwater

Ground water is lifted to the soil surface through (i) natural springs (ii) wells (iii)
galleries and karezes and (iv) tube wells. Tube wells are, however, the most
important source of ground irrigation water and there are over 90000 tubewells in
the country. Currently the annual water discharge of tube wells in Pakistan is 33
m.a.f.

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Problems of Pakistan’s Agriculture

Soil related constraints

Soil depletion

Waterlogging and salinity

Soil erosion

Increased urbanization and non-agricultural land use

Problems of rainfed soils

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Water related constraints

Limited supplies of available water

Low efficiency of irrigation water

Brackish quality of groundwater

Agronomic/management factors

Poor manuring/incorrect manuring

Low fertilizer use efficiency

Weed infestation

Delayed sowing

Pest infestation

Use of poor quality seeds

Poor farm mechanization

Natural factors

Aridity

Floods

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Socio-economic factors

Mass illiteracy

Old traditions and values

Small size of holdings

Rural indebtedness

Extravagance of the peasants

Fatalism

Lack of social mobility

Defective marketing system

Policy issues in agriculture

Unavailability of various farm inputs such as

seed, fertilizer, and agro-chemicals etc.

Agricultural pricing policy

Resource transfer from agricultural sector to

industry

Unfavourable terms of trade

Declining public sector investment

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